- I am a chemist engaged in archaeological research and excavations. I received my B.Sc. (1995, Tel Aviv University) an... moreI am a chemist engaged in archaeological research and excavations. I received my B.Sc. (1995, Tel Aviv University) and M.Sc (1998, Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel) in Chemistry. In 2008 I received my doctorate (Weizmann Institute of Science). Since then my academic activity involve the application and development of various analytical techniques in order to solve archaeological and historical research questions.
My main research interest lies in the reconstruction and understanding of ancient pyro-technological processes, such as the production of metals, plaster, ceramic, glass and glazes. The study of technological choices and technological styles, manipulation and processing of raw materials, and the formation of by-products, have far reaching implications on the reconstruction of ancient society's cultural behaviors and stylistic choices, the spread of technological innovations, economic interactions and trade routes.
These include;
(a) General ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy: the use and manufacturing of metals throughout the span of archaeological and historical periods. These for example might include; technological aspects related to the making and processing of ‘hacksilber’ and silver coinage, the change and developments in the use of bronze alloys, the study of metallurgical refractories such as crucibles, as a tool for understanding and reconstruction of bronze, silver and gold production processes, alloying techniques, refining procedures etc.
(b) Early iron production in the Levant: studying the advent of iron technology in the Southern Levant and characterizing the transition from the use of bronze to the use of iron. Identifying production centers, production technologies and the socio-political organization.
(c) Technological capabilities of the ancient iron smiths: using metallography methods to study ancient iron tools and infer on technological capabilities and production methods such as steeling, quenching and tempering.
(d) Identifying pyro-technology activities: developing new means for the identification of pyro-technological activities (controlled use of fire for the production of new man-made materials, such as ceramic, plaster, glass and metals) and the identification on of these technologies in the archaeological record.
(e) Materials and provenance: developing new means for identification of raw materials sources (gem and semi-precious stones, metal ores etc.) in order to shed light on socio-political organizations and trade routes of the ancient world.
(f) Early vitreous materials, Faience and Glass: production technologies, pattern of technological discovery, adoption, choice, transfer and provenance of vitreous materials such as glazed steatite, faience, Egyptian blue and green frits, and glazed pottery and bricks.
(g) Lime plaster and ceramic: production of lime and ceramic materials has far and long histories which leave behind numerous types of archaeological artifacts and debris that can be studied in order to answer various questions concerning cultural issues of past societies.edit
Ariel University (AU) is focused on promoting research through international scientific collaborations. As such, AU is distributing this call for application for a postdoctoral Fellowship named after a close friend of the university, who... more
Ariel University (AU) is focused on promoting research through international scientific collaborations. As such, AU is distributing this call for application for a postdoctoral Fellowship named after a close friend of the university, who promoted research collaborations between Ariel University and academia in the Czech Republic.
Recent excavations at Naḥal 'Amram, a Nabataean copper mining center in the Arabah valley, Israel, unearthed for the first time four iron tips of mining picks. The present study undertakes a complex investigation of the picks, including... more
Recent excavations at Naḥal 'Amram, a Nabataean copper mining center in the Arabah valley, Israel, unearthed for the first time four iron tips of mining picks. The present study undertakes a complex investigation of the picks, including metallographic, indentation hardness, slag inclusions (SIs), metal matrix, and osmium isotopic composition (Os-IC) analyses. The results indicate that the picks were manufactured via similar blacksmithing techniques, using two types of hard alloys: quench-hardened steel and phosphoric iron. A correlation was found between the composition of SIs, metal, and osmium isotopic signature, suggesting that three different ore sources were exploited to produce these picks. The quenched steel likely originated from a single ore source, whereas the two P-rich iron probably provenance from two different, yet geographically close or geologically similar ore deposits. The undertaken study highlights the importance of an integrative provenancing approach, which relies on the analyses of siderophile/chalcophile elements of the metal, lithophile trace elements of slag inclusions, and osmium isotopic analyses. This approach allows the complete characterization of the ore provenance signature of an artefact. However, the final provenance assignment to a specific ore deposit is currently limited, as it depends on our knowledge and familiarity with potential ore sources and on the archaeological evidence of their exploitation.
Research will focus on various Technological Aspects of Material culture and will aim to reconstruct and study, production and provenancing of pyro-technological materials such as glass, metals and ceramics, spanning a broad range of... more
Research will focus on various Technological Aspects of Material culture and will aim to reconstruct and study, production and provenancing of pyro-technological materials such as glass, metals and ceramics, spanning a broad range of chronological periods.
A total of thirty-eight beads, including one pendant securely dated to the Early Bronze Age III, were recently unearthed at Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel. The beads were subjected to analysis by FTIR spectrometry in order to identify the... more
A total of thirty-eight beads, including one pendant securely dated to the Early Bronze Age III, were recently unearthed at Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel. The beads were subjected to analysis by FTIR spectrometry in order to identify the mineralogy and materials used for their making. Among the various materials identified, such as carnelian, steatite and shells, twenty-five were made of faience. The microstructure and chemical composition of two faience beads were analyzed by electron microscopy and are the focus of this short report. Results show that cementation glazing was most likely used for one, whereas efflorescence glazing was most probably used in the production of the other. These preliminary results shed light on the variability that existed in manufacturing procedures and choice of raw materials for the production of early vitreous materials during this period.
Slag analyses from archaeological iron smelting sites are common. Rigorous analyses of iron and slag from successful experimental smelting, however, are still rare. Furthermore, thorough analyses from a series of smelts, and of the slag... more
Slag analyses from archaeological iron smelting sites are common. Rigorous analyses of iron and slag from successful experimental smelting, however, are still rare. Furthermore, thorough analyses from a series of smelts, and of the slag produced in different phases of the smelt, are exceedingly rare. The present study investigates the effect of an iron smelter's decision-making and skills on the products of the smelting process: iron and slag. Four smelting experiments were carried out in a shaft furnace with slag tapping using iron ores from the Southern Levant. Using various analytical techniques, including portable X-ray fluorescence, optical and electron microscopy, metallography, and hardness tests enabled us to correlate the properties of the final products with adjustment of various parameters during the smelting process. The latter include airflow and charging rate, temperature, residence time in the reducing zone, ore-charcoal ratio, and control of the slag characteristics. Results obtained allowed us to empirically demonstrate the direct impact of decisions made by the smelter during the complex technological practice of bloomery smelting. Analysis also highlights the benefits of moderately reducing conditions controlled by the smelter to produce good-quality, low-carbon iron, which is particularly relevant within the geological setting of the Southern Levant.
