Lloyd Scott

Education of the built environment is moving towards more collaborative practices. The intent behind the collaborative approach of teaching is to encourage students to explore the unknowns and unravel the problems themselves, with the professor acting as the facilitator. This paper presents a collaborative pedagogical approach that was adopted to teach students from two geographically distant universities. The occasion used was preparation of student teams for Associated Schools of Construction (ASC) student competitions. The participants began by engaging online in a virtual environment and later moved to face-to-face collaboration solving an interdisciplinary design build problem as part of the student competition. The authors adopted an action research method to enhance the capabilities of the students to understand and generate constructive behavioral changes. The intention was to empower the students to explore new horizons by ‘clarifying and negotiating’ ideas and concerns. Th...

Increasing demands are placed on professional educators to deliver a high quality educational experience from a limited or reduced resource pool. The challenge of offering a quality learning experience to a wider and growing population is one that is not likely to wane in the future. To some extent, developments in communication technology and new tools for learning are helping to support and frame the higher educational experience offered. However, as the modes of delivery and the student demographic evolve, educators are challenged to create a learning environment that better supports the learner and their preferred methods of learning. Gadgets, apps and internet resources, in themselves, cannot be relied on to improve or add value to the learning experience. Attention needs to be given to what success in the course might look like and how it could be measured, taking into consideration, and working with, the resources available, delivery method (s) and the ability to respond to v...

Thermal transmittance (U-values) of exterior walls represents a source of uncertainty when estimating the energy performance of dwellings. It has been noted in research that the standard calculation methodology for thermal transmittance should be improved. Subsequently, hygrothermal analysis has been used as an accurate building design tool due to its incorporation of climate-specific effects on construction assemblies such as moisture retention and release. In situ measurement of thermal transmittance could also be an effective tool for evaluating the material performance of assemblies of a building. This paper provides the context, research process and analysis of four case studies situated in Dublin, Ireland. The case studies offer an account of the in situ thermal transmittance of exterior walls and link these to hygrothermally simulated comparisons along with more traditional design U-values. The findings of this paper identify discrepancies between in situ and design U-values, using measurement, hygrothermal simulation and standard method U-value calculations. This study can form the basis for further research on retrofit of the Irish housing stock. Furthermore, the paper offers a source of information for researchers and designers exploring the performance of external walls to anticipate best practice detailing and in situ thermal performance values.

Purpose The residential sector in Ireland accounted for 25 per cent of energy related CO2 emissions in 2016 through burning fossil fuels, a major contributor to climate change. In support of Ireland’s CO2 reduction targets, the existing housing stock could contribute greatly to the reduction of space-heating energy demand through retrofit. Approximately 50 per cent of Ireland’s 2m dwellings pre-date building regulations and are predominantly of cavity and solid wall construction, the performance of which has not been extensively investigated at present. Although commitment to thermal upgrade/retrofit of existing buildings may increase under future government policies, the poor characterisation of actual thermal performance of external walls may hinder the realisation of these targets. Thermal transmittance (U-values) of exterior walls represents a source of uncertainty when estimating the energy performance of dwellings. It has been noted in research that the standard calculation me...

The ever evolving nature of a construction project requires a management process which not only facilitates changes and updates but actively seeks to reduce or remove them from the outset. Traditional construction processes are too segmented in their approach to collaboration between the main parties to a project namely the client, designer and builder. Instead of a traditional approach, the adoption of an Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) process provides a suitable platform for the open exchange of information between the parties and an overall streamlining of the entire project. A key advantage of an IPD process is the early concentration and assessment of the design and program for a particular project. This aspect relies heavily on the effective use of Building Information Modeling (BIM) which can be further utilized to provide construction quantities, detailed drawings and schedules. The research outlined in this paper highlights two separate construction projects in which an ...

The approach to, and the type of, assessment(s) that a Higher Education (HE) programme employs can be key factors in the effectiveness of assessment as a tool of learning.  Peer assessment (PA) has the potential to develop the evaluative competence of students in HE.  In the Republic of Ireland (RoI) there are three Institutes that each deliver a professionally validated honours degree programme in Medical /Biomedical Science.  The aim of this paper is to report on the experiences and views of the academic staff involved in these three programmes with respect to assessment.  Presented here is one aspect of a larger study into assessment practices in the education of Irish Medical Scientists with the overall aim being the development of a framework for the structured inclusion of PA.  An insight into the current practices, experiences and views of staff is an essential step in the development of an effective framework.  All academic staff (n=80) involved in the three programmes were ...

The Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) sector is a rich environment, involving the use of expertise at various levels with much intensity and in unique situations. In the attainment of sustainable construction, construction sustainability performance is indispensable. The participants implementing sustainable construction practices are key to a sustainable construction sector. This study seeks to understand the level of sustainability expertise in the Irish AEC sector which is part of an ongoing research at the Dublin Institute of Technology, within the School of Surveying and Construction Management. The early explorative phase of this research involves getting a depth of understanding as to the level of sustainability expertise in the Irish AEC sector. The study adopts a bibliometric review as its method to explore how the sector has begun to change its practice around addressing sustainability expertise and performance. The outcome of this review confirms that a num...

While the closed panel method has contributed significantly to the evolution of timber framing, many of the connection methods used in assembly are of a traditional background. The connection detail researched and presented in this paper is primarily concerned in the joining of wall panels to each other and the ability to provide a robust detail which will improve the construction time of a structure. The developed detail is also aimed at improving the airtight capabilities of modular buildings in the area of retrofit. This will have the potential to offer a direct influence on thermal performance by way of reducing heat loss through any gaps or spaces in the connection points of the wall panels. Timber frame construction has remained as one of the most environmentally friendly and sustainable methods of construction. The evolution of the closed panel system of timber framing has developed the practice into a form of modular construction whereby pre-fabrication of wall and roof pane...

Most research universities require some combination of standardized classroom teaching and independent research as part of a post-graduate level plan of study. Increasingly construction management, construction technology, architecture, and related programmes that award degrees related to the built environment (BE) are awarding post-graduate degrees. Frequently these degrees, unlike traditional engineering degrees which test theory from a quantitative or positivist position, relate to issues that are more difficult to measure using strictly quantifiable metrics. Because the managerial issues faced by these graduates deal with human interaction and behaviour, research in the BE often resembles social science research to a greater degree than traditional scientific research. As post-graduate programmes in the BE expand, there is an increasing need for student support in the research fundamentals that are required to complete valid research on construction and design issues. Small prog...

Formative assessment has begun to be recognized as a driving force for enhancing student learning. This paper addresses the context of Built Environment (BE) undergraduate programmes and the findings from a research project in the context of the changing Higher Education (HE) environment. The analysis of the literature on formative assessment shows that there is a common concern among the educational researchers about the function and position of assessment in HE today. The overall aim of this research is to contribute to an improvement in the quality of student learning in BE undergraduate education through the development of a theoretical framework for formative assessment. The application of a mixed methods approach and more particularly a constructivist stance to the research was adopted. A fourphase sequential approach has its key characteristic assessed and the advances in conducting and evaluating this design are presented. The results and analysis of all four phases of the r...

Design and construction educational programmes offered throughout the world play a vital role in sustainability education by producing professionals knowledgeable and competent in sustainable practices. It is extremely important to align the sustainability knowledge of the graduates to the industry expectations. This paper compares industry expectations about essential sustainability knowledge with both academics and students perceptions of requisite knowledge about sustainability. A three stage mixed research approach was adopted for the study. Essential sustainability knowledge expected from recent graduates was identified through literature review and surveys of architectural design and construction firms. Students enrolled in architecture and construction programmes were surveyed to measure their perceptions about requisite knowledge about sustainability. The position and perception of academics was analysed from survey data. Subsequently, the three sets of data were analysed us...

Assessment in Higher Education (HE) is widely accepted as fundamental to the learning process.  The assessment strategy employed in a programme plays a major role in how, what and when students engage and as such influences the depth of learning that occurs.  A well-structured holistic approach to assessment within a programme can be of a major benefit to both students and academics.  The use of Peer Assessment (PA) and other more formative tools assists in the development of self-directed independent learners.  A critical evaluation of the effectiveness of programme assessment strategies and methodologies involves the analysis of the current practice and the perceptions of all involved.  As a starting point in the development of a framework for the cohesive inclusion of PA in the B.Sc(Hons) Medical Science degree programme in GMIT this paper presents an exploratory review of the current assessment methodology in use.  Methodologically, following a documentary analysis approach, the...

