Computer Networks

Subject Code: BCA-16-501

Introduction
• Networks are familiar concept because radio,
television, postal, railway networks have been with
us for decades.
• An additional form of network, the computer
network has also been around more then 25 years.
• Computer networks have less noticeable than other
forms of networks because we do not see the
network itself when we walk outside. Rather we see
the results of using this network when we make
travel reservations and perform online transactions.
What is a network
• A network is a group of various components
connected together in such a way that, it is
possible to distribute or collect information
over the entire group.
• In other words, a network is a link or path
used to exchange of data between two or
more machines.
Computer networks in addition to exchange of
information, can carry out another important
function – sharing of resources.

wired networking wireless networking

 Data Communication
Digital communications is the physical transfer
of data over a point-to-point or point-to-
multipoint communication channel. Examples
of such channels are copper wires, optical
fibers, wireless communication channels.
Types of Communication systems:-
• Analog communication

• Digital communication
 ANALOG DIGITAL

information is translated into electric translation of information is into

Signal pulses of varying amplitude binary format (zero or one)

Waves Denoted by sine waves Denoted by square waves

Human voice in air, analog electronic Computers, CDs, DVDs, and other
Example devices. digital electronic devices.

Subjected to deterioration by noise Can be noise-immune without

during transmission and write/read deterioration during transmission
Data transmissions cycle. and write/read cycle.

More likely to get affected reducing Less affected since noise response
Response to Noise accuracy are analog in nature
Analog hardware is not flexible. Digital hardware is flexible in
Flexibility implementation.
Can be used in analog devices only. Best suited for Computing and
Uses Best suited for audio and video digital electronics.
transmission.

Applications Thermometer, Oscilloscope PCs, PDAs

Low cost and portable Cost is high and not easily portable
Cost

Errors Error rate is high Low error rate

A Communication Model
Data Communication Model
 Communication Technology
Applications

voice mail Twitter

instant
e-mail chat rooms
messaging

newsgroups telephony videoconferencing

facebook watsapp global positioning

system (GPS)
 Transmission Media
• The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver.

• Computers and telecommunication devices use signals to

represent data.

• These signals are transmitted from a device to another in the

form of electromagnetic energy.

• Examples of Electromagnetic energy include power, radio

waves, infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light, and X and
gamma rays.
Classes of transmission media
Guided media, which are those that provide a
conduit from one device to another.

Unguided media (or wireless communication)

transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor. Instead, signals are broadcast
through air (or, in a few cases, water), and thus are
available to anyone who has a device capable of
receiving them.
 Guided Media

There are three categories of guided media:

1. Twisted-pair cable
2. Coaxial cable
3. Fiber-optic cable
 Twisted-pair cable

• Twisted pair consists of two

conductors (normally
copper), each with its own
plastic insulation, twisted
together.
• Twisted-pair cable comes in
two forms: unshielded and
shielded
• The twisting helps to reduce
the interference (noise) and
crosstalk.
UTP and STP
 Unshielded Twisted-pair (UTP) cable
• Any medium can transmit
only a fixed range of
frequencies
• UTP cable is the most
common type of
telecommunication medium
in use today.
• The range is suitable for
transmitting both data and
video.
• Advantages of UTP are its
cost and ease of use. UTP is
cheap, flexible, and easy to
install.
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has
developed standards to grade UTP.
Category 1. The basic twisted-pair cabling used in
telephone systems. This level of quality is fine for voice
but inadequate for data transmission.
Category 2. This category is suitable for voice and data
transmission of up to 2Mbps.
Category 3. This category is suitable for data
transmission of up to 10 Mbps. It is now the standard
cable for most telephone systems.
Category 4. This category is suitable for data
transmission of up to 20 Mbps.
Category 5. This category is suitable for data
transmission of up to 100 Mbps.
 UTP connectors
The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for
Registered Jack).
 Applications
• Twisted-pair cables are used in telephones lines to provide
voice and data channels.
• The DSL(Digital subscriber line) lines that are used by the
telephone companies to provide high data rate connections
also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-
pair cables.
• Local area networks, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, also
used UTP cables.
 Shielded Twisted (STP) Cable

• STP cable has a metal foil or

braided-mesh covering that
enhances each pair of
insulated conductors.
• The metal casing prevents
the penetration of
electromagnetic noise.
• Materials and manufacturing
requirements make STP
more expensive than UTP
but less susceptible to noise.
 Coaxial Cable (or coax)

• Coaxial cable carries signals

of higher frequency ranges
than twisted-pair cable.

