Annamaria Grandis

The activity of the gastrointestinal tract is regulated through the activation of adrenergic receptors (ARs). Since data concerning the distribution of ARs in the horse intestine is virtually absent, we investigated the distribution of β2-AR in the horse ileum using double-immunofluorescence. The β2-AR-immunoreactivity (IR) was observed in most (95%) neurons located in submucosal plexus (SMP) and in few (8%) neurons of the myenteric plexus (MP). Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-IR fibers were observed close to neurons expressing β2-AR-IR. Since β2-AR is virtually expressed in most neurons located in the horse SMP and in a lower percentage of neurons in the MP, it is reasonable to retain that this adrenergic receptor could regulate the activity of both secretomotor neurons and motor neurons innervating muscle layers and blood vessels. The high density of TH-IR fibers near β2-AR-IR enteric neurons indicates that the excitability of these cells could be directly modulated by the sympathetic system.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the central distribution of the efferent neurons of the recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) in the sheep by the use of the retrograde transport of the fluorescent tracer Fast Blue. The distribution of the RLN neurons was also compared with that of the neurons simultaneously labelled by injection of another tracer, Diamidino Yellow dihydrochloride, into the cervical trunk of the vagus nerve (CTV). Injections of the tracer into the CTV resulted in heavy retrograde labelling of neurons in the ipsilateral dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve, in the nucleus ambiguus, in the nucleus retroambigualis and in the reticular formation surrounding the nucleus ambiguus. Following injections of the tracer into the RLN, labelling of neurons was seen over a wide area of the ipsilateral nucleus ambiguus and in the nucleus retroambigualis. Species differences in the distribution of the efferent component of the RLN are discussed, in particular ruminants compared to nonruminants.

The CGRP was localized immunohistochemically in neurons and fibres in lamb ileum wholemount preparations and cryostat sections. The neurochemical coding of CGRP-IR neurons in both the plexuses was also investigated. In wholemounts the immunoreactivity was observed only in well-defined Dogiel type II neurons. In the myenteric plexus and submucosal plexus neurons the CGRP-IR was co-localised only with TK-IR; no CGRP-IR neurons exhibited VIP-, NOS-, and TH-IR. In cryostat sections a dense network of CGRP-IR fibres was mainly observed in the lamina propria beneath the epithelium basal membrane and around the lacteals, in the lateral walls of the follicular sinuses, around the lymphatic follicles (Peyer\u2019s platches), and along enteric vessels. Rare CGRP-IR fibres were present in the muscular layers

Ruggero Bortolami, emeritus professor of Systematic and Comparative Veterinary Anatomy of the University of Bologna, passed away in July 2014 after a long life spent loving from the bottom of his hearth anatomy and neuroscience in most of its aspects. He was born in Padua on June 30, 1926 and in 1949 he graduated with honors in Veterinary Medicine at the University of Bologna. In 1959 he became full professor of Veterinary Anatomy at the University of Sassari and in 1968 and then he moved to the University of Bologna as professor of Systematic and Comparative Veterinary Anatomy, a position he held until his retirement in 1999. During his long and prestigious career Prof. Bortolami studied several topics including proprioception of the eye muscles; the morphological and functional relationships between the trigeminal nerve and the motor nerves of the eye and the synapses of primary afferents neurons, via the ventral roots of the spinal cord. His activity resulted in about 350 papers mainly in international peer-reviewed journals. He was the Editor of the Italian version of the Robert Barone treatise of veterinary anatomy and co-Author of the volume dedicated to the central nervous system. He funded the Italian Association of Veterinarian Morphologists and became member of several national and international scientific societies, e.g., the World Association of Veterinary Anatomists, of which he was Vice President from 1971 to 1973. We owe him a lot for launching and co-founding our beloved Italian Group for the Study of Neuromorphology (GISN) that he continued to support in any circumstances, with his high reputation and strong intellectual energy. The GISN will always remember Prof. Bortolami forever for his outstanding scientific achievements and devoted passion for science to innovation and progression of comparative anatomy and neuroscience. We are proud to be in his scientific legacy

