RPM#31
RPM#31
RPM#31
MARKETING
EDITORIAL
Sejam bem-vindos ao nmero 31 da Revista Portuguesa de Marketing que contm cinco
artigos distintos, com temticas diversas, como habitual nos nmeros regulares da nossa
revista.
O primeiro artigo, intitulado Extenso da marca: Fatores crticos, da autoria de Srgio
Dominique-Ferreira, do Instituto Politcnico do Cvado e do Ave, Antnio Real Boubeta e
Jess Varela Mallou, da Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Espanha, identifica os
principais fatores de (in)sucesso do processo de extenso da marca. O estudo tem natureza
conceptual e aponta direes de investigao futura para os investigadores interessados
nesta rea de saber.
O segundo artigo, da autoria de Arminda do Pao e Sandrina Leo, da Universidade da
Beira Interior, analisa o papel do endorsement por figuras pblicas como ferramenta
promocional, com aplicao ao setor bancrio. O estudo emprico baseou-se numa amostra
de 532 indivduos e recorreu regresso linear.
No terceiro artigo, Antnio Alves e Ana Maria Soares, da Universidade de Minho, analisam
a utilizao dos avatares como forma de humanizao da interao com o potencial cliente
no comrcio eletrnico. O estudo emprico de natureza experimental e envolveu 98
inquiridos, sendo que os autores usaram modelos de equaes estruturais.
O quarto artigo apresenta um estudo realizado por investigadores brasileiros sobre o
consumo de camisolas de futebol, sendo da autoria de Fernando Santini e Wagner Ladeira,
da Universidade do Vale do Rio de Sinos, Clcio Arajo da Pontifcia Universidade Catlica
do RS e Marlom Dalmoro, da UNIVATES. A metodologia utilizada de ndole quantitativa,
atravs da escala BEM, e baseou-se numa amostra de 675 de inquiridos. Os autores
tambm usaram modelos de equaes estruturais.
O quinto e ltimo artigo deste nmero chega-nos de investigadores indianos e usa uma
abordagem experimental controlada em laboratrio para avaliar a relao entre a
associao de um produto a uma causa (de responsabilidade social), a reputao do
produto e a forma de comunicao da mensagem subjacente e a inteno de compra. A
amostra de 84 estudantes de ensino superior e o estudo tem natureza exploratria. A
autoria de Raina Pinto do College of Commerce and Economics e de Nandakumar
Mekoth, da Universidade de Goa.
Desejamos aos nossos leitores, como habitual, que os artigos apresentados lhes possam
permitir desenvolver investigao de excelncia nas reas cientficas de eleio da nossa
revista: marketing e comportamento do consumidor.
Irina Saur-Amaral
Editora da Revista Portuguesa de Marketing
RPM#30/2013
REVISTA PORTUGUESA DE
MARKETING
EDITORIAL
Welcome to issue 31 of the Portuguese Marketing Journal. This issue is composed of five
eclectic papers, as it is habit in the regular issues of our journal.
The title of the first paper is: Brand Extension: Critical Factors. Authored by Srgio
Dominique-Ferreira, from Instituto Politcnico do Cvado e do Ave, Antnio Real Boubeta
and Jess Varela Mallou, from the University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain, it pins the
key (in)success factores of the process of brand extension. It is a conceptual proposal,
indicating future research directions for scholars interested in this field.
The second paper, authored by Arminda do Pao and Sandrina Leo, from the University of
Beira Interior, analyzes the role of endorsement by public figures as promotional tool in the
banking sector. The empirical study was set upon a sample of 532 respondents and used
linear regression.
In the third paper, Antnio Alves and Ana Maria Soares, from the University of Minho,
analyzed the uses of avatars as a way to humanize client interaction in e-commerce setting.
The empirical study is experimental and involved 98 participants. Authors used structural
equation modeling.
The fourth paper presents a research performed by Brazilian researchers on the
consumption of soccer shirts, and was authored by Fernando Santini and Wagner Ladeira,
from the University of Vale do Rio de Sinos, Clcio Arajo from the Pontifcia Universidade
Catlica do RS and Marlom Dalmoro, from UNIVATES. The methodology was quantitative,
based upon SEM modelling on a 675 respondents sample.