• Coaxial Cable standards:

RG-8, RG-9, RG-11 are used
in thick Ethernet
RG-58 Used in thin Ethernet
RG-59 Used for TV cables.
 BNC connectors
To connect coaxial cable to devices, it is necessary to use
coaxial connectors. The most common type of connector is the
Bayone-Neill-Concelman, or BNC, connectors. There are three
types: the BNC connector, the BNC T connector, the BNC
terminator.
Applications include cable TV networks, and some traditional
Ethernet LANs like 10Base-2, or 10-Base5.
Optical Fiber
• An optical fiber is a glass fiber. It carries pulses of light that
represent data. Some advantages of optical fibers over metal
wires are very low transmission loss, Very high capacity, low
noise, small size.
• Optical fibers can simultaneously carry multiple wavelengths of
light, which greatly increases the rate that data can be sent, and
helps enable data rates of up to trillions of bits per second. Optic
fibers can be used for long runs of cable carrying very high data
rates, and are used for undersea cables to interconnect
continents.
• Optical fiber is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in
the form of light.
• Light, a form of electromagnetic energy, travels at 300,000
Kilometers/second ( 186,000 miles/second), in a vacuum.

Reference: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jZOg39v73c4
 Unguided Media
• Unguided media, or wireless communication, transport
electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
Instead the signals are broadcast though air or water, and
thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of
receiving them.
• The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio
communication is divided into eight ranges, called bands,
each regulated by government authorities.

Reference: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cLlwVlNroCY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rim2WQ8ryNs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=kxLcwIMYmr0
 Propagation of Radio Waves
• Radio technology considers the earth as surrounded by
two layers of atmosphere: the troposphere and the
ionosphere.
• The troposphere is the portion of the atmosphere
extending outward approximately 30 miles from the
earth's surface.
• The troposphere contains what we generally think of as
air, Clouds, wind, temperature variations, and weather in
general occur in the troposphere.
• The ionosphere is the layer of the atmosphere above the
troposphere but below space.
• Broadcast Radio
– Distribute signals through the air over long
distance
– Uses an antenna
– Typically for stationary locations
– Can be short range
• Cellular Radio
– A form of broadcast radio used for mobile
communication
– High frequency radio waves to transmit voice
or data
– Utilizes frequency-reuse
• Microwaves
– Radio waves providing high speed transmission
– They are point-to-point (can’t be obstructed)
– Used for satellite communication
• Infrared (IR)
– Wireless transmission media that sends signals
using infrared light waves
Physical Transmission Media
 Networks
• Collection of computers and devices connected together
• Used to transfer information or files, share resources, etc.
• What is the largest network?
• Characterized based on their geographical coverage, speed,
capacities
• Networks are categorized based on the following
characteristics:
– Network coverage: LAN, MAN, WAN
– Network topologies: how the computers are connected
together
– Network technologies
– Network architecture
• The generic term node or host refers to any
device on a network
• Data transfer rate:- The speed with which
data is moved from one place on a network to
another
• Data transfer rate is a key issue in computer
networks
 LAN vs WAN
LAN - Local Area Network a group of
computers connected within a building
or a campus (Example of LAN may
consist of computers located on a
single floor or a building or it might link
all the computers in a small company.