The topography and the main characteristics of the vestibular nuclear complex (VNC) in cattle have been studied in serially transversally cut Nissl and Gles-stained sections. By using computerized image analysis software, the cell size, the maximum and minimum diameter of the neurons of each vestibular nucleus were obtained. These parameters were statistically analyzed by comparing the cell population from different nuclei and different parts of each nucleus. Furthermore, in order to investigate the lumbo-sacral projections, the fluorescent tracer Fast Blue was injected into the L6-S1 spinal cord of three calves. Among the vestibular nuclei, the superior was the least extensive rostro-caudally, the medial was the most extensive and contained the smallest cells, the lateral showed the largest neurons, and the descending nucleus contained cells of intermediate size which decreased in a rostrocaudal direction. Concerning the lumbo-sacral projections of the bovine VNC, the present study showed that only the fibers coming from the lateral vestibular nucleus reached the L6-S1 spinal cord. The labelled neurons were most heavily concentrated in the dorsal portion of this nucleus, but scattered neurons were also observed throughout the entire extension of the nucleus. The differences between the descriptions of cattle and other species were described.

Colic is a common digestive disorder in horses and one of the most urgent problems in equine medicine. A growing body of literature has indicated that the activation of cannabinoid receptors could exert beneficial effects on gastrointestinal inflammation and visceral hypersensitivity. The localisation of cannabinoid and cannabinoid-related receptors in the intestine of the horse has not yet been investigated. The purpose of this study was to immunohistochemically localise the cellular distribution of canonical and putative cannabinoid receptors in the ileum of healthy horses. Distal ileum specimens were collected from six horses at the slaughterhouse. The tissues were fixed and processed to obtain cryosections which were used to investigate the immunoreactivity of canonical cannabinoid receptors 1 (CB1R) and 2 (CB2R), and three putative cannabinoid-related receptors: nuclear peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPARα), transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 and serotonin 5-HT1a receptor (5-HT1aR). Cannabinoid and cannabinoid-related receptors showed a wide distribution in the ileum of the horse. The epithelial cells showed immunoreactivity for CB1R, CB2R and 5-HT1aR. Lamina propria inflammatory cells showed immunoreactivity for CB2R and 5-HT1aR. The enteric neurons showed immunoreactivity for CB1R, transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 and PPARα. The enteric glial cells showed immunoreactivity for CB1R and PPARα. The smooth muscle cells of the tunica muscularis and the blood vessels showed immunoreactivity for PPARα. The present study represents a histological basis which could support additional studies regarding the distribution of cannabinoid receptors during gastrointestinal inflammatory diseases as well as studies assessing the effects of non-psychotic cannabis-derived molecules in horses for the management of intestinal diseases.

BackgroundThe morphometric studies of the atrioventricular valves are still limited in the horse.ObjectivesTo investigate the anatomy of the atrioventricular valves in the horse, focusing on the morphometric features of the valvular leaflets and the tendinous cords. We hypothesised that accessory leaflets occur commonly and exist as independent structures in the atrioventricular valves of the horse.Study designDescriptive anatomical study.MethodsTwenty normal hearts from slaughtered half‐bred horses were used. The cardiac weight and circumference were recorded. The atrioventricular valves were exposed by excision of the atria, and the tricuspid and mitral annular diameters and circumferences were measured; the number of leaflets and tendinous cords for each atrioventricular ostium were then counted. The atrioventricular valves were isolated and the width, height and thickness of each leaflet were measured.ResultsIn addition to the principal leaflets, accessory leaflets were identifi...

