Aldona Garbacz-Klempka

This paper presents the results of a stress analysis and fatigue life calculation of an HPDC mould core. The calculations were performed using Abaqus and fe-safe software. The numerical model of a core cooled by a conformal channel was based on an existing and working counterpart made of additively manufactured high-strength 1.2709 maraging steel. This study shows that the conformal channel results in a lower average core temperature as compared to the temperature of the same core shape cooled by the conventional method. The course of the stress changes during the mould cycle was also determined. It was found that stresses on the core surface caused the cyclic compression and tension of the material. The necessary strength tests of 1.2709 steel produced by selective laser melting (SLM) within a temperature range of 25 to 550 °C, which were necessary to define the fatigue coefficients by the Seeger approximation method, were also carried out in this study, along with metallographic t...

This article presents the results of shape-dependent strength analyses in die-castings from traditional (straight-drilled) and conformal core-cooling moulds. Cores with a traditional cooling layout were made of H13 steel using machining, and the working sections of the conformal cores were made using the selective laser melting method (SLM). Two series of casts were produced in the same mould. For Series A, the mould was fitted with traditional cooling cores, and for Series B, the same mould was fitted with conformal ones. The cast specimens were subjected to two weeks of natural ageing. The strength testing of the casts determined the levels of the destructive forces. The destructive forces in the core-cooling impact zones were approximately 28% higher in the B samples than they were in the A samples. The impact of the alloy’s porosity, density, and microstructure on the strengths of the casts was demonstrated. The alloy densities in the central (broken-off) fragments of the casts ...

In this paper, we present the results of experimental tests and numerical calculations for parts of foundry mold devices made by selective laser melting (SLM). The main aim of this research was to compare the heat conduction efficiency of the conformal and the traditional channel arrangement. The infusion spreader with a conformal channel arrangement and the test material were made with an M2 Concept Laser Cusing machine using 1.2709 steel powder. Temperature changes in the spreaders were compared between conventional and conformal cooling channels using finite element method (FEM) calculations. The position of the so-called “thermal equilibrium isotherm” was determined for both sprue spreaders, which separate the area of the mold with a constant temperature from the zone of cyclic temperature changes. The components of the sprue spreaders in a stress state caused by temperature changes during the operation of the pressure machine were determined using the FEM model. It was found th...

The aim of this paper was to attain defect free, pure copper castings with the highest possible electrical conductivity. In this connection, the effect of magnesium additives on the structure, the degree of undercooling (ΔTα = Tα-Tmin, where Tα - the equilibrium solidification temperature, Tmin - the minimum temperature at the beginning of solidification), electrical conductivity, and the oxygen concentration of pure copper castings have been studied. The two magnesium doses have been investigated; namely 0.1 wt.% and 0.2 wt.%. A thermal analysis was performed (using a type-S thermocouple) to determine the cooling curves. The degree of undercooling and recalescence were determined from the cooling and solidification curves, whereas the macrostructure characteristics were conducted based on a metallographic examination. It has been shown that the reaction of Mg causes solidification to transform from exogenous to endogenous. Finally, the results of electrical conductivity have been s...

The paper presents the analysis of technology of copper and alloyed copper destined for power engineering casts. The casts quality was assessed based on microstructure, chemical content analysis and strength properties tests. Characteristic deoxidising (Logas, Cup) and modifying (ODM2, Kupmod2) formulas were used for the copper where high electrical conductivity was required. Chosen examples of alloyed copper with varied Cr and Zr content were studied, and the optimal heat treatment parameters were tested for a chosen chromium copper content, based on the criterion of hardness and electrical conductivity tests. Searching for materials with high wear resistance, the in-fluence of variable silicone content on the properties of CuNiSi alloy was researched.

The analysis of brasses regarding their microstructure, mechanical properties and ecological characteristics has been presented. The influence of characteristic alloying elements contained in the brasses and the possibilities of replacing them with other elements have been assessed. The paper contains the results of studies on the influence of chosen additional elements shaping the structure and properties of unleaded alloys based on Cu-Zn system as the matrix. The research aimed at determining the mechanism and the intensity of influence of such additives as tellurium and bismuth. The microstructures were investigated with the help of light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy with X-ray microanalysis (SEM-EDS) for determining significant changes of the properties.