Research Interests:
An iron and bronze workshop in the lower city of Tell es-Safi/Gath, dated to the mid-late Iron IIA, contributes new data on the chronology, organization, and practice of metal production in the urban Philistine setting. Analyses show that... more
An iron and bronze workshop in the lower city of Tell es-Safi/Gath, dated to the mid-late Iron IIA, contributes new data on the chronology, organization, and practice of metal production in the urban Philistine setting. Analyses show that iron objects were likely produced and maintained on a large scale, alongside bronze, employing regionally unique forms of crucibles and tuyères. The material culture of metalworking is discussed in relation to contemporaneous iron production sites in the region, building a more robust picture of the adoption of iron metallurgy in the Levant versus the status of bronze and iron.
Conclusive evidence has surfaced for the production of iron objects in urban workshops in the Southern Levant during the early Iron Age. While nearly a dozen sites with metallurgical debris and technical ceramics dating to the 10th-8th c.... more
Conclusive evidence has surfaced for the production of iron objects in urban workshops in the Southern Levant during the early Iron Age. While nearly a dozen sites with metallurgical debris and technical ceramics dating to the 10th-8th c. BCE have contributed to the visibility of the craft, in situ high-temperature installations remain enigmatic in the archaeological record. Our ability to reconstruct the chaîne opératoire of iron production processes within each working context is restricted by the lack of this critical data. In this study we employ methods of experimental archaeology in order to investigate and interpret an assemblage of vitrified technical ceramics found in an early Iron Age metal workshop at the site of Tell es-Safi/Gath situated on the border between the southern coastal plain and the Judean foothills of Israel. As part of a broader research framework, iron smelting experiments were carried out in a simple, clay-built bowl furnace. Materials analogous to the archaeological ceramics were employed to address high temperature alterations occurring in a single installation. Using structural mineralogical and chemical analyses (FTIR, pXRF and SEM-EDS) we characterize the experimental and archaeological technical ceramics to identify the processes that affect and transform these materials during iron production activities. Results were then utilized to interpret production processes and the implementation of technical ceramics in ironworking at Tell es-Safi/Gath. Based on our observations, we address the specialized preparation of technical ceramics in early ironworking, possible reasons for the alteration and preservation of metallurgical installations following their abandonment and attempt to improve the interpretation and classification of vitrified ceramic waste from ancient metallurgical contexts.
There is fragmentary knowledge of iron ore sources exploited in the past for many regions including the Southern Levant. This missing information has the potential to shed light on political, economic, craft-production, and trading... more
There is fragmentary knowledge of iron ore sources exploited in the past for many regions including the Southern Levant. This missing information has the potential to shed light on political, economic, craft-production, and trading patterns of past societies. This paper presents the results of smelting experiments performed in graphite crucibles and a muffle furnace, using 14 iron ore samples from the Southern Levant, in an attempt to determine their suitability for smelting using ancient techniques. A range of analytical techniques, including optical and electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, and portable X-ray fluorescence were used to comparatively investigate the mineralogy and composition of the precursor iron ores and their smelting products: Iron bloom and slag. Several parameters attesting to the ability of a given ore to be successfully reduced and consolidated into a solid metal mass were quantified. The generated results highlight the significance of a 'correct balance' between iron oxides and other major elements in the smelting system in order to form fluid slag and a well-consolidated bloom. These data contribute to the understanding of factors, potentially influencing choices of iron ore exploitation by past human societies in the Southern Levant.
Research Interests:
Collection of articles (first of two issues), edited by Aren Maeir, on the Tell es-Safi/Gath Archaeological Project. First issue covers introduction, general studies, and topical studies covering the Early Bronze through the Late Bronze... more
Collection of articles (first of two issues), edited by Aren Maeir, on the Tell es-Safi/Gath Archaeological Project. First issue covers introduction, general studies, and topical studies covering the Early Bronze through the Late Bronze Ages
Research Interests: History, Ancient History, Archaeology, Environmental Science, Anthropology, and 12 moreZooarchaeology, Bioarchaeology, Archaeobotany, Archaeology of Ancient Israel, Levantine Archaeology, Israel/Palestine, Ancient Religion, Biblical Archaeology, Ancient Near East, Aegean Archaeology, Early Bronze Age (Archaeology), and Bronze and Iron Ages in Eastern Mediterranean (Archaeology)
A B S T R A C T The question of whether improved technological skills of Iron Age smiths, such as carburization and quenching, were behind the significant transition to utilitarian use of iron in the eastern Mediterranean has been long... more
A B S T R A C T The question of whether improved technological skills of Iron Age smiths, such as carburization and quenching, were behind the significant transition to utilitarian use of iron in the eastern Mediterranean has been long debated, with the answer relying on the analyses of a few exceptionally well-preserved objects from Israel and Cyprus. In order to systematically examine this question, 59 iron objects from several major Iron Age settlements in Israel were sampled for metallographic analysis. First and foremost, it is shown that none of the analyzed objects were preserved in metallic form and that only in rare cases, small islands of metallic iron were preserved. Objects with full preservation of metal, heavily relied upon in past discussions, are therefore the exception and not the rule. Using relics (" ghost structures ") of the original metallic microstructure, pearlite and cementite were observed in an overwhelming majority of the samples, indicating that almost all of the objects were made of steel. A wide variety of carbon concentrations was estimated, reflecting a range of compositions from low-carbon hypoeu-tectoid to high-carbon and hypereutectoid steels. Since no clear correlation between object type and steel quality was observed, we conclude that steeling was, in fact, a spontaneous and non-deliberate result of the smelting process, rather than a deliberate systematic act of carburization. In addition, martensitic structures, indicative of quenching, were not identified, suggesting that quenching was not routinely performed and that iron was unlikely to have been superior to bronze at this time. It thus appears that the iron-working skills of the Iron Age smiths cannot be used as a factor that can explain the advent of iron in the Southern Levant nor as a reason for the dramatic increase in iron production during the 10th–9th centuries BCE.