Guinea pigs have proved useful as experimental animal models in studying cerebellar anatomical and structural alterations in human neurological disease; however, they are also currently acquiring increasing veterinary interest as companion animals. The morphometric features of the normal cerebellum in guinea pigs have not been previously investigated using stereology. The objective of the present work was to establish normal volumetric and quantitative stereological parameters for cerebellar tissues in guinea pigs, by means of unbiased design‐based stereology. Cerebellar total volume, gray and white matter volume fractions, molecular and granular layers volume fractions, cerebellar surface area, Purkinje cellular and nuclear volumes, and the Purkinje cell total count were stereologically estimated. For this purpose, cerebellar hemispheres from six adult male guinea pigs were employed. Isotropic, uniform random sections were obtained by applying the orientator method, and subsequentl...

Ruggero Bortolami, emeritus professor of Systematic and Comparative Veterinary Anatomy of the University of Bologna, passed away in July 2014 after a long life spent loving from the bottom of his hearth anatomy and neuroscience in most of its aspects. He was born in Padua on June 30, 1926 and in 1949 he graduated with honors in Veterinary Medicine at the University of Bologna. In 1959 he became full professor of Veterinary Anatomy at the University of Sassari and in 1968 and then he moved to the University of Bologna as professor of Systematic and Comparative Veterinary Anatomy, a position he held until his retirement in 1999. During his long and prestigious career Prof. Bortolami studied several topics including proprioception of the eye muscles; the morphological and functional relationships between the trigeminal nerve and the motor nerves of the eye and the synapses of primary afferents neurons, via the ventral roots of the spinal cord. His activity resulted in about 350 papers mainly in international peer-reviewed journals. He was the Editor of the Italian version of the Robert Barone treatise of veterinary anatomy and co-Author of the volume dedicated to the central nervous system. He funded the Italian Association of Veterinarian Morphologists and became member of several national and international scientific societies, e.g., the World Association of Veterinary Anatomists, of which he was Vice President from 1971 to 1973. We owe him a lot for launching and co-founding our beloved Italian Group for the Study of Neuromorphology (GISN) that he continued to support in any circumstances, with his high reputation and strong intellectual energy. The GISN will always remember Prof. Bortolami forever for his outstanding scientific achievements and devoted passion for science to innovation and progression of comparative anatomy and neuroscience. We are proud to be in his scientific legacy

In this paper, a description of the coracobrachialis caudalis, the scapulotriceps and the extensor carpi radialis muscles is presented in three different species (Common kestrel, Common buzzard and Grey heron) that exhibit notably differing flight styles. The primary goal of this research is to describe the gross anatomy of species not previously examined. Secondly, we attempt to advance a functional interpretation of the structures studied, to understand if such noticeable differences in flight style could have induced a differentiation in the above mentioned wing muscles. Regarding the coracobrachialis caudalis muscle, the Grey heron exhibited an unusual conformation with two “reversed” heads and a great amount of fibrous bundles. Moreover, the “anchors” of the scapulotriceps muscle were well developed in the Grey heron and vestigial in the Common kestrel, while an intermediate situation was observed in the Common buzzard. In addition, the extensor carpi radialis muscle showed int...

Background: Thoracic paravertebral block (TPVB) entails injecting a local anesthetic inside the thoracic paravertebral space (TPVS). Loss of resistance to air injection (air-LOR) was the first technique described in humans to locate the TPVS. To date, no study has investigated the spread of any substance after injection into the TPVS using the air-LOR technique nor has described the cranial and caudal limits of the space. Aim: To identify the boundaries of the TPVS, to determine whether the air-LOR technique is reliable for the identification of the TPVS and to examine the relationship between the volume of injectate and its spread. Methods: After a preliminary phase, the thorax of five cat and five dog cadavers was accessed and eviscerated. After TPVS probing, the polyurethane foam was injected, and the cranial and caudal borders were recorded after its maximum spread. Different volumes of a mixture of new methylene blue and ioversol were injected in the TPVS after its localization...