The fifth and last paper of this issue comes from Indian researchers and uses an
experimental approach to evaluate the relationship between Cause Related Marketing,
reputation, message framing and willingness to pay. It is authored by Raina Pinto from the
College of Commerce and Economics and Nandakumar Mekoth, from the Goa University.
We hope that the presented papers may serve our readers as inspiration and knowledge
sources to further develop excellence research in the scientific areas of our journal:
marketing and consumer behavior.
Irina Saur-Amaral
Chief Editor of the Portuguese Marketing Journal
RPM#31/2013
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RPM#30/2013
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. IPAM The MarketingSchool
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. Instituto Politcnico do Cvado e do Ave
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. IPAM The MarketingSchool
. Universidad del Pas Vasco
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RPM#31/2013
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Nesta edio | In this issue
PGINA | PAGE TTULO | TITLE
AUTOR(ES) | AUTHOR(S)
EXTENSODEMARCA: FATORESCRTICOS
OENDORSEMENTNOMBITODACOMUNICAODEMARKETING:
UMAAPLICAOAOSETORBANCRIO
THEENDORSEMENTWITHINTHEMARKETINGCOMMUNICATION:
ANAPPLICATIONTOTHEBANKINGINDUSTRY
EVALUATINGTHEUSEOFAVATARSINE-COMMERCE
AVALIAODAUTILIZAODEAVATARESNOCOMRCIO
ELETRNICO
APLICABILIDADEDAESCALAMBEAOPARADIGMADAMODELAGEM
DESEGUNDAORDEM: UMAANLISEDOCONSUMODECAMISASDE
FUTEBOL
MBESCALEAPPLICABILITYINTHESECOND-ORDERMODELING
PARADIGM: ANANALYSISINSOCCERT-SHIRTCONSUMPTION
CUSTOMERRESPONSETOMESSAGEFRAMINGINCAUSERELATED
MARKETING
ARESPOSTADOCLIENTEFORMADECOMUNICAODOS
BENEFCIOSASSOCIADOSAOMARKETINGDECAUSASSOCIAIS
RPM#31/2013
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EXTENSO DE MARCA: FATORES CRTICOS
PALAVRAS-CHAVE: EXTENSO DE MARCA, ATITUDES FACE EXTENSO, COMPORTAMENTO DO CONSUMIDOR, INVESTIGAO
DE MERCADOS, MODELO DE EXTENSO DE MARCA
Resumo
Abstract
RPM#31/2013
Introduo
Nos ltimos anos, assistiu-se a muitas empresas que optaram por uma estratgia de reduo de custos com vista a tingir um ponto
de sustentabilidade. Contudo, uma estratgia de conteno de custos no significa obrigatoriamente que as empresas no devam
realizar investimentos de modo a consolidar uma posio estratgica no mercado, pelo que o lanamento de novos produtos
poder permitir no s alargar o seu mbito de ao empresarial, como tambm aumentar a quota de mercado ou mesmo para
alcanar um posicionamento pretendido. No entanto, os responsveis por organizaes e empresas devem ter presente que
qualquer estratgia executada poder ter consequncias crticas no prprio capital da marca.
No contexto do lanamento de novos produtos no mercado, a extenso de marca torna-se numa estratgia bastante relevante
(Buil & Montaner, 2008). Conceptualmente, consiste no uso do nome de uma marca j presente no mercado para introduzir uma
nova categoria de produto (Aaker & Keller, 1990; Keller, 2003). Na dcada de 90 do sculo passado, 81% dos produtos lanados
no mercado resultaram de extenses de marca (Keller, 2003), o que evidencia a enorme importncia desta estratgia.
Deste modo, a extenso de marca converteu-se numa das estratgias mais utilizadas pelos responsveis de empresas no momento
de lanar novos produtos para o mercado, dado que permite revitalizar a marca, obter benefcios nos mercados originais e reduzir
os custos implcitos no desenvolvimento de um novo nome/marca (Barrett, Lye & Venkateswarlu, 1999; Salinas, 2005) como
sejam os custos associados com novas aes de comunicao (e.g.: publicidade) da nova categoria de produto (Tauber, 1981;
Sullivan, 1989; Aaker, 1990; Aaker & Keller, 1990; Rial, Varela & Garca, 2001; Buil & Montaner, 2008). Este fenmeno resulta das
sinergias produzidas entre a experincia e a comunicao de um ou mais produtos da marca umbrella (Erdem & Sun, 2002).