In Higher Education (HE) assessment practices and processes have been the subject of wide ranging transformation over the last 15 years. Debate about the current state of assessment often refers to unease as to its suitability for the 21 st century and the need for it to be fit for purpose. Reference has been made to practices in disarray, where assessment has become a site of conflict for many involved in undergraduate education. It is argued that an in-built lack of clarity in the methods of assessment used to convey judgement on performance is an underlying factor. Assessment in the discipline of the Built Environment (BE) is required to fulfil a multiplicity of purposes and play many different and often conflicting roles. The provision and embedding of opportunities for assessment to aid learners through more formative ways has been highlighted as failing students currently. In the context of BE undergraduate programmes this paper discusses the need for such a research project i...

This research is a detailed study on the performance of external walls aimed at providing a guidance tool which will enable designers to determine the appropriate thermal upgrade system for a housing retrofit, particularly in Ireland; taking into account wall type, climatic conditions and orientation. This paper explains the steps taken to establish a research design and methodological approach suited to the topic at hand. The choice of research methodology is a difficult step for the researcher to decide upon in the research process. When it comes down to an architectural technologist, the process becomes even more difficult. Throughout a college process of taught procedures for accurate building design, solutions do not delve into the world of methodological approaches. Research methodology is simply not a common concept or approach throughout the Architectural/Engineering and Construction (AEC) sector. This paper assesses the existing limited research in the AEC sector, while hig...

Thermal transmittance (U-values) of exterior walls represent a source of uncertainty when estimating the energy performance of dwellings. It has been noted in research that the standard calculation methodology for thermal transmittance should be improved. Subsequently, hygrothermal analysis has been used as an accurate building design tool due to its incorporation of climate specific effects on construction assemblies such as moisture retention and release. Insitu measurement of thermal transmittance could also be an effective tool for evaluating the material performance of assemblies of a building. This paper provides the context, research process and analysis of 3 case studies situated in Dublin, Ireland. The case studies offer an account of the in-situ thermal transmittance of exterior walls and link these to hygrothermally simulated comparisons along with more traditional design U-values. The findings of this paper identify discrepancies between in-situ and design U-values, usin...

Cross-border co-operation can foster learning and contribute positively to business performance and social cohesion. This paper considers construction firms' economic motivation for co-operation around the Ireland Northern Ireland border. This area, while impacted by the Brexit uncertainty, shares many of the economic and developmental characteristics of border areas throughout Europe. The purpose of the study is to investigate the impact of Brexit on cross border trade by the construction sector in Ireland and investigate the current tensions and barriers to that sector. A qualitative methodology adopted a literature review and semi-structured interview strategy. Data was collected from purposively selected contractors in the North and South of Ireland, who have recent experience of cross border construction. Qualitative analysis identifies themes and issues arising which enabled examination of commonalities and differences between the respondents. Differing regulatory regimes,...

The delivery Design Build projects across the built environment in Ireland has begun to take significant shape. There are many examples of the traditional are moving towards more collaborative practices. There exists support for the integration of a design build project approach in the retrofit realm where designer, client and developer can work collaboratively. As with the regular design build process the intent behind this collaborative approach is to encourage those associated with the built environment to consider how retrofit design and construction can contribute positively to addressing elements of climate change and the design build process. The opportunity to share the rich nature of the design build process in a unique environmentally and heritage focused project excited the authors. Secondly concerns about the way such projects are captured historically, and specifically the disciplinary knowledge and skills employed in the restoration of such a significant landmark build...

To understand is hard, once one understands, action is easy’ (Sun Yat Sen, 1866-1952) Research in Built Environment has begun to emerge as a distinct field. Within that context the investigation and exploration of assessment practices has received very little attention, particularly evident in the area of formative assessment. This type of assessment and the use of effective feedback mechanisms has been an area of interest for this researcher. The aim is to improve the quality of student learning in Built Environment undergraduate programmes through the development of a theoretical model of formative assessment. The paper discusses the philosophical paradigm which forms the basis for the main research and reflects on the early discourse around the qualitative/quantitative considerations of the researcher. It addresses the philosophical issues surmounted in the choice of research design. The application of a grounded theory approach and more particularly a constructivist stance to th...

