Tomasz Stolarczyk

Wśród licznych zamków leżących w południowej - wyżynnej strefie Śląska znajduje się grupa obiektów, których powstanie i funkcjonowanie od szeregu lat wiązano w nauce z potrzebą pełnienia w ramach władztwa terytorialnego nadzoru czy ochrony nad wydobyciem oraz przetwórstwem rud metali, takich jak złoto, srebro lub miedź. Zagadnienie to od dawna sygnalizowano w pracach poświęconych osadnictwu, górnictwu jak również budownictwu obronnemu w okresie późnego średniowiecza w Sudetach i na ich przedpolu, w istocie jednak jest ono słabo rozpoznane, pozostając na marginesie zarówno studiów nad zamkami jak i nad samą działalnością górniczą.
Niniejszy tekst zrodził się z chęci postawienia postawienia problemu lokalizacji i funkcji zamków w nieco innym świetle. W odniesieniu do których założeń warownych rzeczywiście mamy podstawy przypuszczać, iż ich podstawową funkcją była ochrona działalności górniczej? Na ile w poszczególnych przypadkach wymieniona funkcja przeplatała się z innymi zadaniami, jak konieczność stworzenia centrum administrowania świeżo kolonizowanym terytorium, czy ekspansja terytorialna względem sąsiada na terenach górskich, nie objętych dotychczas osadnictwem?

This paper presents research results in the field of casting technology of copper and copper alloys using the investment
casting technology, both from historical as well as modern technology perspective. The analysis of exemplary
elements of the old casting moulds is included, as well as the Bronze Age casts. The chemical content of various
copper alloys was determined and the application of lost wax method was confirmed in the Bronze Age workshop.
At present, investment casting method is used for manufacturing high-quality casts, especially products for power
engineering that is why it demands respecting very rigorous technological requirements. The casts were characterised
based on microstructure research, chemical composition and conductivity in relation to oxygen content.
Keywords: copper alloys, investment casting technology, ceramic forms, casting defects, archaeometallurgy

Many traces of copper metallurgy, such as slag and other copper melts, can be found in the area of Lower Silesia. The tested material mainly consists of copper slag with different content of copper melts, being a semi product. The copper metallurgy remains, discovered during the research, undergo specialistic analyses, which will help better characterise the findings as well as contribute to documenting metallurgical processes in the historical bloomeries in Lower Silesia, and moreover to prepare further research in this field. The material coming from the area of Miedzianka, being the oldest and the longest working exploitation centre of copper ores and pollymetalic ores, is of special significance for the research. Mining activity in the area of Miedzianka took place as early as the beginning of the 14th century, the first record from 1311 (Cuprifodina in montubus) is the oldest information concerning copper mining in Poland.
Keywords: copper metallurgy, archaeometallurgy, mining, smelting

The casting workshop in Grzybiany, in Lower Silesia (SW Poland) is a valuable source of knowledge on the development of casting techniques in the 7 – 6 centuries BC. Abundant evidence found on the archaeological site points to cast manufacturing by means of precision casting in ceramic moulds (lost-wax molding). The workshop is the biggest collection of moulds for bracelet, necklace and other smaller decorative artefacts in Poland.
The aim of the work is to conduct the research of the moulds and casts with the view of performing a computer reconstruction of the casting moulds from the Bronze and Early Iron Age, based on the Grzybiany finds. As part of the work, both the microscopic structure and defectoscopic analyses of the casting moulds were performed. Chemical composition of the casts was tested using the X-ray fluorescence
spectroscopy method. Based on these results and using computer modelling methods, a geometric visualisation was performed, which is the bases for preparing the visualisation of the process of pouring liquid metal into the moulds, reconstructing both the technology and the alloys used.

The casting workshop in Grzybiany is one of the most important archaeological sites in regards to
casting technology from the Bronze and Early Iron Ages. During the “Grzybiany. Osada nadjeziorna
z epoki brązu i żelaza” [Grzybiany. Lakeside settlement from the Bronze and Early Iron Ages]
research, the structure of casting moulds was analyzed as well as the chemical composition and
microstructure of one of the more-interesting metal artefacts found within the workshop. Based
on this, geometric visualization was performed with the help of computer-modeling methods.
For scientific, experimental, and educational purposes, reconstruction of a zoomorphic pendant
was performed using the lost-wax method. Wax models injected into a matrix were used, along
with fired ceramic (gypsum) moulds and a specially prepared modeling alloy that corresponds
to the original material. In this way, a true replica of the original was obtained: technologically,
structurally and chemically.
Studies of production technology of the casting workshop dated back to the Bronze and
Early Iron Age help to increase the knowledge of the mould-preparing technology and the alloys
used. Modern tools and computer programs aid in the research of old technologies and help disseminate
the results.