WAN - A network consisting

of computers of LAN's
connected across a distance
WAN can cover small to large
distances, using different
topologies such as telephone
lines, fiber optic cabling,
satellite transmissions and
microwave transmissions.
Wide-area network (WAN) A network that connects
two or more local-area networks over a potentially
large geographic distance
Often one particular node on a LAN is set up to serve as a
gateway to handle all communication going between that
LAN and other networks
Communication between networks is called
internetworking
The Internet, as we know it today, is essentially the
ultimate wide-area network, spanning the entire globe
 So, who owns the Internet???
Well, nobody does.
No single person or company owns the Internet or
even controls it entirely.
As a wide-area network, it is made up of many
smaller networks. These smaller networks are often
owned and managed by a person or organization.
The Internet, then, is really defined by how
connections can be made between these networks.
 Types of Networks

Local-area networks connected across a distance to create a wide-area

network
 Network Topologies
Configuration or physical arrangement in which devices are
connected together
• BUS networks: Single central cable connected a number of
devices
– Easy and cheap
– Popular for LANs
• RING networks: a number of computers are connected on a
closed loop
– Covers large distances
– Primarily used for LANs and WANs
• STAR networks: connecting all devices to a central unit
– All computers are connected to a central device called hub
– All data must pass through the hub
 Network Topologies
personal personal personal
computer computer computer

personal personal
computer computer

personal computer

personal computer

personal computer
host
personal computer computer

printer
file server
 Network Architecture
• Refers to how the computer or devices are designed in a
network
• Basic types:
– Peer-2-Peer
• Each computer (peer) has equal responsibilities,
capacities, sharing hardware, data with the other
computers on the peer-to-peer network
• Good for small businesses and home networks
• Simple and inexpensive
– Client/Server
• All clients must request service from the server
• The server is also called a host
• Different servers perform different tasks: File server, web
server etc.
Computer networks have opened up an entire
frontier in the world of computing called the
client/server model
File server: A computer that stores and
manages files for multiple users on a network
Web server: A computer dedicated to
responding to requests (from the browser
client) for web pages
 P2P vs Client-Server
Peers make a portion of their resources, such
as processing power, disk storage or network
bandwidth, directly available to other network
participants, without the need for central
coordination by servers or stable hosts
 Internet Connections
• Internet backbone A set of high-speed
networks that carry Internet traffic
These networks are provided by companies
such as AT&T and IBM
• Internet service provider (ISP) A company
that provides other companies or individuals
with access to the Internet
 Internet Connections
There are various technologies available that you can use to
connect a home computer to the Internet
– A phone modem converts computer data into an analog
audio signal for transfer over a telephone line, and then a
modem at the destination converts it back again into data
– A digital subscriber line (DSL) uses regular copper phone
lines to transfer digital data to and from the phone
company’s central office
– A cable modem uses the same line that your cable TV
signals come in on to transfer the data back and forth
 Internet Connections

Broadband A connection in which transfer speeds are faster

than 128 bits per second
– DSL connections and cable modems are broadband
connections
– The speed for downloads (getting data from the Internet
to your home computer) may not be the same as uploads
(sending data from your home computer to the Internet)
Network Models
 LAYERED TASKS
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example,
let us consider two friends who communicate through postal
mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be
complex if there were no services available from the post
office.
Figure: Tasks involved in sending a letter
OSI Model

Communication Architecture
• Strategy for connecting host computers and other
communicating equipment.
• Defines necessary elements for data communication between
devices.
• A communication architecture, therefore, defines a standard
for the communicating hosts.
• A programmer formats data in a manner defined by the
communication architecture and passes it on to the
communication software.
• Separating communication functions adds flexibility, for
example, we do not need to modify the entire host software
to include more communication devices.
OSI Model

Layer Architecture
• Layer architecture simplifies the network design.
• It is easy to debug network applications in a layered
architecture network.
• The network management is easier due to the layered
architecture.
• Network layers follow a set of rules, called protocol.
• The protocol defines the format of the data being exchanged,
and the control and timing for the handshake between layers.
The OSI Model
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.
OSI Model