Education of the built environment is moving towards more collaborative practices. The intent behind the collaborative approach of teaching is to encourage students to explore the unknowns and unravel the problems themselves with the professor acting as the facilitator. This chapter presents the case for collaborative pedagogical approaches that was adopted to teach students from two geographically distant universities. The occasion used was preparation of student teams for Associated Schools of Construction (ASC) student competitions. The underlying philosophy behind this initiative is to provide the context for the future leaders in the AEC to learn by doing in a safer and potentially rewarding environment.

The education of the construction professional, like many others, has been shaped and nurtured by well-intentioned educationalists throughout the ages. While there has been much discourse around the theoretical underpinnings of construction education, not much has been set in writing. A philosophical position has not always been to the forefront of those pioneering and well-intentioned construction educationalists. There has been, rather, a ‘systems thinking’ approach, a sense of wanting to prepare an educational experience that would equip the future leaders in construction to ensure they would develop the knowledge, skills and competences to take their place in an ever-changing architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry. Now, at least around Europe, there is an ever-increasing attempt to identify the paradigms within which construction education sits comfortably, thus attempting to pave the way for the future. This could be called a philosophical positioning. There follows an exploration of the evolution of the education of the construction professional through a review of the literature and other sources in an attempt to make some sense of this journey. The paper also presents the discourse from the educational research perspective where the connection between the role of theory and philosophy has been a matter of discussion for many years. Biesta in his work calls for the intelligent use of theory and philosophy and advocates pragmatic positioning in regard to discourse. This pragmatic framework offers the freedom to gain control over what construction education constitutes as it offers a way of thinking that allows the educationalist freedom to challenge. What is presented and debated is the discussion that has been documented with a view to offering some perspective on its importance. Some philosophical perspective is also offered around the developments with the added suggestion that AEC is firmly seated in the ‘pragmatic’ paradigm. Much progress has been achieved to date but it is now time to offer a possible further step forward. While a pragmatic philosophical position is suggested it is not to imply that this is the only tool that might be used. The freedom to work within the pragmatic paradigm offers diversity that can draw together some of the thoughts that challenge and build the arguments about the role and position of theory in construction education.

It is widely accepted across Higher Education (HE) that assessment has a strong link with learning and a key factor in this link is formative assessment. Formative assessment is generally defined as an activity taking place during a programme or unit of learning with the express purpose of improving and enhancing student learning. However, there is still considerable disagreement over the roles of lecturers and students in this process. It is therefore very important to understand how lecturers in built environment (BE) undergraduate education perceive their own roles and the role of their students in using assessment strategy to deliver deep learning. An investigation into lecturers' perceptions of their roles and their conceptions related to the assessment process of students in BE programmes is reported. An on-line survey was conducted with over 130 Irish BE academics involved with the delivery of undergraduate programmes in the areas of Architecture, Architectural Technology...

Higher education has begun to focus more on students" learning experiences, leading to changes and developments in assessment methods. In addition, research literature informs us that assessment is most effective when closely aligned to learning outcomes. In the institutional move towards this student-centered environment and a more "constructively aligned" educational process, the Faculty of Built Environment has facilitated and resourced a number of initiatives in learning, teaching and assessment. This paper examines the rationale for the use of portfolio assessment as an authentic mode of assessment for construction management students in DIT. It focuses on the impact this mode of assessment has had through the qualitative analysis of student evaluation and student interview responses along with lecturer reflection. It suggests that the efforts and developmental work involved in moving to a more "constructively aligned" system should be considered as str...

Timber frame construction in Ireland is beginning to gain significant ground on traditional block built construction. This is in part due to developments in timber frame practices. The application of an air tight barrier is now a common component in the construction of a typical dwelling. With much emphasis placed on energy efficiency and increased insulation value within the home, air tightness is a key factor in the continued development of these areas. In March 2008, Part L of the National Technical Guidance Documents was updated to include the requirement of a mandatory air infiltration test on all new dwellings in Ireland. In December 2011 the pass level was lowered to further reduce CO2 emissions. This paper presents a research study into the Irish timber frame construction industry which addresses the need to accommodate greater air tightness capabilities in a typical dwelling. This research focuses on the jointing technique between closed panel timber frame members and the ability to produce an air tight joint without compromising its structural strength. Ensuring that the main fabric of the building is correctly sealed not only prevents air escaping but also assists in the wind tightness of the dwelling along with significantly improving thermal comfort. The preliminary findings identify the upgrading of basic jointing techniques as essential in the continuous development of air tightness in timber frame construction. It is envisaged that the findings will have a positive impact on timber frame construction in Ireland and beyond.