A comprehensive programme of archaeometric research into the chemical composition and manufacturing technology of Early Iron Age artefacts discovered in Świbie, Upper Silesia, has yielded a number of detailed observations and findings. Sixty-six artefacts from a collection of several hundred large bronzes were targeted for study. Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy with micro-area composition analysis were used. In selected cases, non-destructive analysis was carried out by digital X-ray radiography. The study was preceded by macroscopic observation of the artefacts. It was shown that most of the large ring ornaments were made from castings subsequently subjected to numerous forging (reforging and shaping) and finishing treatments. Some of the wares, such as the massive ankle rings, retained many of the characteristics of the original cast, indicating that the finishing treatment was only applied when necessary due to the nature of the product (e.g. visual qualities). Decoration was applied using various techniques, often used in combination with each other (e.g. designing a decoration on a wax model and correcting it on the finished product). It was demonstrated that the characteristic constrictions found on the inside of the massive twisted-bar ankle rings of the Upper Silesia and Sącz (Stary Sącz) types could not be the effect of wear and tear, but evidence of intentional reforging, most likely aimed at creating a place to attach an organic strap to fix the ornament in place on the leg. The research has also identified a new category of imports from the circum-Alpine or Mediterranean areas, namely necklaces with a hooked clasp. The extraordinarily precise ornamental technique observed on the necklace, long known in the literature, from grave 102 (in which other imported luxury goods were also found), required the use of a tool in the type of a tap or a threader, and it has never before been identified in an Early Iron Age context in Poland. Above all, however, these studies made it possible to answer the research questions regarding the sample. The first question concerned the raw material and technological variation of the collection across functional and stylistic categories: Did the objects produced and/or used by the population using the cemetery differ in chemical composition of the alloy and manufacturing technique according to function or style? Although the raw material composition was quite similar for the majority of the artefacts (classic Cu-Sn tin bronze), it emerged that some of them had a slightly different composition, most notably an elevated lead content (above 1.5%, exceptionally up to 9.5%), and that this was not coincidental. More often than not, these objects, such as the necklace from grave 217 or the openwork knife handle fitting from grave 495, demanded castings that, due to their small thickness in the mould, required a special alloy with improved castability. This was not required with massive bronzes or those meant for forging sheet metal for the production of coiled ornaments ; these wares are usually characterised by a low proportion of intentionally added lead as an alloying component. No such consistency can be seen in the manufacture of small ornaments such as buttons or spiral pendants, presumably produced on a day-to-day basis from currently available raw material or from recycled raw material. A satisfactory answer was also obtained to the second main question: Whether it was practised to furnish the deceased with sets uniform in style and raw material (possibly including objects produced especially for the funerary ceremony), or whether the objects amassed in the grave were made from raw material from different sources and at different stages of the buried person’s life. Proceeding from a comparison of all the bronzes from three rich burials (graves 102, N=11; 124, N=12; 574, N=9), it was concluded that they were certainly not furnished with complete ceremonial costumes prepared by one workshop, from one batch of raw material. The only objects that they can be considered sets in terms of both style and workshop are pairs of large bronzes (such as ankle rings or massive bracelets), which were most often made from a homogeneous raw material and probably functioned together from manufacture to deposition in the grave. In the group of small bronzes, this contextual approach (as well as the functional one) confirmed a greater range of raw material patterns.

In this paper, the results from studies regarding near-eutectic Al-Si alloys with Sn as an alloying addition are presented. In most Al-Si alloys, tin is regarded as a contaminant; thus, its amount is limited to up to 0.3 wt.%. The few studies that can be found in the literature regarding the behaviour of tin in aluminium alloys suggest the beneficial effect of this element on selected properties. However, these results were obtained for hypereutectic Al-Si alloys or wrought aluminium alloys. In our studies, the influence of tin contents of up to 1.7 wt.% was determined on the AlSi10 alloy. Thermal analysis, measurements of the mechanical properties of the cast and heat-treated alloy, metallographic observations (light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy), and EDS (X-ray energy dispersive spectrometry) measurement allowed us to fully describe the effect of tin on the aluminium alloy. The results of the thermal analysis showed changes in the range of the α-Al solution crystallisa...

Silicon bronzes are characterised by good mechanical properties and by high corrosion and mechanical wear resistance. The process of sleeve casting by means of the centrifugal casting with the horizontal axis of the mould rotation was analysed. The assessment of the influence of modification and centrifugal casting parameters on the microstructure and mechanical properties of alloys was carried out in the hereby work. Zirconium was applied as a modifier. Speed of rotation of the mould was the variable parameter of the centrifugal casting. The investigation results were summarised on the basis of the microstructure analysis and mechanical properties determination: UTS, proof stress, A10 and BHN. The experiment aimed at finding the information in which way the modification together with changing the pouring parameters influence the mechanical properties of the CuSi3Zn3FeMn alloy.

A unique set of one- and two-piece casting moulds was found in a cremation burial (grave no. 24) discovered in a Late Bronze Age (900–800 BC) biritual cemetery of the Lusatian Culture in Gogolin-Strzebniów (Silesia), on the basis of which this grave was considered to be the burial of a bronze foundryman. Four two-piece moulds (two ceramic and two stone) and one ceramic one-piece mould were subjected to microscopic observations and spectral studies in order to identify potential traces of use, especially use in the production of casts. The results of the macroscopic observations and energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (ED-XRF) studies indicated that all of the moulds examined were used according to their function, i.e. for the production of copper alloy casts, before being deposited in the grave. The presence of metallic elements was higher in the stone moulds than in the ceramic ones, which is due to the nature of the material and its resistance to the influence of high temperature...