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

• International standard organization (ISO) established a
committee in 1977 to develop an architecture for computer
communication.
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is the
result of this effort.
• In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference
model was approved as an international standard for
communications architecture.
• Term “open” denotes the ability to connect any two systems
which conform to the reference model and associated
standards.
OSI Model

OSI Reference Model

• The OSI model is now considered the primary Architectural
model for inter-computer communications.
• The OSI model describes how information or data makes its
way from application programmes (such as spreadsheets)
through a network medium (such as wire) to another
application programme located on another network.
• The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving
information between computers over a network medium into
SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems .
• This separation into smaller more manageable functions is
known as layering.
OSI Model

OSI Reference Model: 7 Layers

OSI Model

OSI: A Layered Network Model

• The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking
into layers reduces complexity.
• Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol
specification.
• Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or
hardware on other computers.
• The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical —
Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the flow of data from
end to end through the network.
• The upper three layers of the OSI model (application, presentation
and session—Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward
services to the applications.
• Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it
moves down the layers before network transit.
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
OSI Model

Physical Layer
• Provides physical interface for transmission of information.
• Defines rules by which bits are passed from one system to
another on a physical communication medium.
• Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural -
aspects for physical communication.
• Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage
changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission
distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes are
defined by physical layer specifications.
Physical layer
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
 Data Link Layer
• Data link layer attempts to provide reliable communication
over the physical layer interface.
• Breaks the outgoing data into frames and reassemble the
received frames.
• Create and detect frame boundaries.
• Handle errors by implementing an acknowledgement and
retransmission scheme.
• Implement flow control.
• Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast communication.
• Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex communication.
Data link layer
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.
OSI Model

Network Layer
• Implements routing of frames (packets) through the network.
In other words, The network layer is responsible for delivery
of a packet between the original source and final destination.
• Defines the most optimum path the packet should take from
the source to the destination
• Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be
identified. Using logical addresses (IP address) instead of
physical address
• Handles congestion in the network.
• Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous networks
(Internetworking).
• The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into
smaller packets to accommodate different media.
Network layer
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
OSI Model

Transport Layer
• Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for
the exchange of data between two processes in different
computers.
• It is responsible for breaking the entire message into
several packets and delivery them to the network layer.
• It is responsible for ensuring that the whole message is
transmitted.
• Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.
• Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence.
• Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units.
• Provides connectionless or connection oriented service.
• Provides for the connection management.
• Multiplex multiple connection over a single channel.
OSI Model

Session Layer
• Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue
between the two end systems. It defines how to start, control
and end conversations (called sessions) between applications, in
other words, it is designed to control the dialog between users.
• The synchronization points divides a long message into smaller
ones and ensure that each section is received and
acknowledged by the receiver.
• This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on
an end-user’s request.
• Any necessary log-on or password validation is also handled by
this layer.
• Session layer is also responsible for terminating the connection.
• This layer provides service which can be full duplex or half
duplex.
• Session layer can also provide check-pointing mechanism such
that if a failure of some sort occurs between checkpoints, all
data can be retransmitted from the last checkpoint.
OSI Model

Presentation Layer
• Presentation layer defines the format in which the data is to
be exchanged between the two communicating entities. It
deals with the fact that different systems use different coding
methods.
• Also handles data compression and data encryption
(cryptography).
OSI Model

Application Layer
• Application layer interacts with application programs and is
the highest level of OSI model.
• Application layer contains management functions to support
distributed applications.
• Examples of application layer are applications such as file
transfer, electronic mail, remote login etc.
OSI Model

OSI in Action
• A message begins at the top
application layer and moves
down the OSI layers to the
bottom physical layer.
• As the message descends, each
successive OSI model layer
adds a header to it.
• A header is layer-specific
information that basically
explains what functions the
layer carried out.
• Conversely, at the receiving
end, headers are striped from
the message as it travels up
the corresponding layers.
TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP MODEL
TCP/IP Model