The hippocampal region receives a dense serotoninergic innervation originating from both medial and dorsal raphe nuclei. This innervation regulates hippocampal activity through the activation of distinct receptor families that are expressed in excitatory and inhibitory neurons, terminals of several afferent neurotransmitter systems, and glial cells. Preclinical and clinical studies indicate that hippocampal dysfunctions are involved in learning and memory deficits, dementia, Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy and mood disorders such as anxiety, depression and post-traumatic syndrome disorder, whereas the hippocampus participates also in the therapeutic mechanisms of numerous medicines. Not surprisingly, several drugs acting via 5-HT mechanisms are efficacious to some extent in some diseases and the link between 5-HT and the hippocampus although clear remains difficult to untangle. For this reason, we review reported data concerning the distribution and the functional roles of the 5-HT receptors in the hippocampal region in health and disease. The impact of the 5-HT systems on the hippocampal function is such that the research of new 5-HT mechanisms and drugs is still very active. It concerns notably drugs acting at the 5-HT1A,2A,2C,4,6 receptor subtypes, in addition to the already existing drugs including the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.

La presente ricerca ha avuto lo scopo di verificare, mediante l\u2019utilizzo di metodiche di immunoistochimica, la distribuzione e localizzazione cellulare dell\u2019immunoreattivit\ue0 per le metallotioneine 1, 2 e 3 (MT1/MT2/MT3) e per la glioproteina fibrillare acida (GFAP) negli encefali di orate di controllo ed esposte per tempi diversi (T0, T15, T30, T50, T90) ad elevate concentrazioni di rame. In seguito a sacrificio, dalle orate \ue8 stato prelevato l\u2019encefalo, il quale \ue8 stato fissato in paraformaldeide al 4% per 24 ore. Dopo opportuni lavaggi in tampone sodio-fosfato (PBS) gli encefali sono stati crioprotetti in PBS e saccarosio al 30%. In seguito gli encefali sono stati congelati in 2-metil-butano raffreddato in azoto liquido e, quindi, sezionati al criostato in sezioni coronali dello spessore di 20 \ub5m. Sono state quindi analizzate le diverse porzioni dell\u2019encefalo utilizzando la tecnica dell\u2019immunofluorescenza. Nelle orate di controllo ed in quelle trattate, le metallotioneine (MT) erano espresse sia dalle cellule gliali che dai neuroni. In particolare, tra le cellule gliali delle diverse parti dell\u2019encefalo, quelle che maggiormente esprimevano le MT sono risultate essere gli astrociti. In queste cellule gliali, le MT erano localizzate soprattutto in corrispondenza dei prolungamenti cellulari. I neuroni immunoreattivi per le MT potevano essere evidenziati prevalentemente nel telencefalo e mostravano positivit\ue0 localizzata nel pirenoforo. Nei soggetti trattati le differenze pi\uf9 significative relative all\u2019immunoreattivit\ue0 per le MT sono state riscontrate nel mesencefalo, nel diencefalo e nel telencefalo. Nel tetto ottico mesencefalico dei soggetti di controllo, i prolungamenti degli astrociti immunoreattivi alle MT erano prevalentemente localizzati negli strati marginale, ottico, fibroso-grigio superficiale e fibroso periventricolare. Negli strati marginale, ottico e fibroso-grigio superficiale, tali prolungamenti assumevano un aspetto radiato ed una disposizione perpendicolare rispetto alla superficie mesencefalica. Al contrario, in corrispondenza dello strato fibroso periventricolare, i processi degli astrociti si intersecavano tra loro secondo diversi piani, costituendo in tal modo una rete a fitte maglie. Nei soggetti a T15, si osservava un incremento dell\u2019immunoreattivit\ue0 per le MT nelle cellule gliali localizzate nel mesencefalo e nel diencefalo. Analogamente, i neuroni presenti nel diencefalo e nel telencefalo mostravano una maggiore espressione delle MT rispetto ai soggetti di controllo e a T0 (Fig. 1). Nei soggetti a T30 e T50 si assisteva ad una riduzione dell\u2019immunoreattivit\ue0 per le MT nei diversi strati del tetto ottico. Al contrario, nelle orate a T90, si osservava un ripristino dell\u2019immunoreattivit\ue0 per le MT, che tornava a livelli simili a quelli espressi dai soggetti di controllo e a T0. Contrariamente a quanto osservato per la glia, il livello di espressione delle MT nei neuroni telencefalici dei soggetti a T30 e T50 e T90 non subiva sostanziali variazioni rispetto alle orate di controllo e a T0. Sia nei soggetti trattati che in quelli di controllo, l\u2019immunoreattivit\ue0 per la GFAP era simile e particolarmente evidente in corrispondenza degli strati marginale, ottico, fibroso-grigio superficiale e fibroso periventricolare del tetto ottico mesencefalico, analogamente a quanto osservato da K\ue1lm\ue1n (1998) nella carpa. Nel telencefalo, l\u2019immunoreattivit\ue0 per la GFAP si presentava minore che nel tetto ottico e sottoforma di esili prolungamenti con disposizione irregolare. I risultati ottenuti dimostrano che, dopo 15 giorni, si assiste ad un incremento dell\u2019espressione delle MT nell\u2019encefalo, in particolare nelle cellule gliali del tetto ottico mesencefalico e del diencefalo, e nei neuroni diencefalici e telencefalici. A 30 e 50 giorni di trattamento si osserva una sottoespressione delle MT nella glia, nonostante la densit\ue0 totale di astrociti rimanga pressoch\ue9 inalterata, come dimostrato dalla immunoreattivit\ue0..