A. Garbacz-Klempka, S. Rzadkosz, AGH University of Science And Technology, Faculty of Foundry Engineering, Historical Layers Research Centre, Krakow, Poland R. Klempka, AGH University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Automatics, Computer Science and Biomedical Engineering, Krakow, Poland W. Ossowski, University of Gdansk, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Gdańsk, Poland In this study, copper slabs ingots, from both Gdańsk and Kraków were examined. Besides metallographic examinations, attention was focused on analyses of corrosion products. The following techniques were applied: scanning electron microscopy with fluorescent X-ray microanalysis and X-ray diffraction. The conducted investigations enabled determination of the causes of corrosion in the old copper slabs, due mainly to the mediaeval alloying techniques and copper processing technologies.

Abstract In 2009, an exceptional discovery was made in west-central Poland. At the Late Bronze Age necropolis in Wartoslaw, tools used in metalworking were unearthed from a mass grave belonging to the Lusatian people that can be dated to 1100–900 BCE. Twelve out of over 70 ceramic vessels from the burial pit were identified as urns that contained the ashes of at least eight deceased individuals, including two adult men, one young woman, one unspecified adult, and at least four children. Metallographic, chemical, and petrographic investigations of mortuary goods were used to determine their provenance and use in metalworking. The results of these investigations were used as a proxy to analyze the mass grave according to the ritual and social strategies of the era, including the status and organization of Lusatian metalworkers, and to consider the possibility of identifying their burials in the archeological record.

A. Garbacz-Klempka, Z. Kwak, AGH University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Foundry Engineering, Krakow, Poland. M. Wołoszyn, University of Rzeszów, Poland; GWZO, Leipzig, Germany; A. von Humboldt Foundation, Return Fellowship. T. Dzieńkowski, University of Lublin, Institute of Archaeology, Lublin, Poland. P. Długosz, K. Saja, Foundry Research Institute, Kraków, Poland. The article reports on the findings from the metallographic analysis of 13th c. archaeological objects from Chełm (eastern Poland). The group submitted for analysis includes jeweller’s dies used in the production of women’s ceremonial ornaments, crucibles and bronze ornaments. The Mongol invasion of 13th c. had caused craftsmen from central areas of East Europe to flee and seek shelter in the western parts of Rus. It may be safe to interpret the finds from Chełm as the remains of a jeweller’s workshop, the site of casting and working copper alloys and silver. The analysis of the technology used in casting coppe...

Arsenical copper has been used since 5 millennium cal.BC, later exchanged by application of Cu-Sn alloys in metallurgy. This work presents the results of metallographic and mechanical properties studies performed on two flat axes connected with local Eneolithic societies (4500-3000 cal.BC). The axes are one of the oldest metal artifacts from Polish land. Originally they were made from Cu-As alloy, and their chemical composition was established by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF). Their microstructure was analysed using optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy conducted with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). The macrostructure analysis (OM) of the axes was performed as well. On the basis of the results, the alloys used in the Eneolithic to cast the axes were reproduced in lab. In order to achieve the characteristics of the alloys, their mechanical properties including ultimate tensile strenght (UTS), hardness (HB), microhardness (HV0,1) and ductilit...

The paper presents the results of archaeological and metallurgical research performed on a hoard of three metal objects: a double spiral ornament, a dagger and a hammer-axe. The artefacts were discovered at site 2 in Kałdus, Chełmno commune, kujawsko-pomorskie voivodeship. The objects were discovered within the Wiórek phase of a Funnel Beaker culture context. They were probably deposited into a votive pit. Typological analyses have been carried out. The relative chronology of the objects was determined by the results of typological analyses. The dagger is of Usatovo type and the typological classification of the other objects causes difficulties. The hoard is dated to the second half of the 4th millennium cal. BC. The artefacts’ chemical composition and macrostructure analyses were also performed. It has been concluded that all the objects from the hoard were made of arsenic copper with the dagger also enriched with arsenic minerals. The manufacture technique and objects’ usage traces have been recognized. Using the results of typological and chemical analyses the provenance of the hoard from Kałdus is discussed.