OSI Vs TCP/IP Models

 Digital-to-digital conversion
The process for converting digital data into digital
signal is said to be Line Coding. Digital data is found
in digital format,which is binary bits. It is represented
(stored) internally as series of 1s and 0s.
Digital signals which represents digital data,
represented as discrete signals. There are three types
of line coding schemes available:-
• UNI-POLAR ENCODING
Unipolar encoding schemes uses single voltage level
to represent data. In this case, to represent binary 1
high voltage is transmitted and to represent 0 no
voltage is transmitted. It is also called Unipolar-Non-
return-to-zero, because there‟s no rest condition i.e.
it either represents 1 or 0.
• POLAR ENCODING
Polar encoding schemes multiple voltage levels are
used to represent binary values. Polar encodings are
available in four types:
-POLAR-NRZ (NON-RETURN TO ZERO)
It uses two different voltage levels to represent
binary values, generally positive voltage represents 1
and negative value represents 0. It is also NRZ
because there‟s no rest condition. NRZ scheme has
two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.
NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is
encountered whereas NRZ-I changes voltage when a 1 is
encountered.
-RZ (RETURN TO ZERO)
Problem with NRZ was the receiver cannot conclude
when a bit ended and when the next bit is started, in
case when sender and receiver‟s clock are not
synchronized.

RZ uses three voltage levels, positive voltage to represent

1, negative voltage to represent 0 and zero voltage for
none. Signals change during bits not between bits.
• MANCHESTER
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and
NRZ-L. Bit time is divided into two halves. It
transitions at the middle of the bit and changes
phase when a different bit is encountered.

• DIFFERENTIAL MANCHESTER
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and
NRZ-I. It also transitions at the middle of the bit but
changes phase only when 1 is encountered.
• BIPOLAR ENCODING
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive,
negative and zero. Zero voltage represents binary 0
and bit 1 is represented by altering positive and
negative voltages.
 Analog-to-digital conversion
• Microphones creates analog voice and camera creates
analog videos, which here in our case is treated is analog
data. To transmit this analog data over digital signals we
need an analog to digital conversion.
• Analog data is wave form continuous stream of data
whereas digital data is discrete. To convert analog wave
into digital data we use Pulse Code Modulation.
• Pulse Code Modulation is one of the most commonly
used method to convert analog data into digital form. It
involves three steps: Sampling, Quantization and
Encoding.
• SAMPLING
The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most
important factor in sampling is the rate on which analog
signal is sampled. According to Nyquist Theorem, the
sampling rate must be at least two times of the highest
frequency of the signal.
• QUANTIZATION
Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal.
Every discrete pattern shows the amplitude of the analog
signal at that instance. The quantization is done between
the maximum amplitude value and the minimum amplitude
value.
• ENCODING
In encoding, each approximated value is then converted
into binary format.
 Transmission Modes
How data is to be transferred between to computer is
decided by the transmission mode they are using. Binary
data i.e. 1s and 0s can be sent in two different modes:
Parallel and Serial.
• PARALLEL TRANSMISSION
The binary bits are organized in to groups of fixed length.
Both sender and receiver are connected in parallel with
the equal number of data lines. Both computer
distinguish between high order and low order data lines.
The sender sends all the bits at once on all lines. Because
data lines are equal to the number of bits in a group or
data frame, a complete group of bits (data frame) is sent
in one go.
Advantage of Parallel transmission is speed and
disadvantage is the cost of wires, as it is equal to the
number of bits needs to send parallelly.
• SERIAL TRANSMISSION
In serial transmission, bits are sent one after another in a
queue manner. Serial transmission requires only one
communication channel as oppose parallel transmission
where communication lines depends upon bit word
length.