Research Interests:
By-products of iron production, mainly slag and bloom fragments, unearthed at three Iron Age urban centres in Israel (Hazor, Tel Beer sheba and Rehov), were analysed in order to better understand the organization of iron production during... more
By-products of iron production, mainly slag and bloom fragments, unearthed at three Iron Age urban centres in Israel (Hazor, Tel Beer sheba and Rehov), were analysed in order to better understand the organization of iron production during the Iron Age. The production remains studied are all dated not earlier than the Iron Age IIA, and thus shed light on a period of transition from bronze to iron production. Chemical composition and microstructural analyses enable us to determine that both the smelting of iron ores and the refining of the bloom took place within the urban centres of Hazor and Beer-Sheba. We show that slag cakes are the products of smelting, possibly carried out in pit-furnaces. Hammerscales, products of primary and secondary smithing, were attached to slags. From these observations we infer that all stages of iron production were practiced in these urban centres.
The present study focuses on the excavation and analysis of an early Iron Age kiln found at Tel Hebron. Remains of quicklime and slagging material found at the bottom of the kiln were analysed using FTIR and SEM-EDS, showing that the kiln... more
The present study focuses on the excavation and analysis of an early
Iron Age kiln found at Tel Hebron. Remains of quicklime and slagging material found at the bottom of the kiln were analysed using FTIR and SEM-EDS, showing that the kiln was originally used for lime production. Later addition of small inner chambers suggests that the feature was reused, although it cannot be concluded on the basis of the physical remains whether lime production continued. While significant
lime use is known as early as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, early (dateable) lime production remains are rare. The lime kiln from Tel Hebron is therefore an important addition to the limited existing repertoire.
Iron Age kiln found at Tel Hebron. Remains of quicklime and slagging material found at the bottom of the kiln were analysed using FTIR and SEM-EDS, showing that the kiln was originally used for lime production. Later addition of small inner chambers suggests that the feature was reused, although it cannot be concluded on the basis of the physical remains whether lime production continued. While significant
lime use is known as early as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, early (dateable) lime production remains are rare. The lime kiln from Tel Hebron is therefore an important addition to the limited existing repertoire.
A metallurgically-oriented excavation in Area A at Tell es-Safi/Gath yielded evidence for iron and bronze production dating to the early Iron Age IIA. Two pit-like features, which differed considerably from one another in colour, texture... more
A metallurgically-oriented excavation in Area A at Tell es-Safi/Gath yielded evidence for iron and bronze production dating to the early Iron Age IIA. Two pit-like features, which differed considerably from one another in colour, texture and content, were excavated. Evidence shows that each feature represents a different in situ activity related to iron production, inferred by the presence of hammerscales, slag prills and slag. An upturned crucible was found on top of one of the features. Analysis of the crucible slag showed that it was used for bronze metallurgy. Tuyères, both round and square in cross-section, were found in and around the two features. The presence of the two industries together presents a unique opportunity to explore the relationship between copper and iron working. This is especially important against the background of the scarcity of evidence for iron production in the Levant during the early phases of the Iron Age.► An in situ Iron Age IIA smithy was identified at Tell es-Safi/Gath. ► Two features were identified; a pit used for iron smelting and a forging hearth. ► The in situ slag was identified as a bloomery slag. ► We suggest a possible explanation for the scarcity of evidence for iron working.
Research Interests:
In the framework of the European Research Council–funded project, " Reconstructing Ancient (Biblical) Isra-el: The Exact and Life Sciences Perspective, " we carried out multiple analyses on iron and bronze objects from provenanced... more
In the framework of the European Research Council–funded project, " Reconstructing Ancient (Biblical) Isra-el: The Exact and Life Sciences Perspective, " we carried out multiple analyses on iron and bronze objects from provenanced contexts in Israel, as well as on previously unidentified metallurgical remains from the production of both metals. In addition, we counted anew iron and bronze objects from well-stratified contexts and studied metalworking sequences at major sites, which included those that had undergone the bronze/iron transition. This enabled us to clarify some of the issues related to the bronze/iron transition in the southern Levant. Using this evidence, we showed that iron was not used for utilitarian purposes before the Iron I (late 12th century BCE) and that iron only became dominant concurrently with the beginning of its systematic production during the Iron IIA (10th–9th centuries BCE). A strong correlation between iron and bronze production suggests that during the Iron I local independent bronzesmiths adopted the new iron technology. Under local administrations that developed during the Iron IIA, workshops that previously produced bronze turned to iron production, although they continued to manufacture bronze items as a secondary venture. Significantly, at some of the major urban centers iron production was an independent industry that included the entire operational sequence, including the on-site smelting of the ore. This development appears to have been a major contributor to the transition to systematic production of iron.
A total of thirty-eight beads, including one pendant securely dated to the Early Bronze Age III, were recently unearthed at Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel. The beadswere subjected to analysis by FTIR spectrometry in order to identify the... more
A total of thirty-eight beads, including one pendant securely dated to the Early Bronze Age III, were recently
unearthed at Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel. The beadswere subjected to analysis by FTIR spectrometry in order to identify
the mineralogy and materials used for their making. Among the various materials identified, such as carnelian,
steatite and shells, twenty-five were made of faience. The microstructure and chemical composition of
two faience beads were analyzed by electron microscopy and are the focus of this short report. Results show
that cementation glazing was most likely used for one, whereas efflorescence glazing was most probably used
in the production of the other. These preliminary results shed light on the variability that existed inmanufacturing
procedures and choice of raw materials for the production of early vitreous materials during this period.
unearthed at Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel. The beadswere subjected to analysis by FTIR spectrometry in order to identify
the mineralogy and materials used for their making. Among the various materials identified, such as carnelian,
steatite and shells, twenty-five were made of faience. The microstructure and chemical composition of
two faience beads were analyzed by electron microscopy and are the focus of this short report. Results show
that cementation glazing was most likely used for one, whereas efflorescence glazing was most probably used
in the production of the other. These preliminary results shed light on the variability that existed inmanufacturing
procedures and choice of raw materials for the production of early vitreous materials during this period.