The research focuses on assessing the metal content, mainly copper, lead, iron and also silver in metallurgical slag samples from the area where historical metallurgical industry functioned. In the smelter located in Mogiła, near Krakow (southern Poland), whose operation is confirmed in sources from 1469, copper was probably refined as well as silver was separated from copper. Based on the change of chemical and soil phase content and also taking cartographic and historical data into account, considering the restrictions resulting from the modern land use the area was determined whose geochemical mapping can point to the location of the 15

Issues connected with high quality casting alloys are important for responsible construction elements working in hard conditions. Traditionally, the quality of aluminium casting alloy refers to such microstructure properties as the presence of inclusions and intermetallic phases or porosity. At present, in most cases, Quality index refers to the level of mechanical properties – especially strength parameters, e.g.: UTS, YS, HB, E (Young’s Modulus), K1c (stress intensity factor). Quality indexes are often presented as a function of density. However, generally it is known, that operating durability of construction elements depends both on the strength and plastic of the material. Therefore, for several years now, in specialist literature, the concept of quality index (QI) was present, combines these two important qualities of construction material. The work presents the results of QI research for casting hypoeutectic silumin type EN AC-42100 (EN AC-AlSi7Mg0.3), depending on different ...

The studies regard analysis of variable Al and Fe additions on the chosen group of CuSn alloys. The group of tin bronzes known and applied for thousands of years has still found its application in many branches of industry, however it was observed that small amounts of aluminum and iron may affect the original properties strongly. The changes of mechanical properties and microstructure is discussed in detail. Aside of many advantageous properties of these bronzes, it is noted that the mentioned alloying additions have beneficial effect on the gas-induced shrinkage porosity. Simultaneously, the effect of the aluminum addition on the characteristic phase transformation points was determined basing on the analysis of calorimetric curves. The results are correlated with microstructure observations.

This work presents the results of metallographic studies performed on four Eneolithic and Bronze Age artifacts from Poland. All of them are of none archaeological context therefore its academic value is strongly reduced. The aim of this work is to deal with such a reduced data in a way of improving and verifing current state of knowledge about the artifacts. In order to achieve this goal elemental composition (XRF), microstructure analysis (SEM-EDS), macrostructure analysis (optical microscopy) and 3D scanning were performed.

The article focused on researching the influence of Ti, B, Sr and Na as a modifying treatment elements for Al-Si alloys. The influence of alloying additives such as Cu and Cr was studied. Tensile strength R m , elongation A 5 and HB hard-ness was analysed, as well as the influence of the above-mentioned elements on the microstructure and solidifica-tion of alloys containing a varied content of Si, within the 7÷16% range. The influence of heat treatment on the alloy properties was also researched.

Ten years of field studies (excavations and non-invasive surveys) on site 17 in Szczepidło, gmina Krzymów, Wielkopolska voyvodship (Figs 1, 2) conducted by the Institute of Prehistory, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, have documented spectacular remains of Bronze Age human settlement. One of the most fascinating phenomena legible throughout the functioning of the settlement was the adoption of bronze metallurgy and a substantial development of bronze objects production. Comparative analysis of pottery and bronze objects stylistics as well as radiocarbon dating sequence estimates allow to place the start of the metallurgist workshop within the 1350-1150 BC framework and link it with the activities of a community from the late stage of the Trzciniec culture with Tumulus culture and Lusatian culture features. A presentation of some aspects of metallurgical production by the settlement’s inhabitants is the primary aim of the present paper. Traces of metallurgical activity were mainly...

The casting workshop in Grzybiany, in Lower Silesia (SW Poland) is a valuable source of knowledge on the development of casting techniques in the 7 – 6 centuries BC. Abundant evidence found on the archaeological site points to cast manufacturing by means of precision casting in ceramic moulds (lost-wax molding). The workshop is the biggest collection of moulds for bracelet, necklace and other smaller decorative artefacts in Poland. The aim of the work is to conduct the research of the moulds and casts with the view of performing a computer reconstruction of the casting moulds from the Bronze and Early Iron Age, based on the Grzybiany finds. As part of the work, both the microscopic structure and defectoscopic analyses of the casting moulds were performed. Chemical composition of the casts was tested using the X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy method. Based on these results and using computer modelling methods, a geometric visualisation was performed, which is the bases for preparing t...

The article is devoted to the find of a bronze socketed axe discovered in 2013 in Falejówka (Sanok district). The find was made on the top of Mount Wroczeń, several meters from the hoard of bronze items (Falejówka, hoard II), dated to HaA1. This artefact belongs to the so-called “beaked” or “horned” axes, but none of the numerous specimens of this type is an exact equivalent of the discussed find. Stylistic features – primarily the characteristic trident motif decorating it, which occurs on axes discovered mainly in today's Hungary – allow the item from Falejówka to be dated HaA1-HaB1. The quality of the casting proves that the axe was made with good knowledge of the mould technology and the processes of smelting and pouring the liquid alloy, using bronze with a low tin content. As for its composition, metals derived from sulphide ores, mainly antimony, have also been identified.