Serial transmission can be either asynchronous or

synchronous.
-ASYNCHRONOUS SERIAL TRANSMISSION
It is named so because there’s no importance of timing.
Data-bits have specific pattern and helps receiver
recognize when the actual data bits start and where it
ends. For example, a 0 is prefixed on every data byte and
one or more 1s added at the end.
Two continuous data-frames (bytes) may have gap
between them.
-SYNCHRONOUS SERIAL TRANSMISSION
It is up to the receiver to recognize and separate bits into
bytes. The advantage of synchronous transmission is
speed and it has no overhead of extra header and footer
bits as in asynchronous transmission.
 Sine Wave
• Peak Amplitude (A)
– maximum strength of signal
– volts
• Frequency (f)
– Rate of change of signal
– Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
– (T)= 1/f
• Phase ()
– Relative position in time, from 0-2*pi
• General Sine wave
s (t )  A sin( 2ft   )
Varying Sine Waves
 Digital-to-Analog Conversion
When data from one computer is sent to another via some
analog carrier, it is first converted into analog signals.
Analog signals are modified to reflect digital data, i.e.
binary data. An analog is characterized by its amplitude,
frequency and phase. There are three kinds of digital-to-
analog conversions possible:
AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING
In this conversion technique, the amplitude of analog
carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.
When binary data represents digit 1, the amplitude is held
otherwise it is set to 0. Both frequency and phase remain
same as in the original carrier signal.
• FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING
In this conversion technique, the frequency of the analog
carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.
This technique uses two frequencies, f1 and f2. One of
them, for example f1, is chosen to represent binary digit 1
and the other one is used to represent binary digit 0.
Both amplitude and phase of the carrier wave are kept
intact.

• PHASE SHIFT KEYING

In this conversion scheme, the phase of the original
carrier signal is altered to reflect the binary data.
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

1 = Amp. 1
0 = Amp. 2

1 1
0 0

A B

Amp. 1 Amp. 2
 Characteristics of Amplitude Modulation

• Amplitude of the analog signal is modulated

• One amplitude represents a 0
• Another amplitude represents a 1
• Frequency remains unchanged in both cases
• Signals that are modulated at one end are
demodulated at the other end
 Usage

• Amplitude is susceptible to interference

– This technique in not normally used in modems
• A variation of this technique is used in AM
radio transmission
– Analog-to-analog modulation takes place
Frequency Modulation (FM)

1 = Frequency F1
0 = Frequency F2

1 1
0 0

Freq. 1 Freq. 2
 Characteristics of Frequency Modulation

• Frequency is modulated
• Frequency f1
– Represents 1
• Frequency f2
– Represents 0
• The amplitude remains unaltered in both
cases
 Usage
• Variations in frequency are easy to detect
– They are less susceptible to interference
• FM and variations of this technique are
used in modems
• Easy to implement full duplex transmission
under FM
• A variation of the FM technique described
here is used in FM radio transmission
 Modulation in Modern Day Modems

• Modern day modems may not use the FM

technique for modulation
• They may be using a technique known as
Phase Shift Modulation (or Phase Shift Keying)
 Phase of an Analog Signal

Y
Strength

0 90 180 270 360

X
Time Frame
 Phase Modulation Technique

1
0

90 Degrees
0 Degree phase shift
phase shift
This is also known as phase shift keying
 Characteristics of Phase Shift Modulation

• Phase is modulated
• Phase shift of 0 represents a 0
• Phase shift of 90 degrees represents a 1
• Both amplitude and frequency remain
unaltered is both cases
• Also known as Phase Shift Keying, it is used in
a number of modern modems as well
 Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is a method by which multiple analog
message signals or digital data streams are combined into
one signal over a shared medium. “The aim is to share an
expensive resource”.
• The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a
communication channel, which may be a physical
transmission medium (e.g. a cable), air (radio frequency),
and light (optical fiber).
• The multiplexing divides the capacity of the high-level
communication channel into several low-level logical
channels, one for each message signal or data stream to
be transferred.
• A reverse process, known as de-multiplexing, can extract
the original channels on the receiver side.
• A device that performs the multiplexing is called
a multiplexer (MUX), and a device that performs the
reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX).
Types of multiplexing

• Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

– E.g. AM/FM Radio

• Time division multiplexing (TDM)

– Used in Digital carriers

• Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)

