 ANGLE MODULATION –

 When frequency or phase of the carrier is

varied by the modulating signal , then it is
called angle modulation.
 Frequency Modulation – When the frequency
of the carrier varies as per amplitude of
modulating signal, then it is called frequency
modulation (FM).

BDG(xx)
 Phase Modulation - When the phase of the
carrier varies as per amplitude of modulating
signal, then it is called phase modulation
(PM).
 Amplitude of the modulated carrier remains
constant in both modulation systems.

2
 An important feature of angle modulation:
 It can provide a better discrimination

(robustness) against noise and interference

than AM.
 This improvement is achieved at the expense

of increased transmission bandwidth.

 In case of angle modulation, channel

BDG(xx)
bandwidth may be exchanged for improved
noise performance
 Such trade-off is not possible with AM

3
 BASIC DEFINITIONS -Relationship
between the angle and frequency of a
sinusoidal signal
 Sinusoidal carrier c(t) =Ac cos[θi(t)]
 Angle of carrier θi(t)[rad]
 Instantaneous frequency of carrier

BDG(xx)
fi(t) =(1/2π)ωi(t) =(1/2π)di(t)/dt
 =(1/2π)˙ θi(t)[Hz].
 In the case of an un-modulated

carrier, the angle becomes

θi(t) = 2πfct + θc
4
BDG(xx) 5
 Compare FM-PM –
 The basic difference between FM & PM lies in

which property of the carrier is directly varied

by modulating signal.
 In FM, the frequency of carrier is varied

directly.
 In PM, phase of the carrier is varied directly.

BDG(xx)
Instantaneous phase deviation is represented
by θ(t).
 Instantaneous phase= ωct + θ(t) rad.

6
 Instantaneous frequency deviation =
 d/dt {θ(t)} = θ’(t) Hz.
 The instantaneous frequency deviation is the

instantaneous change in carrier frequency

and is equal to the rate at which
instantaneous phase deviation takes place.
 Instantaneous frequency is defined as

BDG(xx)
frequency of the carrier at a given instant of
time and is given as
ωi(t) =d/dt [ωc.t + θ(t)] = ωc + θ’(t)
rad/sec.

7
 Instantaneous phase deviation θ (t) is
proportional to modulating signal voltage,
θ (t) = k em(t) rad. ( k is deviation sensitivity
of phase.).
 Instantaneous frequency deviation θ’ (t) is

proportional to modulating signal voltage,

θ’ (t) = k1 em(t) rad. ( k1 is deviation

BDG(xx)
sensitivity of frequency.)##2

8
Frequency modulation

5.9
 Observations from the FM & PM waveforms –
 1. Both FM & PM waveforms are identical

except the phase shift.

 2. For FM, the maximum frequency deviation

takes place when modulating signal is at +ve

and –ve peaks.
 3. For PM, the maximum frequency deviation

BDG(xx)
takes place near zero crossing of the
modulating signal.
 4. It is diffcult to know from modulated

waveform whether the modulation is FM or

PM. (##3)

11
 Bandwidth Requirement – for FM-
 The BW requirement can be obtained

depending on the modulation index (M.I).

 The M.I. can be classified as high(more than

10), medium (1 to 10) and low (less than 1).

 The low index systems are called narrowband

FM in which frequency spectrum resembles

BDG(xx)
AM. BW (fm) =2fm Hz.
 For high index modulation, BW = 2*δ.(Freq.

dev.)
 BW can also be found out by Bessel table-

BWfm = 2.n.fm where n is the number of

sidebands obtained from table.
12
 Carson’s Rule –
 Rule gives approximate minimum BW of angle

modulated signal as
 BW fm = 2{δ + fm(max)} Hz.
 From the above equation, it is found that the

BW accommodates almost 98% of the total

transmitted power

BDG(xx)
13
 Bandwidth for PM –
 BW for PM is expressed as
 BWpm = 2(mp+1)fm.

BDG(xx) 14
 Block Diagram of NBFM Generator –
 Carrier is Ec cos ωc .t

Product
M(t) Integrator Modulat Adder NBFM
signal
or

90 degree Carrier
Phase Shifter Generator

BDG(xx) 16
 Phasor Diagram of NBFM –
 USB phasor at an angle of (ωm .t) and LSB

phasor at an angle of (- ωm .t)

Resultant
Phasor

LSB USB
Phase Phasor Phasor
Shift
Carrier
Phasor

BDG(xx) 17
 Carrier phasor is Ec cos ωc .t (always fixed).
 USB phasor in clockwise direction (ωm)
 LSB phasor in counter clockwise direction (-ωm)
 Resultant of two sideband phasor is always

perpendicular to carrier phasor.