Page 1. 47th ASC Annual International Conference Proceedings Copyright 2011 by the Associated Schools of Construction Towards a More Scholarly Approach to Assessment Practice in Construction Management Programs Lloyd M. Scott MA Christopher J. Fortune PhD ...

Abstract Research in built environment education has begun to emerge as a distinct field. Within that context the investigation and exploration of assessment practices has received very little attention, particularly in the area of formative assessment. This type of assessment and the use of effective feedback mechanisms have been areas of concern for built environment educators for some time. The aim of this research is to improve the quality of student learning in built environment undergraduate programmes through the development of a theoretical framework of formative assessment based on the analysis of the issues and factors highlighted by the research literature and those involved in the research. The philosophical paradigm which forms the basis for the research is discussed and the philosophical issues surmounted in the choice of research design are addressed. The application of a mixed methods approach and more particularly a constructivist stance to the research is explored and rationalised. The results of the first and second phases of the study present the views of senior academics on assessment. Institutional and programme documentation on assessment are analysed and presented. This work offers a scholarly model for the assessment of built environment undergraduates where student learning is enhanced.

Assessment practices in Higher Education (HE) have been undergoing wide-ranging changes over the last number of years and this has been particularly evident in a number disciplines. These changes are in response to a variety of stimuli including a move towards greater accountability, new developments in the use of learning technology and concerns about what graduates need to know, to understand and to be able to do following graduation. The discipline of the Built Environment has been receiving attention in this regard and the validity and effectiveness of traditional modes of assessment have begun to receive consideration. Formative assessment and the use of feedback mechanisms have begun to be recognised as a driving force for enhancing student learning. The above situation is examined in the context of Built Environment undergraduate programmes and discusses the need for a research project in the context of the changing HE educational environment. The aim of such a research proje...

Design Build projects in the built environment are moving towards more collaborative practices. The intent behind this collaborative approach is to encourage those associated with the built environment to consider how retrofit design and construction can contribute positively to addressing elements of climate change and the design build process. The opportunity to share the rich nature of the design build process in a unique environmentally and heritage focused project excited the authors. Secondly concerns about the way such projects are captured historically, and specifically the disciplinary knowledge and skills employed in the restoration of such a significant landmark building could be lost if not afforded some place in the research annals. This paper presents a Restoration Design-Build (RDB) process employed in the realignment of a state building adopting this novel initiative. The authors adopted a descriptive case study method to enhance the capabilities of understanding and...

Large amount of environmental resources are utilized towards the construction, renovation, operation and maintenance of buildings. Though buildings enhance the standard of living, it accounts for a large portion of nonrenewable energy depletion, greenhouse gas emissions, raw materials use, waste generation, and freshwater consumption. Sustainable design and construction practices can substantially reduce or eliminate negative environmental impacts through high-performance design, construction, and operations practices. With most of the top design and construction firms in the globe implementing sustainable design and construction practices, there is a huge responsibility on Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) professionals to be knowledgeable in sustainable design and construction practices. Although many higher education institutions have begun to provide sustainability related courses, there is a lack of consensus on what constitute the body of knowledge on sustainabi...