Portanto, a extenso de marca permite lanar um produto com base no valor reconhecido marca umbrella (Tauber, 1988;
Barwise, 1993), embora as oportunidades de proceder a uma extenso de marca dependam em forte medida do valor da marca
original (Pedro, 2002).
Por conseguinte, a extenso de marca implica de alguma forma o crescimento da marca umbrella, permitindo aumentar o seu
potencial de sobrevivncia num mercado global e competitivo como o atual. As marcas necessitam, cada vez mais, de se
expressar atravs de produtos, tentando materializar nestes um conjunto de valores que as definem e que as diferenciam das
marcas concorrentes. Com efeito, os produtos acabam por refletir em grande parte a identidade e a personalidade de cada marca
(Weilbacher, 1995; Ghodeswar, 2008). Todavia, o processo de extenso de marca representa uma ao estratgica crtica em
qualquer organizao dado que, quando incorretamente planificado, pode criar associaes negativas e irreversveis com a marca
original (Gibson, 1980; Ries & Trout; 1981; Aaker & Keller, 1990; Kapferer, 1992; Aaker, 1994), mesmo que esta seja lder de
mercado (Smith & Park, 1992).
No mbito da marca umbrella e da marca extenso, a extenso de marca permite a reduo do risco de fracasso uma vez que, os
consumidores transferem as percees e atitudes que tm da marca umbrella para a extenso (Tauber, 1981; Aaker & Keller,
1990; Martnez, Bordonaba & Garrido, 2002; Martnez, Montaner & Pina, 2009). Neste contexto, as extenses de marca tendem a
reduzir o risco percebido para os consumidores (Aaker, 1990; Montgomery & Wernerfelt, 1992), aumentando a sua utilidade
(Erdem, 1998). As extenses de marca podem tambm fortalecer as dimenses do capital da marca (Brand Equity), como so a
imagem de marca e a sua notoriedade (Morrin, 1999; Aaker, 2002), aumentandoa probabilidade dos consumidores comprarem
outros produtos de uma marca que nunca tenham experimentado (Swaminathan, Fox & Reddy, 2001).
Objetivo e contributo
O principal objetivo deste trabalho realizar uma reviso da literatura que incida sobre os principais contornos da execuo de
um processo de extenso de marca. Concretamente, pretende-se identificar vantagens, desvantagens, variveis crticas e variveis
mediadores do processo de extenso de marca. Desta forma, este trabalho pretende reunir e identificar de forma sucinta e
resumida a realidade envolvente extenso de marca a que os profissionais responsveis pelo planeamento e execuo devero
prestar especial ateno.
Brand Equity
Farquhar (1989) define o conceito de brand equity como o valor acrescentado a uma empresa, companhia ou consumidor que
uma marca confere a um produto. Segundo Aaker (1991), o conceito de brand equity diz respeito ao conjunto de ativos e passivos
de uma marca, o seu nome, logtipo, que adiciona ou subtrai valor aos produtos/servios de uma empresa. Mais tarde, Keller
(1993) oferece uma perspetiva no mbito da psicologia cognitiva, definindo Brand Equity como o efeito diferencial que o
conhecimento de uma marca tem na resposta dos consumidores ao marketing dessa mesma marca. Relativamente s medidas que
podem ser mais eficientes no estudo do Brand Equity, Aaker (1996) agrupa-as em cinco categorias, concretamente:
RPM#30/2013
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Medidas de lealdade:
o Lealdade: a proporo de consumidores leais s marcas que competem atualmente num determinado mercado
funciona, em boa medida, como uma barreira entrada. Simultaneamente, fundamental para se poder praticar um
preo premium (seguidamente descrito) e outorga uma margem de segurana temporal para reagir a processos de
inovao das marcas concorrentes.
o Preo premium que se converte num indicador da lealdade dos consumidores. Concretamente, o preo premium
representa o valor adicional que um consumidor est disposto a pagar por um produto quando outras marcas
vendem um produto similar a um preo inferior. Outro aspeto a considerar na medio do preo premium a
necessidade de segmentar o mercado com base na lealdade dos consumidores. Uma forma de medir o preo
premium consiste em perguntar aos consumidores qual o valor monetrio que estariam dispostos a pagar por um
produto da marca x em lugar de um produto similar da marca y. Outra forma de medir este constructo atravs da
Anlise Conjunta, onde os vrios nveis do atributo preo so medidos.
