Michael Hundley
University of Memphis, Religious Studies, Faculty Member
- Hebrew Bible, Divine Presence, Ritual Theory, Ancient Near Eastern Religions, Hebrew Bible and Ancient Near East, Ancient Near East, and 43 moreRitual, Pentateuchal Theory, Book of Genesis, Priestly Writings, Assyriology, Ancient Egyptian Religion, Mesopotamian Religions, Hittite Religion, Spatial Theory, Israelite Religion, Sacred Space, Deuteronomistic History, Deuteronomy, Tabernacle, Name Theology, Biblical Archaeology, Hebrew Language, Near Eastern Studies, Ancient Near Eastern Languages, Old Testament, Aramaic, Biblical Law, Biblical Hebrew (Languages And Linguistics), Near Eastern Archaeology, Conceptions of divinity, Mesopotamian Archaeology, Winged Disc, Winged Sun Disc, Ugaritic Studies, Syro-Palestinian archaeology, Neo-Assyrian studies, Ancient Mesopotamian Religions, Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, Theology, Biblical Studies, Monsters and Monster Theory, Torah/Pentateuch, Ancient Near East (Archaeology), World Religions, Monster Theory, Cognitive Science, Cognitive Science of Religion, and Moral Psychologyedit
- I research comparative ancient religions, analyzing the ways in which the religious expressions in the Hebrew Bible f... moreI research comparative ancient religions, analyzing the ways in which the religious expressions in the Hebrew Bible find their roots in the ANE and adapt those roots to suit their unique cultural and ideological agendas. My latest book, Yahweh among the Gods, is in production with Cambridge University Press, and I'm beginning two more projects, one on ancient gods and monsters and the other comparing temples, divine presence, and divine service in Hinduism and the ANE, including the Bible. I am interested in most everything related to religion, esp. but not limited to the HB and ANE. I welcome questions and feedback on any of my books, papers and projects.edit
In this study, Michael Hundley explores the diverse deities of ancient Near Eastern and biblical literature, from deified doors and diseases to the masters of the universe. Using data from Mesopotamia, Hittite Anatolia, Egypt, the Levant,... more
In this study, Michael Hundley explores the diverse deities of ancient Near Eastern and biblical literature, from deified doors and diseases to the masters of the universe. Using data from Mesopotamia, Hittite Anatolia, Egypt, the Levant, and non-priestly Genesis and Exodus, Hundley explains their context-specific approach to deity, which produces complex and seemingly contradictory portraits. He suggests that ancient deities gained prominence primarily by co-opting the attributes of other deities, rather than by denying their existence or inventing new powers. He demonstrates that the primary difference between biblical and ancient Near Eastern presentations lies in their rhetorical goals, not their conceptions of gods. While others promote divine supremacy, Genesis and Exodus promote exclusive worship. Hundley argues that this monolatry redefined the biblical divine sphere and paved the way for the later development of monotheism and monotheistic explanations of evil.
Research Interests: Ancient Egyptian Religion, Theology, Assyriology, Hebrew Bible, Biblical Studies, and 10 moreBiblical Theology, Hittite, Mesopotamian Religions, Ancient Near East, Hebrew Bible and Ancient Near East, Torah/Pentateuch, Ugaritic Studies, Hittite Religion, Divine Presence, and Hebrew Bible/Old Testament
Gods In Dwellings examines temples and the gods who inhabit them in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Hittite Anatolia, and Syria-Palestine. It is thus concerned with official religion, with exploring the interface between human and divine in... more
Gods In Dwellings examines temples and the gods who inhabit them in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Hittite Anatolia, and Syria-Palestine. It is thus concerned with official religion, with exploring the interface between human and divine in the major temples of the ancient Near East (ANE). Rather than offering an exhaustive survey of the data, the study explores the common themes in each region and offers a wide interpretive lens through which to view them. More particularly, this project examines such issues as: 1) ANE perceptions of the divine; 2) what temple structure communicates, how it was understood to function, and its ideology; 3) how to install the divine presence in a temple, often in the form of a cult image; 4) the relationship between deity and image(s); 5) how a god's presence in the temple, particularly in the cult statue, is related to his or her divine essence and presence elsewhere; and 6) how humanity serves the deity in order to ensure continued presence.
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Michael B. Hundley examines the Priestly system designed to keep heaven on earth - more specifically, to secure and safeguard the divine presence at the heart of the Israelite community through a comprehensive analysis of its constituent... more
Michael B. Hundley examines the Priestly system designed to keep heaven on earth - more specifically, to secure and safeguard the divine presence at the heart of the Israelite community through a comprehensive analysis of its constituent parts. His study examines how the Priestly writers describe the nature of divine presence, elicit that presence and prepare for its arrival, and maintain it through regular service and damage control rites. Rather than comparing individual Priestly rites in isolation from their surrounding contexts, his work compares the Priestly system with various ancient Near Eastern systems (Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Hittite, and Syro-Palestinian). Using a multifaceted approach, Hundley reveals the genius of the Priestly writers lies not in their total originality but in their ability to co-opt elements present in the surrounding cultures and adapt them to serve their own rhetorical purposes.