 The net resultant phasor of NBFM due to Carrier

and sidebands is as shown in the diagram.

BDG(xx) 18
 Wideband Frequency Modulation –
 If the modulation index is higher than 10,

then it is called wideband FM.

 Spectrum contains infinite numbers of

sidebands and carrier as against two

sidebands and carrier in NBFM.
 BW is = 2{δ+fm(max)} as against 2fm for

NBFM.
 Used for broadcast and entertainment as

against for mobile communication for NBFM.

 ##5.

BDG(xx) 19
 Advantages of Angle Modulation over AM-
 1. As the amplitude of FM carrier is constant,

the noise interference is minimum.

 2. The amplitude of FM carrier is constant

and is independent of depth of modulation.

Hence transmitter power remains constant in
FM whereas it varies in AM.
 3. As against the limitation of depth of

modulation in AM, in FM depth of modulation

can be increased to any value, without
causing any distortion.

BDG(xx) 20
 4. Because of guard bands provided in FM,
adjacent channel interference is very less.
 5. Since FM uses VHF and UHF bands of

frequencies, the noise interference is

minimum as compared to AM which uses MF
and HF ranges.
 6. Radius of propagation is limited as FM

uses space waves with line of sight. So it is

possible to operate many independent
transmitters on the same frequency with
minimum interference.

BDG(xx) 21
 Disadvantages of FM compared to AM-
 1. BW requirement of FM is very high as

compared to AM.
 2. FM equipments are more complex and

hence costly.
 Area covered by FM is limited, to line of sight

area but AM coverage area is large.

BDG(xx) 22
  Comparison between FM and AM -
Parameter AM FM

Origin AM method of audio FM radio was developed in the

transmission was first United states mainly by Edwin
successfully carried out in Armstrong in the 1930s.
the mid 1870s.
Modulating In AM, a radio wave In FM, a radio wave known as
differences known as the "carrier" or the "carrier" or "carrier wave"
"carrier wave" is is modulated in frequency by
modulated in amplitude the signal that is to be
by the signal that is to be transmitted.
transmitted
It is used in both analog It is used in both analog and
Importance and digital communication digital communication and
and telemetry telemetry
Frequency AM radio ranges from FM radio ranges in a higher
Range 535 to 1705 KHz (OR) Up spectrum from 88 to 108
to 1200 Bits per second. MHz. (OR) 1200
BDG(xx)
to 2400 bits 23
  Comparison between FM and AM -
Parameter AM FM

Bandwidth Twice the highest modulating Twice the sum of the

Requirements frequency. In AM radio modulating signal frequency
broadcasting, the modulating and the frequency deviation. If
signal has bandwidth of 15kHz, the frequency deviation is
and hence the bandwidth of an 75kHz and the modulating
amplitude-modulated signal is signal frequency is 15kHz, the
30kHz. bandwidth required is 180kHz.
Complexity Transmitter and receiver are Transmitter and receiver are
simple but synchronization is more complex as variation of
needed in case of SSBSC AM modulating signal has to be
carrier. converted and detected from
corresponding variation in
frequencies.(i.e. voltage to
frequency and frequency to
voltage conversion has to be
done).
Noise AM is more susceptible to noise FM is less susceptible to noise
because noise affects because information in an FM
amplitude, which is where signal is transmitted
BDG(xx) through 24
 Comparison between FM and PM -

Sr No. FM PM
1 The max frequency deviation The max phase deviation
depends on amplitude of depends on amplitude of
modulating signal and its modulating signal
frequency
2 Frequency of the carrier is Phase of the carrier is
modulated by modulating modulated by modulating
signal. signal.

3 Modulation index is increased Modulation index remains

as modulation frequency is same if modulating signal
reduced and vice versa. frequency is change.

BDG(xx) 25
BDG(xx) 26
 Modulators –
 Carrier frequency can be generated by LC

oscillator.
 By varying the values of L or C of tank circuit,

carrier frequency can be changed.

 Properties of BJT,FET and varactor diodes can

be varied by changing the voltage across

them.
 When these components are used with LC

tank circuits, we are able to vary frequency of

oscillator by changing the reactance of L or C.