Architecture, engineering, and construction graduates in the future will need to be technically advanced, highly adaptable, collaborative, good communicators, and lifelong learners. The goal of creating educational experiences that address these competences provides the modern academic with many challenges. We hear commentators proffer that the current model of pedagogy, which is at the heart of the modern higher education experience, is becoming obsolete. In the industrial model of student mass education, the teacher was the broadcaster, ‘the font of knowledge.’ With the ever-changing academic landscape it is crucial for construction education faculty to adapt to address this environment. Offering learners active challenging collaborative environments to learn, that allow for the integration of technology as part of that educational experience, is what is required. While the notion of collaborative learning has been around for a long time, predating the Internet, it lives alongside other processes that are based in the realm of student-centered learning experiences, that constructivist view of learning as it were. Those who use collaborative learning approaches tend to think of themselves less as expert transmitters of knowledge to students, and more as expert designers of intellectual experiences for students—as coaches of an emergent learning process. The holistic, interdisciplinary approach to the design, construction, production, and operation of buildings is also likely to require changes in the way educators engage. The future construction professional will require an education and/or training that will develop their capacity to make the many connections in thinking and actions that are necessary to solve complex problems. While the many advances in technology are recognized, a challenge for faculty aside is to become more reflective but also instill in their students a ‘reflective practitioner approach.’ To do this there is a need to have the competence and tools to engage in a meaningful and deeper way about our educational practices. Making prognoses about the future direction of the education of construction professionals, not least for the reason of the constraints of life’s journey, is fraught with difficulty. Since neither the construction industry nor higher education exists in a vacuum there is a necessity to come to terms with and understand the present and future contexts before going on to reflect on the possibilities. A challenge for the construction education community is to build on the already well-established pioneering work of our colleagues going forth to research, evaluate, reflect, and share educational best practices both within the community and beyond. We need to encourage and reward faculty who engage in more effective and appropriate methodologies, but more importantly we need to support them in their efforts to share their experiences with the construction education community. In this special issue, readers will not only benefit from the papers most relevant to their areas but, as academics in the field of construction education are prompted to consider how their courses fit into the broader curriculum, relate to the other disciplines, and design appropriate learning activities and goals both within and outside the discipline.

The dissertation has been regarded as an important feature of undergraduate education. This paper reports on findings from a research project that reflected upon the effectiveness of the undergraduate dissertation process of final-year Construction Management undergraduates, enrolled in the academic year 2009-2010 in the Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT) Construction Management Program. The project was undertaken to reflect upon the dissertation process from inception to completion in order to determine the effectiveness following the first year of implementation. The Kolb Learning Styles Model was applied to capture the student experiences and to provide a basis for observation and reflection. The research adopted a qualitative methodology and gathered the perspectives of students and supervisors (faculty) involved in the undergraduate dissertation process. Interviews and questionnaires were used to collect the data, which were assessed against the learning outcomes and the Cons...

Architecture, engineering, and construction graduates in the future will need to be technically advanced, highly adaptable, collaborative, good communicators, and lifelong learners. The goal of creating educational experiences that address these competences provides the modern academic with many challenges. We hear commentators proffer that the current model of pedagogy, which is at the heart of the modern higher education experience, is becoming obsolete. In the industrial model of student mass education, the teacher was the broadcaster, ‘the font of knowledge.’ With the ever-changing academic landscape it is crucial for construction education faculty to adapt to address this environment. Offering learners active challenging collaborative environments to learn, that allow for the integration of technology as part of that educational experience, is what is required. While the notion of collaborative learning has been around for a long time, predating the Internet, it lives alongside other processes that are based in the realm of student-centered learning experiences, that constructivist view of learning as it were. Those who use collaborative learning approaches tend to think of themselves less as expert transmitters of knowledge to students, and more as expert designers of intellectual experiences for students—as coaches of an emergent learning process. The holistic, interdisciplinary approach to the design, construction, production, and operation of buildings is also likely to require changes in the way educators engage. The future construction professional will require an education and/or training that will develop their capacity to make the many connections in thinking and actions that are necessary to solve complex problems. While the many advances in technology are recognized, a challenge for faculty aside is to become more reflective but also instill in their students a ‘reflective practitioner approach.’ To do this there is a need to have the competence and tools to engage in a meaningful and deeper way about our educational practices. Making prognoses about the future direction of the education of construction professionals, not least for the reason of the constraints of life’s journey, is fraught with difficulty. Since neither the construction industry nor higher education exists in a vacuum there is a necessity to come to terms with and understand the present and future contexts before going on to reflect on the possibilities. A challenge for the construction education community is to build on the already well-established pioneering work of our colleagues going forth to research, evaluate, reflect, and share educational best practices both within the community and beyond. We need to encourage and reward faculty who engage in more effective and appropriate methodologies, but more importantly we need to support them in their efforts to share their experiences with the construction education community. In this special issue, readers will not only benefit from the papers most relevant to their areas but, as academics in the field of construction education are prompted to consider how their courses fit into the broader curriculum, relate to the other disciplines, and design appropriate learning activities and goals both within and outside the discipline.