Pebble stone installations are commonly found at various Early Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant. However, their function is often assumed or unknown. Thirteen circular pebble installations were found scattered throughout a... more
Pebble stone installations are commonly found at various Early Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant. However, their function is often assumed or unknown. Thirteen circular pebble installations were found scattered throughout a residential neighbourhood dating to the Early Bronze Age III at Tell es-Safi/Gath. Five such installations were recently studied by implementing an integrated micro-archaeological approach by which all micro-and macro-artefacts were analysed using various analytical techniques. Based on the analysis of ash-micro remains identified in the sediments, associated plant remains, flint and pottery, we suggest that these installations were used for food-processing, cooking and/or other domestic low-heat tasks. The installations first appear at Tell es-Safi/Gath during the Early Bronze Age III, and seem to disappear during later periods. The functional roles of these installations are discussed in comparison to finds from other Early Bronze Age sites, and of other food preparation traditions known from other periods and cultures.
Research Interests:
Pebble stone installations are commonly found at various Early Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant. However, their function is often assumed or unknown. Thirteen circular pebble installations were found scattered throughout a... more
Pebble stone installations are commonly found at various Early Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant. However, their function is often assumed or unknown. Thirteen circular pebble installations were found scattered throughout a residential neighbourhood dating to the Early Bronze Age III at Tell es-Safi/Gath. Five such installations were recently studied by implementing an integrated micro-archaeological approach by which all micro-and macro-artefacts were analysed using various analytical techniques. Based on the analysis of ash-micro remains identified in the sediments, associated plant remains, flint and pottery, we suggest that these installations were used for food-processing, cooking and/or other domestic low-heat tasks. The installations first appear at Tell es-Safi/Gath during the Early Bronze Age III, and seem to disappear during later periods. The functional roles of these installations are discussed in comparison to finds from other Early Bronze Age sites, and of other food preparation traditions known from other periods and cultures.
Research Interests: Ancient History, Archaeology, Anthropology, Social Sciences, Zooarchaeology, and 17 moreArchaeobotany, Archaeological Science, Levantine Archaeology, Phytolith Analysis, Flint (Archaeology), Biblical Archaeology, Ancient Near East, Bronze Age (Archaeology), Early Bronze Age (Archaeology), Ancient Near East (Archaeology), Bronze and Iron Ages in Eastern Mediterranean (Archaeology), Cooking and Food Preparation (archaeology), Early Bronze Age, Microarchaeology, History and Archaeology of Canaan, Chipped Stone Artefacts, and Archaeological Botanical Analysis
A total of thirty-eight beads, including one pendant securely dated to the Early Bronze Age III, were recently unearthed at Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel. The beads were subjected to analysis by FTIR spectrometry in order to identify the... more
A total of thirty-eight beads, including one pendant securely dated to the Early Bronze Age III, were recently unearthed at Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel. The beads were subjected to analysis by FTIR spectrometry in order to identify the mineralogy and materials used for their making. Among the various materials identified, such as carnelian, steatite and shells, twenty-five were made of faience. The microstructure and chemical composition of two faience beads were analyzed by electron microscopy and are the focus of this short report. Results show
that cementation glazing was most likely used for one, whereas efflorescence glazing was most probably used in the production of the other. These preliminary results shed light on the variability that existed in manufacturing procedures and choice of raw materials for the production of early vitreous materials during this period.
that cementation glazing was most likely used for one, whereas efflorescence glazing was most probably used in the production of the other. These preliminary results shed light on the variability that existed in manufacturing procedures and choice of raw materials for the production of early vitreous materials during this period.
Research Interests: Archaeological Science, Levantine Archaeology, Biblical Archaeology, Ancient Technology (Archaeology), Early Bronze Age (Archaeology), and 6 moreBronze and Iron Ages in Eastern Mediterranean (Archaeology), Faience, Vitreous Materials, Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant, Archaeology of the Levant, and Ancient Faience and Viteous paste
With the emergence of urban culture in the southern Levant in the Early Bronze Age, new types of pottery and ceramic techniques appeared, among them pottery (usually combed) coated with a white material. A selection of sherds from Early... more
With the emergence of urban culture in the southern Levant in the Early Bronze Age, new types of pottery and ceramic techniques appeared, among them pottery (usually combed) coated with a white material. A selection of sherds from Early Bronze strata was studied in an attempt to analyze this
material. Using microscopy and various other methods, the authors were able to determine that the white material was a lime-plaster applied to the vessels after firing. The paper contends that the most likely reason for applying the lime-plaster was functional—to decrease permeability and
protect the contents of the vessels.
material. Using microscopy and various other methods, the authors were able to determine that the white material was a lime-plaster applied to the vessels after firing. The paper contends that the most likely reason for applying the lime-plaster was functional—to decrease permeability and
protect the contents of the vessels.
Research Interests: Archaeology, Egyptology, Materials Science, Anthropology, Social Sciences, and 15 morePottery (Archaeology), Egyptian Archaeology, Israel/Palestine, Bronze Age Europe (Archaeology), Ceramic Analysis (Archaeology), Biblical Archaeology, Ceramics (Archaeology), Bronze Age (Archaeology), Old Kingdom (Egyptology), Early Bronze Age (Archaeology), Ancient Trade & Commerce (Archaeology), Cooking and Food Preparation (archaeology), Lime mortars and plasters, History and Archaeology of Canaan, and Archaeology of the Levant
The article presents results of a petrographic investigation of pottery from Iron IIA settlements in the Negev Highlands in southern Israel. It focuses on a group of almost exclusively handmade wares that are tempered with crushed slag.... more
The article presents results of a petrographic investigation of pottery from Iron IIA settlements in the Negev Highlands in southern Israel. It focuses on a group of almost exclusively handmade wares that are tempered with crushed slag. The polarizing and electron microscopes explicitly identify these inclusions as copper smelting slag. Based on the slag as well as certain rock inclusions, the slag-tempered wares can be sourced to the copper districts in the Wadi Arabah, and hence for the first time provide a link between the Negev Highlands and the Arabah copper production centers in the period under review. More specifically, they demonstrate direct involvement of at least part of the pastoral-nomadic Negev Highlands population in the copper extraction system.