BDG(xx) 27
 TWO types of FM Modulators –
 1. Indirect FM – Modulation is obtained by

phase modulation of the carrier.

An instantaneous phase of the carrier is
directly proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
 2. Direct FM- The frequency of carrier is

varied directly by modulating signal.

An instantaneous frequency
variation is directly proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal.

BDG(xx) 28
 There are two methods to derive FM by using
FET and varactor.
 1. Frequency modulation using Varactor Diode

–
 There exists small junction capacitance in the

reverse biased condition of all the diodes.

 The varactor diodes are designed to optimise

this characteristic.
 As the reverse bias across varactor diode is

varied, its junction capacitance changes.

 These changes are linear and wide (1 to 200pF)

BDG(xx) 29
 Frequency modulation using varactor diode –
 All diodes show small junction capacitance in

the reverse biased condition.

 ##6

BDG(xx) 30
 Advantages of FM using Varactor Diode –
 1. High frequency stability as crystal

oscillator is isolated from modulator.

 Disadvantages –
 1. To avoid distortion, the amplitude of

modulating signal is to be kept small.

 2. The varactor diode must have non linear

characteristics of capacitance vs. voltage.

 Use –
 This method is used for low index narrow

band FM generation.

BDG(xx) 31
 FET Reactance Modulator –
 There are a number of devices whose reactance

can be varied by the application of voltage.

These include FET and BJT, varactor diode etc.
 If such a device is placed across the tank

circuit of the L-C oscillator, then FM will be

produced when the reactance of the device is
varied by the modulating voltage.
 At the carrier frequency, the oscillator

inductance is tuned by its own capacitance in

parallel with the average reactance to the
variable reactance device.

BDG(xx) 32
 Advantages of FET Reactance Modulator –
 1. Due to FET characteristics, linear

relationship between modulating voltage and

transconductance can be achieved.
 2 This method produces enough frequency

deviation and hence no frequency

multiplication is required.
 Disadvantages - Frequency stability is poor

as lumped components are used.

 Use – This method is used for low modulation

index application.

BDG(xx) 33
 Indirect FM –
 Phase modulation is used to achieve

frequency modulation in the indirect method,

 It is necessary to integrate the modulating

signal prior to applying it to the phase

modulator,
 This transmitter is widely used in VHF and

UHF radio telephone equipment.

 ##7

BDG(xx) 34
 Advantage –
 1. The crystal oscillator is isolated from

modulator, so frequency stability is very

good.
 Disadvantages –
 1. Because of nonlinear capacitance Vs.

voltage characteristics of varactor diode,

there is a distortion in the modulated output
waveform.
 2. Amplitude of modulating signal should be

kept small to avoid distortion.

 Use –Used for narrow band low index FM.

BDG(xx) 35
 FM Transmitters –
 Two types of transmitters – Indirect FM and

Direct FM Transmitters.
 Indirect FM Transmitters – Produces the FM

whose phase deviation is directly proportional

to modulating signal amplitude. Frequency of
oscillator is not directly varied. Hence crystal
oscillators can be used.
 Direct FM Transmitters – Frequency deviation

is directly proportional to modulating signal.

Carrier frequency is directly deviated.

BDG(xx) 36
 Need for Automatic Frequency Correction –
 In FM transmitters, the frequency of the

oscillator is directly varied.

 To obtain very stable frequency of oscillator,

automatic frequency correction technique is

employed.

BDG(xx) 37
 FM Transmitters –
 Block Diagram –##8
 The modulating signal is given to frequency

modulator ( may be reactance modulator or

VCO ) and oscillator.
 Let fc = F Mhz. Multiplied by 18 to generate

the transmitted frequency F*18 Mhz.

 AFC loop is to maintain stable centre

frequency.
 Multiplier output given to mixer is F*6.

BDG(xx) 38
 The crystal frequency oscillator - reference
frequency is {(6*fc) – 2MHz.}
 The mixer generates 2 MHz difference

frequency which is given to discriminator,

which is tuned to 2 MHz.
 If there is a difference in the output

frequency of mixer, discriminator generates

d. c. correction voltage.
 If multiplier frequency is exactly 6*fc, then no

correction is required and hence correction

voltage must be zero.

BDG(xx) 39
 But with FM, there is a frequency deviation in
6*fc, which is proportional to modulating
signal amplitude.
 So d.c. correction voltage also have

corresponding variation.
 Therefore this d.c. voltage is passed through

low pass filter to remove effect of frequency

variation due to modulation.
 The filtered voltage is used for frequency

correction.