– Used in optical carriers (colors carry signals)
Frequency-division multiplexing
• Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog
multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.
• FDM is applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is
greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted.
• In FDM, signals generated by each sending device
modulate different carrier frequencies. These modulated
signals are then combined into a single composite signal
that can be transported by the link.
• Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth
to accommodate the modulated signal. These bandwidth
ranges are the channels through which the various signals
travel.
• Channels can be separated by strips of unused
bandwidth i.e guard bands, to prevent signals from
overlapping. In addition, carrier frequencies must not
interfere with the original data frequencies.
Wavelength-division multiplexing
• Light has different wavelength (colors).
• Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is an analog
multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.
• WDM is designed to use the high data rate capability of
fiber-optic cable. The optical fiber data rate is higher than
the data rate of metallic transmission cable. Using a
fiber-optic cable for one single line wastes the available
bandwidth. Multiplexing allows us to combine several
lines into one.
• WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the
multiplexing and de-multiplexing involve optical signals
transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
• The idea is the same: We are combining different signals
of different frequencies. The difference is that the
frequencies are very high.
Time Division Multiplexing
• TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be
applied on analog signals as well.
• In TDM the shared channel is divided among its user by
means of time slot. Each user can transmit data within
the provided time slot only. Digital signals are divided in
frames, equivalent to time slot i.e. frame of an optimal
size which can be transmitted in given time slot.
• TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e.
Multiplexer and De-multiplexer are timely synchronized
and both switch to next channel simultaneously.
• When at one side channel A is transmitting its frame, on
the other end De-multiplexer providing media to channel
A. As soon as its channel A’s time slot expires this side
switches to channel B. On the other end De-multiplexer
behaves in a synchronized manner and provides media to
channel B.
• Synchronous time-division multiplexing
In synchronous time-division multiplexing, the term
synchronous means that the multiplexer allocates exactly
the same time slot to each device at all times, whether
or not a device has anything to transmit.
• Asynchronous time-division multiplexing
- Synchronous TDM does not guarantee that the full
capacity of a link is used. Because the time slots are
pre-assigned and fixed, whenever a connected device is
not transmitting, the corresponding slot is empty.
- Asynchronous time-division multiplexing, or statistical
time-division multiplexing, is designed to avoid this type
of waste.
Space-division multiplexing
• In wired communication, space-division multiplexing
simply implies different point-to-point wires for different
channels. Examples include an analogue stereo audio
cable, with one pair of wires for the left channel and
another for the right channel, and a multi-pair telephone
cable. Wired space-division multiplexing is typically not
considered as multiplexing.
• In wireless communication, space-division multiplexing is
achieved by multiple antenna elements. If we remember
our work with directional antennas, we can actually
reuse both time and frequency, by transmitting our
information along parallel channels.
Code Division Multiplexing
• Multiple data signals can be transmitted over a single frequency
by using Code Division Multiplexing.
• FDM divides the frequency in smaller channels but CDM allows
its users to full bandwidth and transmit signals all the time
using a unique Code.
• Each station is assigned with a unique code, called chip. Signals
travels with these codes independently travelling inside the
whole bandwidth. The receiver in this case, knows in advance
chip code signal it has to receive signals.
• Code Division Multiplex techniques are used as an channel
access scheme, namely Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA),
e.g. for mobile phone service and in wireless networks. Another
important application of CDMA is the Global Positioning
System (GPS).
 Switched Communications Networks
• Long distance transmission between stations (called “end
devices”) is typically done over a network of switching nodes.
• Switching nodes do not concern with content of data. Their
purpose is to provide a switching facility that will move the
data from node to node until they reach their destination (the
end device).
• A collection of nodes and connections forms a
communications network.
• In a switched communications network, data entering the
network from a station are routed to the destination by being
switched from node to node.
Simple Switching Network
 Switching Techniques
Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one
port to a port leading towards the destination.
In large networks there might be multiple paths linking sender
and receiver. Information may be switched as it travels through
various communication channels. There are three typical
switching techniques available for digital traffic:-