Research Interests:
A common assumption in Near Eastern tell archaeology is that the majority of sediments originate from degraded mud bricks. Little is known about the mechanism of mud brick wall degradation. Here we present a detailed macro- and... more
A common assumption in Near Eastern tell archaeology is that the majority of sediments originate from degraded mud bricks. Little is known about the mechanism of mud brick wall degradation. Here we present a detailed macro- and microscopic ethnoarchaeological study of the degradation of a mud brick house and propose a comprehensive mechanism for tell formation processes in arid environments. The study took place in southern Israel by trenching a ca. 60 year old abandoned mud brick house, followed by extensive sediment sampling. Macroscopic observations showed that mud brick walls degrade by collapse of single bricks and/or collapse of intact wall parts, either inwards or outwards. In addition, infill sediments within the house and outside it, in close proximity to its walls, form alternating sedimentary layers of various colors and textures. The degraded mud brick material lost its distinctive macroscopic structure, which makes it impossible to accurately identify this material by field observations alone. Mineralogical and elemental analyses established the sources of the house infill sediments, namely mud bricks and wind blown sediments. Alternating layers mostly originate from mixing between degraded mud brick material and wind blown sediments. Micromorphological observations revealed microscopic mechanisms of mud brick degradation and include processes of mud slurry gravity flows, sediment coatings and infillings, wind abrasion of walls, small-scale puddling, and bioturbation. This study provides a working scheme for site formation of abandoned mud brick structures in arid environments. It provides a set of criteria by which it is possible to differentiate floors from post-abandonment sedimentary features and thus improves the reliability of activity area research.► Infill sediments in decaying mud brick houses accumulate via water and wind weathering and transport. ► Sedimentary sources of infill sediments can be identified through elemental analyses. ► Mixing of infilling sedimentary sources is a major process in decaying mud brick houses in arid environments. ► Mud brick degradation in an arid environment via sheetwash processes results in formation of pseudo-floors. ► Micromorphology is essential for understanding the mechanisms of mud brick wall degradation, and infill accumulation.
Research Interests: Archaeology, Geochemistry, Ethnoarchaeology, Geoarchaeology, GeoArcheology, and 13 moreArchaeological Science, Archaeological Soil Micromorphology, FTIR spectroscopy, Israel, Near East, House, Degradation, Sediment, Arid Environment, X ray Fluorescence, Mud Brick, Environment, and Fourier transform infrared
By-products of iron production, mainly slag and bloom fragments, unearthed at three Iron Age urban centres in Israel (Hazor, Tel Beer sheba and Rehov), were analysed in order to better understand the organization of iron production during... more
By-products of iron production, mainly slag and bloom fragments, unearthed at three Iron Age urban
centres in Israel (Hazor, Tel Beer sheba and Rehov), were analysed in order to better understand the
organization of iron production during the Iron Age. The production remains studied are all dated not
earlier than the Iron Age IIA, and thus shed light on a period of transition from bronze to iron production.
Chemical composition and microstructural analyses enable us to determine that both the smelting of iron
ores and the refining of the bloom took place within the urban centres of Hazor and Beer-Sheba. We
show that slag cakes are the products of smelting, possibly carried out in pit-furnaces. Hammerscales,
products of primary and secondary smithing, were attached to slags. From these observations we infer
that all stages of iron production were practiced in these urban centres.
centres in Israel (Hazor, Tel Beer sheba and Rehov), were analysed in order to better understand the
organization of iron production during the Iron Age. The production remains studied are all dated not
earlier than the Iron Age IIA, and thus shed light on a period of transition from bronze to iron production.
Chemical composition and microstructural analyses enable us to determine that both the smelting of iron
ores and the refining of the bloom took place within the urban centres of Hazor and Beer-Sheba. We
show that slag cakes are the products of smelting, possibly carried out in pit-furnaces. Hammerscales,
products of primary and secondary smithing, were attached to slags. From these observations we infer
that all stages of iron production were practiced in these urban centres.
Secondary pit deposits in historical occupations of Near Eastern mounds are usually regarded as uninteresting and are seldom analyzed. We used an integrated approach to study all the artifacts as well as the sediments in a pit at Tel Dor,... more
Secondary pit deposits in historical occupations of Near Eastern mounds are usually regarded as uninteresting and are seldom analyzed. We used an integrated approach to study all the artifacts as well as the sediments in a pit at Tel Dor, on Israel's Carmel coast, dating to the 7th c. BCE - a period when the site served as an Assyrian administrative center. This pit was unusually large, had a peculiar ceramic assemblage, and many macroscopic metallurgical wastes. A detailed excavation and analysis revealed that the pit served intermittently as a waste disposal site for an iron smithy and for pottery that was presumably involved in maritime trading. On two occasions the area was also used for animal penning.
Despite the obvious importance of the iron industry to the Neo-Assyrian Empire, actual workshops are rare in its archaeological record. Hence the new information regarding an lron Age iron smithy in the southern Levant contributes to the study of this industry, and also to the history of Dor in this period.
Despite the obvious importance of the iron industry to the Neo-Assyrian Empire, actual workshops are rare in its archaeological record. Hence the new information regarding an lron Age iron smithy in the southern Levant contributes to the study of this industry, and also to the history of Dor in this period.