Medidas de diferenciao:
o Valor percebido: quando uma marca no consegue gerar valor acrescentado (em termos de benefcios funcionais
esperados), torna-se vulnervel aos seus concorrentes. O valor da marca pode ser medido da seguinte forma:
i) Se uma marca oferece uma boa relao preo-qualidade.
ii) Se existem razes que levam os consumidores a adquirirem produtos de uma determinada marca em
detrimento de outras.
o Personalidade da marca: a personalidade da marca utilizada metaforicamente, podendo-se criar ligaes
emocionais entre os consumidores e as marcas, gerando benefcios que permitem a diferenciao. Quando um
conjunto de marcas comercializam um produto com atributos tcnicos semelhantes, frequente que a diferenciao
seja conseguida atravs da personalidade das marcas. A personalidade da marca pode ser medida atravs dos
seguintes elementos:
i) A marca tem uma personalidade.
ii) A marca interessante.
iii) O consumidor tem uma ideia clara do tipo de indivduo que seria cliente dessa marca.
o Associaes com a organizao: nesta dimenso, consideram-se os colaboradores da organizao, bem como os seus
valores e programas. Esta dimenso enriquece a marca muito para alm dos produtos e servios que comercializam.
A Responsabilidade Social e Corporativa um exemplo desta dimenso.
Medidas de conhecimento:
o Conscincia da marca: esta dimenso afeta as percees e atitudes dos consumidores. Em ltima instncia, aumenta
a confiana no distribuidor, potenciando a escolha de determinada marca e fomentando a lealdade. Neste sentido, a
conscincia da marca reflete a salincia da marca na mente dos consumidores, nomeadamente:
i) Reconhecimento de uma marca.
ii) Recordao espontnea de marcas.
iii) Top-of-mind (a primeira marca identificada).
iv) Dominncia da marca (a nica marca recordada).
v) Conhecimento de marca (saber o que uma marca representa).
vi) Opinio sobre marcas (ter uma opinio formada sobre vrias marcas).
Por outro lado, a quota de mercado e o volume de vendas so sensveis cobertura da distribuio. Esta
cobertura da distribuio pode ser medida das seguintes formas:
i) Percentagem de lojas que comercializam a marca x.
ii) Percentagem de indivduos que tm acesso marca x.
No mbito dos estudos realizados em economia, Erdem e Swait (1998) referem que brand equity o valor de uma marca
enquanto sinal da posio de um produto. Assim, uma marca constitui-se como um poderoso conjunto de meios de diferenciao,
sendo que tal diferenciao representa uma importante estratgia de marketing competitivo (Kapferer, 1997; Keller, 2003; Tasci,
Gartner & Cavusgil, 2007). Marcas poderosas criam imagens com significado nos consumidores (Keller, 1993), e a imagem e a
reputao da marca permitem diferenciar as vrias marcas que constituem determinado mercado o que, em ltima instncia,
permite influenciar de forma positiva o comportamento de compra (McEnnally & Chernatony, 1999). Neste mbito, a gesto de
marcas no mercado B2C tem evidenciado um melhoramento do desempenho financeiro das empresas, e possibilita uma posio
competitiva no mercado a longo prazo (Mudambi, 2002). O conceito de Brand Equity tem-se revelado tambm importante no
mbito de processos de fuses e aquisies (ver Lambkin & Muzellec, 2010). Outros trabalhos revelam que o conceito de Brand
Equity desempenha um papel preponderante em empresas de servios financeiros (ver Taylor, Hunter & Lindberg, 2007), como
tambm no fenmeno da extenso de marca, concretamente, na dimenso das medidas de conhecimento (Her, Farquhar & Fazio,
1996; Hem & Iversen, 2003).
Desvantagens
Podem gerar confuso na imagem da marca, enfraquecendo os
seus atributos e valores centrais.
Alterar o posicionamento da marca umbrela.
Podem diminuir a perceo de qualidade percebida no
mercado inicial.
Neste contexto, grande parte dos estudos realizados recorrem a teorias provenientes da Psicologia para explicar de que modo se
produz a avaliao das extenses de marca, nomeadamente, a Teoria da Categorizao (Bruner & Austin, 1956), a Teoria da Rede
Associativa (Bower, 1981) ou do Esquema (Bartlett, 1932). Contudo, estas teorias concebem a existncia de conceitos avaliativos
e esquemas ou redes de conhecimento na mente do consumidor (respetivamente), que so a base da avaliao dos produtos
(Bartlett, 1932; Cohen, 1982; Bridges, 1992; Jones, 1994).