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Ancient Egyptians considered contact with the divine essential for prosperity, yet such contact often proved elusive. This chapter surveys their solution, the temples and cult images that concretized divine presence and the rituals that... more
Ancient Egyptians considered contact with the divine essential for prosperity, yet such contact often proved elusive. This chapter surveys their solution, the temples and cult images that concretized divine presence and the rituals that constituted divine service. It includes an outline of the standard Egyptian temple, its decoration, and its ideology, followed by an examination of divine presence and service. It concludes by situating Egyptian temples alongside those of its neighbors in Syria-Palestine, including a discussion of the temple and tabernacle in the Hebrew Bible.
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This article presents a case study in occasional deification by exploring divinized instruments in Mesopotamia, followed by a preliminary investigation of the Ugaritian and biblical data in light of the results. Rather than deify... more
This article presents a case study in occasional deification by exploring divinized instruments in Mesopotamia, followed by a preliminary investigation of the Ugaritian and biblical data in light of the results. Rather than deify instruments by association or because of some intrinsic merit, I argue that their divinization was more pragmatically driven. Mesopotamians, and by extension Ugaritians, deified instruments to augment ritual efficacy in cases where the stakes were particularly high. While the Hebrew Bible does not include divinized instruments, it too employs music in the same ways, to praise and pacify the deity. In each context, music moves the deity, and interpreters use various rhetorical strategies to make its affective powers more potent. By contrast, the Priestly texts reject cultic music, thereby removing the affective component from the cult.
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“Magic” is a term that continues to feature in popular and scholarly circles, yet scholars continue to disagree vehemently about its definition and utility. This article uses the various definitions of magic as lenses through which to... more
“Magic” is a term that continues to feature in popular and scholarly circles, yet scholars continue to disagree vehemently about its definition and utility. This article uses the various definitions of magic as lenses through which to compare the ritual texts of the Priestly Pentateuch, ancient Egypt, and ancient Mesopotamia. The results offered illumine both the texts and the scholars who interpret them. Regardless of the definition employed, the biblical and other ANE ritual texts are quite similar, leading to the conclusion that magic should not be used as a dividing line between biblical Priestly and other ANE ritual texts.
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This article addresses sacred and common spaces in the ancient Near East (ANE) with a special focus on biblical Israel. It considers temples and other sacred spaces in the ANE before moving to sacred spaces in the Hebrew Bible: altars,... more
This article addresses sacred and common spaces in the ancient Near East (ANE) with a special focus on biblical Israel. It considers temples and other sacred spaces in the ANE before moving to sacred spaces in the Hebrew Bible: altars, standing stones, the tabernacle, the temple and other sacred spaces. It will conclude by tracing the evolution of sacred spaces in Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
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With Christianity and Islam as the two dominant religions in today’s world, most assume that, if there is a god, there is only one. However, the vast majority of world religions today believe in multiple gods. Even in the ancient Middle... more
With Christianity and Islam as the two dominant religions in today’s world, most assume that, if there is a god, there is only one. However, the vast majority of world religions today believe in multiple gods. Even in the ancient Middle East, the world from which these two major religions and Judaism emerged, the belief in monotheism was a relative newcomer to the religious landscape. For example, the Hittites of Anatolia (modern Turkey) proudly boasted of their three thousand gods. How did this idea of monotheism emerge against the grain and gain such momentum?
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Temples were nearly ubiquitous across the ancient Near East. Rather than serving as a gathering place for a worshipping congregation, a temple served as a terrestrial divine abode. In it, the god(s) lived amid society, yet carefully... more
Temples were nearly ubiquitous across the ancient Near East. Rather than serving as a gathering place for a worshipping congregation, a temple served as a terrestrial divine abode. In it, the god(s) lived amid society, yet carefully sequestered from it behind walls and doors. While primarily a residence, the temple also granted people limited access, usually for the purpose of divine service. The people believed that gods dwelt outside of the realm of human experience. Temples bridged the gap between human and divine, allowing regulated access to the deity, usually present in the form of a cult statue, and giving people the opportunity to influence the gods. Through this mutually beneficial interchange, the gods received the service they desired, while the people hoped their service would elicit divine protection and blessing. Protection and blessing, though, were conditional. The gods would remain and stay favorably disposed only if they were satisfied with their accommodation and service. Temples then, at least in theory, were lavishly and fastidiously constructed and maintained in order to keep the gods happy. This article focuses on the major temples, especially those from 1500–500 BCE, in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Hittite Anatolia, and Syria-Palestine. The article also focuses on the structure and ideology of the temples, not the rituals performed within them. For the most part, biblical and Israelite references will be kept to a minimum, as they are numerous enough to warrant their own article. Too numerous to include, archaeological reports generally have been excluded, yet they are referenced in the works cited and may be found with a Google web search.