• Circuit Switching
• Message Switching
• Packet Switching
 Circuit Switching
• Circuit switching is a technique that directly connects the
sender and the receiver in an unbroken path.
• Telephone switching equipment, for example, establishes
a path that connects the caller's telephone to the
receiver's telephone by making a physical connection.
• With this type of switching technique, once a connection
is established, a dedicated path exists between both ends
until the connection is terminated.
• Routing decisions must be made when the circuit is first
established, but there are no decisions made after that
time.
• Circuit switching in a network operates almost the same way
as the telephone system works.
• A complete end-to-end path must exist before
communication can take place.
• The computer initiating the data transfer must ask for a
connection to the destination.
• Once the connection has been initiated and completed to
the destination device, the destination device must
acknowledge that it is ready and willing to carry on a
transfer.
Advantages:
The communication channel (once established) is dedicated.

Disadvantages:
• Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10 seconds,
more on long- distance or international calls.) during which
no data can be transmitted.
• More expensive than any other switching techniques,
because a dedicated path is required for each connection.
• Inefficient use of the communication channel, because the
channel is not used when the connected systems are not
using it.
 Message Switching
• With message switching there is no need to establish a
dedicated path between two stations.
• When a station sends a message, the destination address is
appended to the message.
• The message is then transmitted through the network, in its
entirety, from node to node.
• Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its
entirety on disk, and then transmits the message to the next
node.
• This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.
• A switch working on message switching, first receives the
whole message and buffers it until there are resources
available to transfer it to the next hop. If the next hop is not
having enough resource to accommodate large size message,
the message is stored and switch waits.
• This technique was considered substitute to circuit switching.
As in circuit switching the whole path is blocked for two
entities only. Message switching is replaced by packet
switching. Message switching has some drawbacks:
• Every switch in transit path needs enough storage to
accommodate entire message.
• Because of store-and-forward technique and waits included
until resources available, message switching is very slow.
• Message switching was not a solution for streaming media
and real-time applications.
 Packet Switching
• Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to combine the
advantages of message and circuit switching and to minimize the
disadvantages of both.
• There are two methods of packet switching:
Datagram and virtual circuit.
• In both packet switching methods, a message is broken into
small parts, called packets.
• Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and destination
addresses.
• Since packets have a strictly defined maximum length, they
can be stored in main memory instead of disk, therefore access
delay and cost are minimized.
• Also the transmission speeds, between nodes, are optimized.
• With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto
the network on a first-come, first-served basis. If the network
becomes overloaded, packets are delayed or discarded
 Packet Switching Technique
• A station breaks long message into packets
• Packets are sent out to the network sequentially, one
at a time
• How will the network handle this stream of packets
as it attempts to route them through the network
and deliver them to the intended destination?
Two approaches
• Datagram approach
• Virtual circuit approach
 Datagram
• Each packet is treated independently, with no reference to
packets that have gone before.
– Each node chooses the next node on a packet’s path.
• Packets can take any possible route.
• Packets may arrive at the receiver out of order.
• Packets may go missing.
• It is up to the receiver to re-order packets and recover from
missing packets.
• Example: Internet
 Virtual Circuit

• In virtual circuit, a preplanned route is established before any

packets are sent, then all packets follow the same route.
• Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier instead of
destination address, and each node on the pre-established
route knows where to forward such packets.
– The node need not make a routing decision for each
packet.
• A route between stations is set up prior to data transfer.
• All the data packets then follow the same route.
• But there is no dedicated resources reserved for the virtual
circuit! Packets need to be stored-and-forwarded.
 Virtual Circuits vs Datagram
Virtual circuits
– Network can provide sequencing (packets arrive at the
same order) and error control (retransmission between
two nodes).
– Packets are forwarded more quickly
Based on the virtual circuit identifier
No routing decisions to make
– Less reliable
If a node fails, all virtual circuits that pass through that node
fail.
Datagram
– No call setup phase
Good for bursty data, such as Web applications
– More flexible
If a node fails, packets may find an alternate route