Research Interests:
Secondary pit deposits in historical occupations of Near Eastern mounds are usually regarded as uninteresting and are seldom analyzed. We used an integrated approach to study all the artifacts as well as the sediments in a pit at Tel Dor,... more
Secondary pit deposits in historical occupations of Near Eastern mounds are usually regarded as uninteresting and are seldom analyzed. We used an integrated approach to study all the artifacts as well as the sediments in a pit at Tel Dor, on Israel's Carmel coast, dating to the 7th c. BCE – a period when the site served as an Assyrian administrative center. This pit was unusually large, had a peculiar ceramic assemblage, and many macroscopic metallurgical wastes. A detailed excavation and analysis revealed that the pit served intermittently as a waste disposal site for an iron smithy and for pottery that was presumably involved in maritime trading. On two occasions the area was also used for animal penning. Despite the obvious importance of the iron industry to the Neo-Assyrian Empire, actual workshops are rare in its archaeological record. Hence the new information regarding an Iron Age iron smithy in the southern Levant contributes to the study of this industry, and also to the history of Dor in this period.
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Many of the sediments analysed from Tel Dor (Israel) show structural alterations indicating that they were exposed to high temperatures. This observation is consistent with the abundant evidence for use of pyrotechnology from the earliest... more
Many of the sediments analysed from Tel Dor (Israel) show structural alterations indicating that they were exposed to high temperatures. This observation is consistent with the abundant evidence for use of pyrotechnology from the earliest exposed Middle Bronze Age strata through the Roman period. Such structurally altered sediments may well represent one of the more widespread and durable records of pyrotechnology, and as such could be invaluable for reconstructing past human activities. The specific aims of this research are therefore to develop the means for identifying local sediments that were altered by different pyrotechnological activities and to elucidate the varying circumstances whereby sediments were exposed to high temperatures in a Late Bronze and Iron Age 1 section. We first characterize natural sediments sampled on and in the proximity of the tell and monitor their transformations due to exposure to high temperatures in an oven and in open fires, focusing in particular on the transformations of the clay mineral components of mud-brick materials. The analytical techniques used include micromorphology, Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR), X-ray powder diffractometry (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry. Using the temperature ''calibrated'' data, we confirm that large volumes of sediments at Tel Dor were exposed to high temperatures. In Area G, we identify three fundamentally different ways that heat-affected sediments were produced and accumulated: (1) In the Late Bronze Age (Phases 11e12) the sediments were heated to temperatures between 800 and 900 C and were then deposited in the area under investigation. A plausible scenario is that these sediments were exposed to heat from ovens or kilns; (2) During the early Iron Age (Phase 10) the heat-affected sediments (heated above 1000 C) formed in close association with casting pits for the working of copper-containing (bronze) objects. (3) During Phase 9 of the Iron Age, heat-affected sediments were produced in situ at this location due to a major conflagration. The temperatures reached around 1000 C. This study shows that analysis of high temperature exposed sediments may be an invaluable means of reconstructing fire-associated activities, even when the actual installations have not been identified during the excavation or were not preserved.
Slag analyses from archaeological iron smelting sites are common. Rigorous analyses of iron and slag from successful experimental smelting, however, are still rare. Furthermore, thorough analyses from a series of smelts, and of the slag... more
Slag analyses from archaeological iron smelting sites are common. Rigorous analyses of iron and slag from successful experimental smelting, however, are still rare. Furthermore, thorough analyses from a series of smelts, and of the slag produced in different phases of the smelt, are exceedingly rare. The present study investigates the effect of an iron smelter’s decision-making and skills on the products of the smelting process: iron and slag. Four smelting experiments were carried out in a shaft furnace with slag tapping using iron ores from the Southern Levant. Using various analytical techniques, including portable X-ray fluorescence, optical and electron microscopy, metallography, and hardness tests enabled us to correlate the properties of the final products with adjustment of various parameters during the smelting process. The latter include airflow and charging rate, temperature, residence time in the reducing zone, ore-charcoal ratio, and control of the slag characteristics. Results obtained allowed us to empirically demonstrate the direct impact of decisions made by the smelter during the complex technological practice of bloomery smelting. Analysis also highlights the benefits of moderately reducing conditions controlled by the smelter to produce good-quality, low-carbon iron, which is particularly relevant within the geological setting of the Southern Levant.
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There is fragmentary knowledge of iron ore sources exploited in the past for many regions including the Southern Levant. This missing information has the potential to shed light on political, economic, craft-production, and trading... more
There is fragmentary knowledge of iron ore sources exploited in the past for many regions including the Southern Levant. This missing information has the potential to shed light on political, economic, craft-production, and trading patterns of past societies. This paper presents the results of smelting experiments performed in graphite crucibles and a muffle furnace, using 14 iron ore samples from the Southern Levant, in an attempt to determine their suitability for smelting using ancient techniques. A range of analytical techniques, including optical and electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, and portable X-ray fluorescence were used to comparatively investigate the mineralogy and composition of the precursor iron ores and their smelting products: Iron bloom and slag. Several parameters attesting to the ability of a given ore to be successfully reduced and consolidated into a solid metal mass were quantified. The generated results highlight the significance of a 'correct balance' between iron oxides and other major elements in the smelting system in order to form fluid slag and a well-consolidated bloom. These data contribute to the understanding of factors, potentially influencing choices of iron ore exploitation by past human societies in the Southern Levant.
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Recent excavations at Naḥal ‘Amram, a Nabataean copper mining center in the Arabah valley, Israel, unearthed for the first time four iron tips of mining picks. The present study undertakes a complex investigation of the picks, including... more
Recent excavations at Naḥal ‘Amram, a Nabataean copper mining center in the Arabah valley, Israel, unearthed for the first time four iron tips of mining picks. The present study undertakes a complex investigation of the picks, including metallographic, indentation hardness, slag inclusions (SIs), metal matrix, and osmium isotopic composition (Os-IC) analyses. The results indicate that the picks were manufactured via similar blacksmithing techniques, using two types of hard alloys: quench-hardened steel and phosphoric iron. A correlation was found between the composition of SIs, metal, and osmium isotopic signature, suggesting that three different ore sources were exploited to produce these picks. The quenched steel likely originated from a single ore source, whereas the two P-rich iron probably provenance from two different, yet geographically close or geologically similar ore deposits. The undertaken study highlights the importance of an integrative provenancing approach, which relies on the analyses of siderophile/chalcophile elements of the metal, lithophile trace elements of slag inclusions, and osmium isotopic analyses. This approach allows the complete characterization of the ore provenance signature of an artefact. However, the final provenance assignment to a specific ore deposit is currently limited, as it depends on our knowledge and familiarity with potential ore sources and on the archaeological evidence of their exploitation.