Research Interests: Ancient Egyptian Religion, Archaeology, Near Eastern Archaeology, Egyptian Art and Archaeology, Assyriology, and 11 moreHebrew Bible, Hittite, Syro-Palestinian archaeology, Mesopotamian Religions, Hebrew Bible and Ancient Near East, Ugaritic Studies, Hittite Religion, Sacred Space, Ancient Canaanite Religion, Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, and Egyptian Temples
The golden calf episode in Exodus is both popular and perplexing. While it has a shared ancient Near Eastern heritage of understanding divine presence, it chooses to undermine that heritage to promote its particular agenda. This study... more
The golden calf episode in Exodus is both popular and perplexing. While it has a shared ancient Near Eastern heritage of understanding divine presence, it chooses to undermine that heritage to promote its particular agenda. This study clarifies the text by situating it more firmly in its ancient Near Eastern context and by addressing the biblical adaptations that emerge when we address each of the chapter’s distinct voices. It also considers the importance of perspective—what each character sees and how their vision affects their viewpoint—and the importance of divine visibility both within Exodus 32 and in the larger non-Priestly narrative.
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Angels are and have always been a popular topic. Nonetheless, much confusion remains in popular and even scholarly literature. The present study aims to provide clarity about angels (מלאכים, literally ‘messengers’) in Genesis and Exodus... more
Angels are and have always been a popular topic. Nonetheless, much confusion remains in popular and even scholarly literature. The present study aims to provide clarity about angels (מלאכים, literally ‘messengers’) in Genesis and Exodus by situating the texts in their ancient Near Eastern contexts and examining how they adapt the ideas of those contexts to fit their own unique theological agenda. The resulting portrait is derived from but clearly distinct from its ancient Near Eastern analogs.
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Building on an earlier article on Mesopotamian conceptions of the divine (Hundley 2013a), this piece turns to the complex world of Hittite deities and offers a synthetic analysis with Mesopotamia as a conversation partner. While many... more
Building on an earlier article on Mesopotamian conceptions of the divine (Hundley 2013a), this piece turns to the complex world of Hittite deities and offers a synthetic analysis with Mesopotamia as a conversation partner. While many commonalities emerge, the Hittite divine world is also distinct in important ways. Most notably, while Mesopotamian gods, especially Marduk and Assur and before them Enlil and Ninurta, tend to collect attributes, the Hittites themselves collect gods, proudly boasting of the thousand gods of Ḫatti. Likewise, Hittite deities tend to overlap without redundancy, such that each overlapping (weather) god is an independent actor with an essential role to play, whose absence could signal the dissolution of order. The article also posits various modern analogs like franchises, which although imperfect, help the modern mind to grasp the ancient complexity.
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This article addresses ancient Near Eastern conceptions of divine presence in the realm of the temple, considering evidence from Egypt, Mesopotamia, Hittite Anatolia and Syria-Palestine. It analyzes the perceived religious function of... more
This article addresses ancient Near Eastern conceptions of divine presence in the realm of the temple, considering evidence from Egypt, Mesopotamia, Hittite Anatolia and Syria-Palestine. It analyzes the perceived religious function of ancient Near Eastern temples, cult images, the installation and maintenance of divine presence, as well as the complicated relationship between the deity and its cult image and between a deity’s various cult images.
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In the Priestly texts, holiness is understood both as an absolute and as a relative term to demarcate the hierarchy within the holy sphere. Rather than primarily redefining the term “holy,” the present work aims to determine the term’s... more
In the Priestly texts, holiness is understood both as an absolute and as a relative term to demarcate the hierarchy within the holy sphere. Rather than primarily redefining the term “holy,” the present work aims to determine the term’s function in describing spaces, objects, offerings, and people in the Priestly account. While there are several different levels of holiness for people, places, objects, and offerings, the Priestly writers have only two terms at their disposal, “holy” and “most holy,” which they use in a dizzying combination to situate elements hierarchically. Nonetheless, once the Priestly language is clarified, elements in the holy sphere fit into a fairly consistent hierarchy. Within this taxonomic system, people have access to spaces and objects of one level of holiness higher than they themselves possess. While accessing one degree higher is acceptable, two degrees proves fatal. The Priestly labels “holy” and “most holy” mediate access, express the privilege and unnaturalness of access, and indicate the consequences of improper contact, thereby safeguarding the divine abode from improper encroachment and humanity from the corresponding punishment.