BDG(xx) 40
 Phase Locked Loop direct FM transmitter –
 This type is used to produce WBFM with high

mod index.
 When both the input frequencies to phase

comparator are same , they are locked and

output is zero.
 The modulating signal is used to control the

output frequency of VCO.

 The frequency of output FM of VCO is a

function of modulating signal.

BDG(xx) 41
 If there is a deviation in the centre frequency
of VCO, correction voltage is generated.
 This d.c. voltage, passing through LPF, is

added to modulating signal to correct the

VCO output.
 Function of LPF is to remove rapid changes in

correction voltage due to frequency variations

in FM signal.

BDG(xx) 42
 Indirect FM Transmitter – Armstrong Method -
 ( Phase Mod. is employed to produce FM)
 Stability of the frequency is a major issue in

FM. So direct methods of FM generation are

not suitable for broadcasting .
 To overcome this drawback, indirect method

to generate FM from PM is employed. (block

dia.)
 To get the modulating signal of same

frequency of carrier, AM signal is generated

and shifted by 90degrees and added to fc
signal vector.

BDG(xx) 43
 The resultant vector output is phase
modulated.
 Since AM and carrier vectors are having same

frequency(fc), the out put is FM.

 Thus phase modulation produces FM.
 The phase modulated signal can be defined

as e(pm) = Ec sin (ωc t + m cos ωm t).

 ##

BDG(xx) 44
 FOSTER SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR – (Phase
discriminator)-
 The Foster Seeley Discriminator is a common

type of FM detector circuit used mainly within

radio sets constructed using discrete
components.
 The Foster Seeley detector (or the Foster

Seeley discriminator) has many similarities to

the ratio detector. The circuit topology looks
very similar, having a transformer and a pair
of diodes, but there is no third winding and
instead a choke is used.

BDG(xx) 45
 Cc,C1 & C2 offers short circuit for IF center
frequency.
 Right side of L3 is at ground potential and

IF(Vin) is fed directly (in phase)across L3.(VL3)

 180 degree phase out by T1 – La & Lb equal

division.
 At resonant frequency of tank circuit(IF)

secondary current (Is) is in phase with Vs and

180degree out of phase with VL3.

BDG(xx) 46
 Like the ratio detector, the Foster-Seeley
circuit operates using a phase difference
between signals.
 To obtain the different phased signals a

connection is made to the primary side of the

transformer using a capacitor, and this is
taken to the center tap of the transformer.
 This gives a signal that is 90 degrees out of

phase.

BDG(xx) 47
 Due to loose coupling , primary of T1 acts as
inductor and Ip is 90 degree out of phase
with Vin.
 Voltage induced in secondary is 90 degree

out of phase with Vin(VL3)

 VLa and Vlb are 180 degree out of phase with

each other and 90 degree out of phase with

VL3.
 Voltage across VD1 is vector sum of VL3 and

VLa and VD2 is vector sum of VL3 and VLb.

BDG(xx) 48
 When IF > resonance, secondary tank circuit
impedance becomes inductive and secondary
current lags voltage by theta which is
proportional to frequency deviation.
 When IF < resonance, secondary current

leads secondary voltage by theta which is

proportional to frequency deviation.
 F.S.D. is tunned by injecting a frequency

equal to the IF center frequency and tunning

Co for zero volts output.

BDG(xx) 49
 Ratio Detector –
 Ratio detector or discriminator is widely used

for FM demodulation within radio sets using

discrete components. It was capable of
providing a good level of performance.
 In recent years the Ratio detector has been

less widely used.

 The main reason for this is that it requires

the use of wire wound inductors and these

are expensive to manufacture.

BDG(xx) 50
 Ratio Detector Circuit –

BDG(xx) 51
 Other types of FM demodulator have
overtaken them, mainly as a result of the fact
that the other FM demodulator configurations
lend themselves more easily to being
incorporated into integrated circuits.
 Ratio FM detector basics -
 When circuits employing discrete components

were more widely used, the Ratio and Foster-

Seeley detectors were widely used. Of these
the ratio detector was the most popular as it
offers a better level of amplitude modulation
rejection.

BDG(xx) 52
 This enables it to provide a greater level of
noise immunity as most noise is amplitude
noise, and it also enables the circuit to
operate satisfactorily with lower levels of
limiting in the preceding IF stages of the
receiver.

