NETWORK PROTOCOLS AND

ARCHITECTURES
SCS 2111 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS
 NETWORK PROTOCOLS AND
ARCHITECTURES
• Network protocols are a set of rules outlining how connected devices communicate across a network to exchange
information easily and safely. Protocols serve as a common language for devices to enable communication irrespective
of differences in software, hardware, or internal processes

• To successfully send and receive information, devices on both sides of a communication exchange must accept and
follow protocol conventions. In networking, support for protocols can be built into the software, hardware or both.

• Without network protocols, computers and other devices would not know how to engage with each other

• The key features of a protocol are as follows:

Syntax: Concerns the format of the data blocks

Semantics: Includes control information for coordination and error handling

Timing: Includes speed matching and sequencing

 TYPES OF PROTOCOLS

Network communication protocols.

• The efficiency of a network is determined by the communication protocols used. The formats and
regulations that govern how data is exchanged between networks are formally described by these
protocols. This applies to both hardware and software and is a requirement for communicating between
computing systems and telecommunication systems. In addition to handling syntax, synchronization and
semantic requirements that both analog and digital communications must meet to work, communication
protocols also handle authentication and error detection.

• Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP), Transmission Control Protocol(TCP), User Datagram Protocol(UDP),

Border Gateway Protocol(BGP), Address Resolution Protocol(ARP), Internet Protocol(IP), Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol(DHCP) and Internet Relay Chat are network communication protocols.
 TYPES OF PROTOCOLS

Network Management Protocols

To ensure steady communication and optimal performance throughout the network, network management
protocols help specify the policies and processes needed to monitor, administer and maintain a computer
network. They also assist in communicating these demands across the network.

• Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP),

• Gopher, File Transfer Protocol(FTP), Post Office Protocol(POP3),

• Telnet and

• Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP) are network management protocols.

 TYPES OF PROTOCOLS

Network Security Protocols

• The primary responsibility of network security protocols is to ensure that the data in transit over the
network connections are kept safe and secure.

• These protocols also specify how the network protects data from any unauthorized efforts to inspect or
extract it. This ensures that unauthorized users, services or devices don't have access to the network.

• Protocols such as Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTPS), Secure FTP and
Transport Layer Security(TLS) operate at this level.
 COMPUTER NETWORK MODELS
• The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.

• Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to manage
communications and run the applications.

• It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between subsystems.

• It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower to higher layer without
defining how the services are implemented. Therefore, any modification in a layer will not affect the other
layers.

• The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to network. However, the
purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to a higher layer and hiding the details from the
layers of how the services are implemented.
 COMPUTER NETWORK MODELS

• The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.

• Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.

• Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with peer entity. These
rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of the messages used.

• Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to another layer.

• In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with the layer n on another
machine and the rules used in a conversation are known as a layer-n protocol.
 COMPUTER NETWORK MODELS
• Let's take an example of the five-layered architecture.
 COMPUTER NETWORK MODELS

• In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one machine to layer n of another
machine. Instead, each layer passes the data to the layer immediately just below it, until the lowest layer
is reached.

• Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual communication takes place.

• In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small and manageable tasks.

• The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface. A Layered architecture
provides a clean-cut interface so that minimum information is shared among different layers. It also
ensures that the implementation of one layer can be easily replaced by another implementation.

• A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.

 COMPUTER NETWORK MODELS
Why do we require Layered architecture?

• Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a design process in such a way that
the unmanageable tasks are divided into small and manageable tasks. In short, we can say that this
approach reduces the complexity of the design.

• Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides the independence of layers, which is
easier to understand and implement.

• Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that implementation in one layer can be changed
without affecting other layers.

• Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed and tested individually
 OSI MODEL

• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information from a
software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application in
another computer.

• OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.

• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is
now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.

• OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a
particular task.

• Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed independently.
 OSI MODEL

The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.

The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are implemented
only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application
layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.

The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and the physical
layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and
is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the
physical medium.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OSI MODEL
 7 LAYERS OF OSI MODEL

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are given below:

• Physical Layer

• Data-Link Layer

• Network Layer

• Transport Layer

• Session Layer

• Presentation Layer

• Application Layer
7 LAYERS OF OSI MODEL
1) PHYSICAL LAYER
 PHYSICAL LAYER
• The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to another node.
• It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
• It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
• It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

• Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
• Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode
between the two devices on the network.
• Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
• Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
2) DATA-LINK LAYER
 DATA-LINK LAYER
• This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
• It defines the format of the data on the network.
• It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
• It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local network.

It contains two sub-layers:

Logical Link Control Layer
• It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that is receiving.
• It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
• It also provides flow control.
Media Access Control Layer
• A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the network's physical layer.
• It is used for transferring the packets over the network
 FUNCTIONS OF THE DATA-LINK LAYER

Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a destination address. The
frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the header.

Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as Frames. The Data
link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the
hardware destination and source address
 FUNCTIONS OF THE DATA-LINK LAYER
Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the technique through which the
constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the
transmitting station such as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station,
with lower processing speed

Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is
placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical
layer. If any error seems to occur, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the
corrupted frames.

Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication channel, then the
data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control over the link at a given time.
NETWORK LAYER
 NETWORK LAYER

It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.

It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network conditions, the
priority of service, and other factors.

The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.

Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing services within
an internetwork.

The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols. Examples of protocols are
IP and Ipv6.
 FUNCTIONS OF NETWORK LAYER:
Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It provides a logical
connection between different devices.

Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the frame.
Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.

Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best optimal path out
of the multiple paths from source to the destination.

Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts them into packets.
This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
4) TRANSPORT LAYER
 TRANSPORT LAYER

• The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which
they are sent and there is no duplication of data.

• The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.

• It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.

• This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection

between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
 TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS
The two protocols used in this layer are: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and

Transmission Control Protocol

• It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.

• It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.

• When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data into smaller units known as
segments. Each segment travels over the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the
destination. The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.

User Datagram Protocol

• User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.

• It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any acknowledgment when the packet is
received, the sender does not wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable
 FUNCTIONS OF TRANSPORT LAYER

• Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason, the
transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer to another computer but
also from one process to another process. The transport layer adds the header that contains the address
known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit
the data from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit
the message to the correct process.

• Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper layer, it
divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number that
uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the destination, then the transport
layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers
 FUNCTIONS OF TRANSPORT LAYER

• Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet, and
they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In
connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.

• Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-to-end
rather than across a single link.

• Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is performed end-
to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that message reach at
the destination without any error.
5) SESSION LAYER
 5) SESSION LAYER
• It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

• The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two processes
or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which can be either half-
duplex or full-duplex.

Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence. If
some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take place
again from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.
6) PRESENTATION LAYER
 PRESENTATION LAYER

• A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.

• It acts as a data translator for a network.

• This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation format
to another format.

• The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

 FUNCTIONS OF PRESENTATION LAYER

• Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character strings,
numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the presentation layer
handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the data from
sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the common format into receiver-
dependent format at the receiving end.

• Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of converting the

sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message over the network.

• Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the number of
bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
 7) APPLICATION LAYER

• .
 FUNCTIONS OF THE APPLICATION LAYER

Functions of Application layer:

• File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access the
files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a
remote computer.

• Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.

• Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various objects.
 TCP/IP MODEL

• The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer
and physical layer.

• The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and transport functions
that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP
model by a single layer called the application layer.

• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them provides specific
functionality.
FUNCTIONS OF TCP/IP LAYERS
 NETWORK ACCESS LAYER

• A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

• A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI reference
model.

• It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.

• This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the same network.

• The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames transmitted by the
network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.

• The protocols used by this layer are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
 INTERNET LAYER

• An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

• An internet layer is also known as the network layer.

• The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and they arrive at the
destination irrespective of the route they take.

• The protocols found at this layer include IP Protocol, ARP Protocol, ICMP Protocol
 IP PROTOCOL

IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

• IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The IP addresses are
used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide internetwork routing.

• Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be transmitted.

• Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer protocol. An IP
protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the data into message known as
IP datagram.
 IP PROTOCOL

Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data link layer protocol is
known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP
protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can
be done by the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an
original message.

Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is known as direct
delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This
can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through various devices such as routers.
 ARP PROTOCOL

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP address.

The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:

• ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it broadcasts the ARP
request to the network.

• ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and process the request, but
only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its physical address in the form of ARP reply. The
recipient adds the physical address both to its cache memory and to the datagram header
 ICMP PROTOCOL
ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram problems back to the
sender.
A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable to route the data
because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on fire or network congestion, then
the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
• ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
• ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is responding or not.
The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them. The responsibility of
the correction lies with the sender.
ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers because the IP datagram
carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the router that it is passed to.
 TRANSPORT LAYER

• The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is being sent
over the network.
• The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission control
protocol.
 USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)
• It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
• It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
• User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the sender that user
datagram has been damaged.
UDP consists of the following fields:
• Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program that has created the
message.
• Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application program that
receives the message.
• Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
• Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data
segment.
USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)
TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL (TCP)

• It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

• It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration of the transmission.

• TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all
the segments must be received and acknowledged before the transmission is considered to be completed and
a virtual circuit is discarded.

• At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment, and each segment
contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the frames to form an original message.

• At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence numbers .
APPLICATION LAYER

• An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

• It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.

• This layer allows the user to interact with the application.

• When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it forwards
its data to the transport layer.

• There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed inside the
application layer except those who interact with the communication system. For example: text editor
cannot be considered in application layer while web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the
network where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.
TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL (TCP)

• It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

• It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration of the transmission.

• TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all
the segments must be received and acknowledged before the transmission is considered to be completed and
a virtual circuit is discarded.

• At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment, and each segment
contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the frames to form an original message.

• At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence numbers .
 APPLICATION LAYER PROTOCOLS

• HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data over the world
wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer
protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one
document to another.

• SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for managing the
devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.

• SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-mail is known
as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail address.
 APPLICATION LAYER PROTOCOLS

• DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection of a host to
the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the system
that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.

• TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the local
computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the
remote system.

• FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for transmitting the
files from one computer to another computer.
 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE OSI AND
TCP/IP MODEL
Share common architecture: Both the models are the logical models and having similar architectures as both the
models are constructed with the layers.
Define standards : Both the layers have defined standards, and they also provide the framework used for
implementing the standards and devices.
Simplified troubleshooting process: Both models have simplified the troubleshooting process by breaking the
complex function into simpler components.
Pre-defined standards: The standards and protocols which are already pre-defined; these models do not
redefine them; they just reference or use them. For example, the Ethernet standards were already defined by the
IEEE before the development of these models; instead of recreating them, models have used these pre-defined
standards.
Both have similar functionality of 'transport' and 'network' layers: The function which is performed between the
'presentation' and the 'network' layer is similar to the function performed at the transport layer.