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Research Interests:
Slag analyses from archaeological iron smelting sites are common. Rigorous analyses of iron and slag from successful experimental smelting, however, are still rare. Furthermore, thorough analyses from a series of smelts, and of the slag... more
Slag analyses from archaeological iron smelting sites are common. Rigorous analyses of iron and slag from successful experimental smelting, however, are still rare. Furthermore, thorough analyses from a series of smelts, and of the slag produced in different phases of the smelt, are exceedingly rare. The present study investigates the effect of an iron smelter’s decision-making and skills on the products of the smelting process: iron and slag. Four smelting experiments were carried out in a shaft furnace with slag tapping using iron ores from the Southern Levant. Using various analytical techniques, including portable X-ray fluorescence, optical and electron microscopy, metallography, and hardness tests enabled us to correlate the properties of the final products with adjustment of various parameters during the smelting process. The latter include airflow and charging rate, temperature, residence time in the reducing zone, ore-charcoal ratio, and control of the slag characteristics....
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There is fragmentary knowledge of iron ore sources exploited in the past for many regions including the Southern Levant. This missing information has the potential to shed light on political, economic, craft-production, and trading... more
There is fragmentary knowledge of iron ore sources exploited in the past for many regions including the Southern Levant. This missing information has the potential to shed light on political, economic, craft-production, and trading patterns of past societies. This paper presents the results of smelting experiments performed in graphite crucibles and a muffle furnace, using 14 iron ore samples from the Southern Levant, in an attempt to determine their suitability for smelting using ancient techniques. A range of analytical techniques, including optical and electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, and portable X-ray fluorescence were used to comparatively investigate the mineralogy and composition of the precursor iron ores and their smelting products: Iron bloom and slag. Several parameters attesting to the ability of a given ore to be successfully reduced and consolidated into a solid metal mass were quantified. The generated results hi...
Research Interests:
An iron and bronze workshop in the lower city of Tell es-Safi/Gath, dated to the mid-late Iron IIA, contributes new data on the chronology, organization, and practice of metal production in the urban Philistine setting. Analyses show that... more
An iron and bronze workshop in the lower city of Tell es-Safi/Gath, dated to the mid-late Iron IIA, contributes new data on the chronology, organization, and practice of metal production in the urban Philistine setting. Analyses show that iron objects were likely produced and maintained on a large scale, alongside bronze, employing regionally unique forms of crucibles and tuyères. The material culture of metalworking is discussed in relation to contemporaneous iron production sites in the region, building a more robust picture of the adoption of iron metallurgy in the Levant versus the status of bronze and iron.
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Abstract Conclusive evidence has surfaced for the production of iron objects in urban workshops in the Southern Levant during the early Iron Age. While nearly a dozen sites with metallurgical debris and technical ceramics dating to the... more
Abstract Conclusive evidence has surfaced for the production of iron objects in urban workshops in the Southern Levant during the early Iron Age. While nearly a dozen sites with metallurgical debris and technical ceramics dating to the 10th–8th c. BCE have contributed to the visibility of the craft, in situ high-temperature installations remain enigmatic in the archaeological record. Our ability to reconstruct the chaine operatoire of iron production processes within each working context is restricted by the lack of this critical data. In this study we employ methods of experimental archaeology in order to investigate and interpret an assemblage of vitrified technical ceramics found in an early Iron Age metal workshop at the site of Tell es-Safi/Gath situated on the border between the southern coastal plain and the Judean foothills of Israel. As part of a broader research framework, iron smelting experiments were carried out in a simple, clay-built bowl furnace. Materials analogous to the archaeological ceramics were employed to address high temperature alterations occurring in a single installation. Using structural mineralogical and chemical analyses (FTIR, pXRF and SEM-EDS) we characterize the experimental and archaeological technical ceramics to identify the processes that affect and transform these materials during iron production activities. Results were then utilized to interpret production processes and the implementation of technical ceramics in ironworking at Tell es-Safi/Gath. Based on our observations, we address the specialized preparation of technical ceramics in early ironworking, possible reasons for the alteration and preservation of metallurgical installations following their abandonment and attempt to improve the interpretation and classification of vitrified ceramic waste from ancient metallurgical contexts.
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Research Interests:
Pebble stone installations are commonly found at various Early Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant. However, their function is often assumed or unknown. Thirteen circular pebble installations were found scattered throughout a... more
Pebble stone installations are commonly found at various Early Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant. However, their function is often assumed or unknown. Thirteen circular pebble installations were found scattered throughout a residential neighbourhood dating to the Early Bronze Age III at Tell es-Safi/Gath. Five such installations were recently studied by implementing an integrated micro-archaeological approach by which all micro- and macro-artefacts were analysed using various analytical techniques. Based on the analysis of ash-micro remains identified in the sediments, associated plant remains, flint and pottery, we suggest that these installations were used for food-processing, cooking and/or other domestic low-heat tasks. The installations first appear at Tell es-Safi/Gath during the Early Bronze Age III, and seem to disappear during later periods. The functional roles of these installations are discussed in comparison to finds from other Early Bronze Age sites, and of other food preparation traditions known from other periods and cultures.