Tail docking in sheep husbandry is often performed due to tradition rather than necessity. This practice causes mild to moderate acute pain and the magnitude of the pain associated with tail removal seems to be related to length of tail removed. Ultra-short docking increases the risk of rectal and vaginal prolapse at lambing relative to sheep with longer tails and predisposes to neuroma and nerve degeneration. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the histological features of the muscles and the related nerves of the pelvic diaphragm in adult sheep subjected in the past to caudectomy as well as in intact lambs. After euthanasia, small samples of external anal sphincter, levator ani, coccygeal muscles and branches of deep perineal nerve were obtained, processed according to the usual histological techniques and stained with hematoxylin-eosin and Masson's trichrome. The results showed changes in shape and size of the muscle fibers of the adult sheep. In fact, enlarged or \u201cmoth-eaten\u201d fibers were observed amidst normal sized fibers in each of the three muscles of the pelvic diaphragm; furthermore, some internal nuclei were observed. On the contrary, the lambs\u2019 muscles appeared normal. Conversely, the nerve fibers were found to be normal both in sheep and lambs. The muscle abnormalities observed in tail-docked sheep suggest that caudectomy, in the long term, may predispose to prolapses. Improved understanding of the long-term consequences of tail docking, especially the possibility of chronic pain, is needed

Gastrointestinal diseases in rabbits represent a common disorder seen in veterinary practice. However, the normal histology of the rabbit gastrointestinal tract has not been well defined and there is little comparable data in literature. The aim of this study was to establish the specific different normal layers of thickness in the gastrointestinal tract and to provide accurate reference values useful in clinical and experimental studies. Whole sections of stomach (pars cardiac, fundus, pylorus), duodenum, jejunum, ileum, sacculus rotundus, caecum, apex ceci, ansa spiralis coli, colon descendens were obtained from five White New Zealand rabbits (8-14 months) with a mean weight of 5.24\ub11.04 Kg. These were processed and stained. For each section examined, we recorded 10 sample thickness measurements, measuring 4 tunics individually (serosa, muscularis, submucosa and mucosa) to obtain average representative morphometric values. The thickness of the intestinal wall was highest in the pylorus and sacculus rotundus, which was related to the maximum thickness of the muscularis and submucosa tunic, respectively. The mucosa is thicker in the small intestine and, proceeding from the duodenum to the ileum, there has been a progressive reduction of the total and mucosa thickness and an increase in muscular layer. Lastly, the serosa is thicker in the apex ceci. No notable correlation emerged with the sex of the subjects. This study gives values for the thickness of the layers in a rabbit's gastrointestinal tract, which should represent baseline information which could prove useful in the diagnosis of gastrointestinal pathology, specially in ultrasound and pathological anatomy