BDG(xx) 53
 The operation of the ratio detector centres
around a frequency sensitive phase shift
network with a transformer and the diodes
that are effectively in series with one another.
 When a steady carrier is applied to the circuit

the diodes act to produce a steady voltage

across the resistors R1 and R2, and the
capacitor C3 charges up as a result.
 The transformer enables the circuit to detect

changes in the frequency of the incoming

signal. It has three windings.

BDG(xx) 54
 The primary and secondary act in the normal
way to produce a signal at the output. The
third winding is un-tuned and the coupling
between the primary and the third winding is
very tight, and this means that the phasing
between signals in these two windings is the
same.
 The primary and secondary windings are

tuned and lightly coupled.

BDG(xx) 55
 This means that there is a phase difference of
90 degrees between the signals in these
windings at the centre frequency.
 If the signal moves away from the centre

frequency the phase difference will change.

 In turn the phase difference between the

secondary and third windings also varies.

 When this occurs the voltage will subtract

from one side of the secondary and add to

the other causing an imbalance across the
resistors R1 and R2.

BDG(xx) 56
 As a result this causes a current to flow in the
third winding and the modulation to appear
at the output.
 The capacitors C1 and C2 filter any remaining

RF signal which may appear across the

resistors.
 The capacitor C4 and R3 also act as filters

ensuring no RF reaches the audio section of

the receiver.

BDG(xx) 57
 Ratio detector advantages & disadvantages -
 As with any circuit there are a number of

advantages and disadvantages to be

considered when choosing between several
options.

BDG(xx) 58
 Advantages –
 Simple to construct using discrete

components
 Offers good level of performance and

reasonable linearity.
 Disadvantages –
 High cost of transformer
 Typically lends itself to use in only circuits

using discrete components and not

integrated circuits.

BDG(xx) 59
 Pre-emphasis
 Pre-emphasis refers to boosting the relative

amplitudes of the modulating voltage for

higher audio frequencies from 2 to
approximately 15 KHz.
 De-emphasis
 De-emphasis means attenuating those

frequencies by the amount by which they are

boosted.

BDG(xx) 60
 However pre-emphasis is done at the
transmitter and the de-emphasis is done in
the receiver.
 The purpose is to improve the signal-to-

noise ratio for FM reception.

 A time constant of 75µs is specified in the RC

or L/Z network for pre-emphasis and de-

emphasis.

BDG(xx) 61
 Pre-emphasis circuit
 At the transmitter, the modulating signal is

passed through a simple network which

amplifies the high frequency components
more than the low-frequency components.
 The simplest form of such a circuit is a

simple high pass filter of the type shown in

fig.
 Specification dictate a time constant of 75

microseconds (µs) where t = RC. Any

combination of resistor and capacitor (or
resistor and inductor) giving this time
constant will be satisfactory.

BDG(xx) 62
BDG(xx) 63
 Such a circuit has a cut off frequency fco
of 2122 Hz. This means that frequencies
higher than 2122 Hz will he linearly
enhanced.
 The output amplitude increases with
frequency at a rate of 6 dB per octave.
 The pre-emphasis curve is shown in Fig.
 This pre-emphasis circuit increases the
energy content of the higher-frequency
signals so that they will tend to become
stronger than the high frequency noise
components. This improves the signal to
noise ratio and increases intelligibility and
fidelity.
BDG(xx) 64
BDG(xx) 65
 The pre-emphasis circuit also has an upper
break frequency fu where the signal
enhancement flattens out.
 This upper break frequency is computed with

the expression.
 fu = R1 +(R2/2πR1^2 *C)
 It is usually set at some very high value

beyond the audio range. An fu of greater than

30KHz is typical.

BDG(xx) 66
 De-emphasis Circuit-

BDG(xx) 67
BDG(xx) 68
 To return the frequency response to its normal
level, a de-emphasis circuit is used at the
receiver.
 This is a simple low-pass filter with a constant

of 75 πs. See figure (c).

 It features a cut off of 2122 Hz and causes

signals above this frequency to be attenuated at

the rate of 6bB per octave.
 The response curve is shown in Fig (d). As a

result, the pre-emphasis at the transmitter is

exactly offset by the de-emphasis circuit in the
receiver, providing a normal frequency
response.

BDG(xx) 69
 The combined effect of pre-emphasis and
de-emphasis is to increase the high-
frequency components during transmission
so that they will be stronger and not masked
by noise.

BDG(xx) 70