Research Interests: Ancient History, Archaeology, Anthropology, Archaeobotany, Archaeological Science, and 15 moreArchaeology of Ancient Israel, FTIR spectroscopy, Bronze Age Archaeology, Biblical Archaeology, Ancient Near East, Ancient Near Eastern History, Bronze Age, Early Bronze Age, Cooking, Early Bronze Age Archaeology, Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant, Archaeology of the Southern Levant, Archaeology of the Levant, Chipped Stone Artefacts, and Archaeological Botanical Analysis
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In the framework of the European Research Council-funded project, “Reconstructing Ancient (Biblical) Israel: The Exact and Life Sciences Perspective,” we carried out multiple analyses on iron and bronze objects from provenanced contexts... more
In the framework of the European Research Council-funded project, “Reconstructing Ancient (Biblical) Israel: The Exact and Life Sciences Perspective,” we carried out multiple analyses on iron and bronze objects from provenanced contexts in Israel, as well as on previously unidentified metallurgical remains from the production of both metals. In addition, we counted anew iron and bronze objects from well-stratified contexts and studied metalworking sequences at major sites, which included those that had undergone the bronze/iron transition. This enabled us to clarify some of the issues related to the bronze/iron transition in the southern Levant. Using this evidence, we showed that iron was not used for utilitarian purposes before the Iron I (late 12th century BCE) and that iron only became dominant concurrently with the beginning of its systematic production during the Iron IIA (10th–9th centuries BCE). A strong correlation between iron and bronze production suggests that during the...
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Research Interests:
Research Interests:
In the deepest section of a large complex cave in the northern Negev desert, Israel, a bi-conical lead object was found logged onto a wooden shaft. Associated material remains and radiocarbon dating of the shaft place the object within... more
In the deepest section of a large complex cave in the northern Negev desert, Israel, a bi-conical lead object was found logged onto a wooden shaft. Associated material remains and radiocarbon dating of the shaft place the object within the Late Chalcolithic period, at the late 5th millennium BCE. Based on chemical and lead isotope analysis, we show that this unique object was made of almost pure metallic lead, likely smelted from lead ores origi-nating in the Taurus range in Anatolia. Either the finished object, or the raw material, was brought to the southern Levant, adding another major component to the already-rich Late Chalcolithic metallurgical corpus known to-date. The paper also discusses possible uses of the object, suggesting that it may have been used as a spindle whorl, at least towards its deposition.
Analysis of a sacrificed and interred domestic donkey from an Early Bronze Age (EB) IIIB (c. 2800-2600 BCE) domestic residential neighborhood at Tell eṣ-Ṣâfi/Gath, Israel, indicate the presence of bit wear on the Lower Premolar 2 (LPM2).... more
Analysis of a sacrificed and interred domestic donkey from an Early Bronze Age (EB) IIIB (c. 2800-2600 BCE) domestic residential neighborhood at Tell eṣ-Ṣâfi/Gath, Israel, indicate the presence of bit wear on the Lower Premolar 2 (LPM2). This is the earliest evidence for the use of a bit among early domestic equids, and in particular donkeys, in the Near East. The mesial enamel surfaces on both the right and left LPM2 of the particular donkey in question are slightly worn in a fashion that suggests that a dental bit (metal, bone, wood, etc.) was used to control the animal. Given the secure chronological context of the burial (beneath the floor of an EB IIIB house), it is suggested that this animal provides the earliest evidence for the use of a bit on an early domestic equid from the Near East.
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There are various strands of evidence to demonstrate that the occupants of Area E participated in an interregional exchange system. Several hippopotamus ivory objects, including an ivory cylinder seal, are likely of exotic origin. Some... more
There are various strands of evidence to demonstrate that the occupants of Area E participated in an interregional exchange system. Several hippopotamus ivory objects, including an ivory cylinder seal, are likely of exotic origin. Some were shaped and drilled (fig. 1). They are found in almost all of the buildings in Area E, suggesting that they were not limited to elite individuals only. It is not yet clear whether they were made from hippopotamus ivory from the Nile or from local southern Levantine rivers, since hippopotami existed in the coastal plain of Israel until the early Iron Age (Horwitz and Tchernov 1990). To date, sixty-six basalt artifacts have been recovered at Tell es -S âfi/Gath (fig. 2; see Beller, this issue). The absence of suitable basalt sources within the Shephelah suggests that residents of Tell es -S âfi/Gath acquired these basalt commodities from distant sources through exchange. A provenance analysis was performed in order to determine the regions with which residents of Tell es -S âfi/Gath conducted exchange. This analysis involved the generation and comparison of the geochemical profiles of nineteen basalt artifacts, all of which were grinding stones, with those of previously published basalt sources from the southern Levant, Sinai, and Egypt. The results of the provenance analysis demonstrated that fifteen of the nineteen basalt artifacts were chemically consistent, specifically in terms of their total alkali-silica content, with a source or, at minimum, a specific region within the southern Levant. In this manner, four were most consistent with sources around the Sea of Galilee region, one with the Golan, two with the Galilee, three with the Jezreel Valley, and five with the eastern Dead Sea in modern Jordan. Basalt artifacts were transported over distances of 60 km from the eastern Dead Sea region and 100 km from within the Jezreel Valley and around the Sea of Galilee region. It should be noted that no artifacts were linked to more distant sources, such as those in Sinai and Egypt (Beller, Greenfield, Fayek et al. 2016; Beller, Greenfield, Shai et al. 2016). Unfortunately, no basalt ground stone quarry or workshop dating to the EB has been discovered (Milevski 2009: 121). This absence has prohibited insight into the nature of raw material procurement and stymied estimations of the scale of the basalt industry. However, urban centers proximate to basalt sources (e.g., Bet Yerah, Megiddo, Batrawy, Interregional Trade and Exchange at Early Bronze Age Tell es. -S. âfi / Gath
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An iron and bronze workshop in the lower city of Tell es-Safi/Gath, dated to the mid-late Iron IIA, contributes new data on the chronology, organization, and practice of metal production in the urban Philistine setting. Analyses show that... more
An iron and bronze workshop in the lower city of Tell es-Safi/Gath, dated to the mid-late Iron IIA, contributes new data on the chronology, organization, and practice of metal production in the urban Philistine setting. Analyses show that iron objects were likely produced and maintained on a large scale, alongside bronze, employing regionally unique forms of crucibles and tuyères. The material culture of metalworking is discussed in relation to contemporaneous iron production sites in the region, building a more robust picture of the adoption of iron metallurgy in the Levant versus the status of bronze and iron.