Endoscopic methods to prevent gastroesophageal reflux (GER) show scarce effectiveness and may narrow the esophageal lumen more or less stiffly, sometimes impairing bolus transit and leading to dysphagia. The aim of this study was to demonstrate the possibility of reinforcing lower esophageal sphincter (LES) tone by implanting endoluminally a magnetic device. The device consists of two small magnetic plaques to be implanted in the submucosa close to LES with opposite polarities facing so that they attract one other, closing the esophageal lumen. The magnets were implanted by means of a special endoluminal device in five esophageal-gastric ex vivo specimens taken from swine. Variation in endoluminal pressure at the LES level was measured by means of slow pull-through of a thin side-hole manometric catheter in each specimen, before and after insertion of the magnets. The new high-pressure zone exhibited a length of about 2 cm and a pressure of 14.2+/-1.27 mmHg [mean +/- standard deviation (SD)], significantly (p<0.001) higher than that measured before insertion of the magnetic valve (1.5+/-0.26 mmHg). The present research demonstrates that it is possible to create at the LES level a dynamic closure of a value considered sufficient to prevent GER, by implanting in the esophageal submucosa of anatomical specimens a magnetic device by means of a special endoluminal probe. Once effectiveness and tolerability of magnets covered by a biocompatible sheath have been demonstrated in vivo, this device could become a simple and effective nonsurgical solution to GER.

Vibrissae are tactile hairs found mainly on the rostrum of most mammals. The follicle, which is surrounded by a large venous sinus, is called "follicle‐sinus complex" (FSC). This complex is highly innervated by somatosensitive fibers and reached by visceromotor fibers that innervate the surrounding vessels. The surrounding striated muscles receive somatomotor fibers from the facial nerve. The bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), a frequently described member of the delphinid family, possesses this organ only in the postnatal period. However, information on the function of the vibrissal complex in this latter species is scarce. Recently, psychophysical experiments on the river‐living Guiana dolphin (Sotalia guianensis) revealed that the FSC could work as an electroreceptor in murky waters. In the present study, we analyzed the morphology and innervation of the FSC of newborn (n = 8) and adult (n = 3) bottlenose dolphins. We used Masson's trichrome stain and antibodies against neurofilament 200 kDa (NF 200), protein gene product (PGP 9.5), substance P (SP), calcitonin gene‐related peptide, and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) to characterize the FSC of the two age classes. Masson's trichrome staining revealed a structure almost identical to that of terrestrial mammals except for the fact that the FSC was occupied only by a venous sinus and that the vibrissal shaft lied within the follicle. Immunostaining for PGP 9.5 and NF 200 showed somatosensory fibers finishing high along the follicle with Merkel nerve endings and free nerve endings. We also found SP‐positive fibers mostly in the surrounding blood vessels and TH both in the vessels and in the mesenchymal sheath. The FSC of the bottlenose dolphin, therefore, possesses a rich somatomotor innervation and a set of peptidergic visceromotor fibers. This anatomical disposition suggests a mechanoreceptor function in the newborns, possibly finalized to search for the opening of the mother's nipples. In the adult, however, this structure could change into a proprioceptive function in which the vibrissal shaft could provide information on the degree of rotation of the head. In the absence of psychophysical experiments in this species, the hypothesis of electroreception cannot be rejected.