Location and settlement background of the site Grzybiany 3

Village of Grzybiany (German Greibnig) in Kunice community,
district of Legnica, is situated in terms of geographic location in
the Środa Upland mesoregion, belonging to the Silesian Lowlands.
A clear concentration of glacial lakes is still present in western part
of the upland. Contemporary lakes called Kunice Lake, Koskowice
Lake, Jaśkowice Lake and Tatarak (Pątnówek) Lake are only small
part of their original number.
In Grzybiany area, a latitudinal-oriented hilly upland occurs with
altitude ca. 130 m. a.s.l. South from the hills, a wide, basin-like part of
old broad valley is located. Contemporary, it is cut by a small stream
Chłodnik, which is a right tributary of Wierzbiak stream. In this valley,
the Koskowice Lake is located. South from the valley, there are
hilly uplands with altitude ca. 130-135 m.a.s.l. Similar hills close the
valley from the East. At the western part, the valley is open with a
narrow ravine reaching Wierzbiak stream (Fig. 1).
In the late Bronze Age, on natural dryland holms built of lake
chalk, divided by wetlands, a fi rst settlement was built. Th e area
raised ca. 1 m. above lake water level.
Th e settlement border was observed in trenches opened in 1971-
1980. It is marked with breakwater line (Fig. 5-6) and runs along
a clear terrace edge. In this area, lower parts of wooden constructions
were well observed in situ, for example remains of upright and
oblique posts (breakwater). Behind them, at plots 14R-Z, a 4-5 m
wide construction made of 2-3 layers of beams and considered to
remains of “road” was unearthed. Th is interpretation cannot be however
accepted, owing to diff erent known traditions in road building.
At Grzybiany, the massive beams run along the construction line,
while in the early Iron Age the Middle Ages, roads were usually built
of short beams arranged crosswise towards construction line and
supported by joists. Most likely, the construction is a bottom part of
a small rampart (Fig. 6).
Th e excavations produced abundant data on the eastern border
of the settlement. Th is part was unearthed in 1959-1962 (trench no.
16). In south-eastern part of the promontory, trenches were open in
1973 and 2011 but the fi nds of the Urnfi eld period were sparse.
Both data from a numeric terrain model, and measurements
done prior to the excavations, showed a levelled embankment (0,5-
0,7 m high and 30-35 m wide), closing the promontory. If the embankment
is the rampart, it has not been proved yet and that requires
further studies. Very sparse information from the fi eld documentation
and the publications assumed presence of such rampart. Perhaps
future research will shed some light on this issue.
Description of settlement context is based on surface survey, in
case of research run before 1945, the chronology is based only on
archival data.
Kaczawa river basin and Legnica Lakeland have provided good
conditions for settlement development. In the literature, this area
is called Kaczawa settlement concentration or Chojnów-Strzegom
settlement microregion.
Urnfi eld settlement in Legnica area started from 3rd period of
the Bronze Age, but the most intense remains come from late Bronze
and early Iron Age. Th at is represented by urnfi elds from Legnica
(Bagienna, Platanowa, Spokojna streets), Piekary Wielkie, Kunice.
Not much can be said about settlements and their chronology, as not
many have been surveyed so far. Apart from Grzybiany, a large lake
settlement (ca. 8.5 hectares) of similar chronology and a cemetery
were discovered at Kunice. Another urnfi eld comes from Grzybiany
and must have been connected with the settlement (Fig. 7).
Taking into consideration a moderate soil fertility, relatively
dense and long-lasting settlement pattern must be noticed. So intense
settlement development must have resulted from participating
in trade and exchange with Hallstatt cultures’ areas. Th at might be
proved for example by zoomorphic pendant or fi bula with decorated
foot discovered at the site.
Th ere is no reason to consider the site inhabitants as elite. Opposite,
the character of a material culture produced by the small settlement
demonstrates average level typical for the time and culture. Its
uniqueness comes however from well preserved artefacts in humid
environment, complex stratigraphy, thick cultural layers and good
dating possibilities.
It seems that settlements like the one at Koskowice Lake occurred
frequently what makes presented results a good starting point for future
settlement studies.

"The article presents the results of the archaeological investigation of the Late Bronze and Early
Iron Age settlement at Grzybiany (site 3). The aim of fieldwork, which was resumed after a break
of nearly 30 years, was to refine the data on the stratigraphy of the settlement and secure organic
samples for absolute dating."