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Variveis crticas no processo de extenso de marca
Nos ltimos anos, vrios estudos (Rial, Varela & Garca, 2001; Vlckner & Sattler, 2006) demonstraram que a aceitao ou rejeio
de uma extenso de marca na perspetiva do consumidor depende de um considervel nmero de variveis que podem ser
agrupadas em trs importantes grupos: a) variveis relacionadas com a marca; b) variveis relacionadas com o produto alvo da
extenso; c) variveis relacionadas com o grau de ajuste percebido entre a marca e a extenso.
No que concerne s variveis relacionadas com a marca, identificam-se as seguintes:
A qualidade percebida da marca esta qualidade percebida pode definir-se como a medida global da avaliao dos
consumidores sobre a superioridade ou excelncia dessa marca face s marcas concorrentes (Sunde & Brodie, 1993;
Bottomley & Doyle, 1996; Barrett, Lye & Venkateswarlu, 1999; Rial, Varela & Garca, 2001; van Riel, Lemmink &
Ouwersloot, 2001; Martnez,Bordonaba & Garrido; Phang, 2004; Allard, van Riel & Ouwersloot, 2005; Vlckner & Sattler,
2006). Kapferer (1992) refere que a qualidade percebida pressupe um nvel de abstrao maior que qualquer outro
atributo especfico do produto ou da marca. Aaker e Keller (1990) concebem que a atitude geral que um consumidor
desenvolve sobre uma marca tem por base a qualidade global percebida, sendo o impacto desta qualidade global sobre a
atitude face extenso indiscutivelmente positiva. Para estes autores, a qualidade percebida torna-se a varivel mais
importante no momento de prever o xito de uma extenso de marca. No ponto de vista dos autores do presente trabalho,
parece natural que quanto maior a qualidade percebida de uma marca (reconhecimento da qualidade dos
produtos/servios prestados), maior a facilidade com que os consumidores tendem a aceitar e a adquirir um
produto/servios alvo de uma Extenso de Marca.
O grau de abertura da marca segundo Boush e Loken (1991), considerar uma marca como representativa de uma srie de
produtos tem implicaes bastante relevantes no momento de prever o xito de uma extenso de marca. Ou seja, as
avaliaes que os consumidores fazem de uma extenso de marca so influenciadas tanto pela capacidade de abertura da
marca no momento da ampliao da sua ao comercial a novos produtos, como tambm pela amplitude referente gama
de produtos originais. tambm importante conhecer o grau de abertura da marca no momento de planificar possveis
extenses (Boush & Loken, 1991). Neste contexto, Kapferer (1992) prope que se classifiquem as marcas de acordo com o
seu grau de abertura, distinguindo, assim, entre marcas de espectro estreito e marcas de amplo espectro.
O conhecimento e experincia que cada consumidor tem com a marca os consumidores tendem a pensar numa marca
com base nos seus conhecimentos prvios e nos produtos que essa marca produz (Rial, Varela & Garca, 2001; Hem, de
Chernatony & Iversen, 2003; Vlckner & Sattler, 2006). A experincia refere-se ao facto de um indivduo ser consumidor de
uma determinada marca, a quantidade de informao que os consumidores possuem sobre essa marca ou mesmo a
procura ativa de informao sobre novidades associadas marca (Kim & Sullivan, 1998; Rial, Varela & Garca, 2001;
Swaminathan et al., 2001; Swaminathan, 2003; Vlckner & Sattler, 2006). Estas variveis tendem a contribuir para uma
maior aceitao das extenses de marca. De acordo com os autores do presente trabalho, quanto maior contacto e
informaes os consumidores tenham com uma determinada marca, maior confiana tero nos seus produtos/servios e,
por conseguinte, tendero a estar mais recetivos compra de um produto fruto de uma extenso de marca.
O nvel de implicao que suscita uma varivel psicolgica, que medeia as percees e os comportamentos de compra
dos consumidores e, representa o vnculo afetivo e cognitivo dos consumidores face a uma determinada marca. Neste
sentido, o grau de implicao que os consumidores tm com uma determinada marca tende a afetar a aceitao de uma
extenso de marca. (Hansen & Hem, 2004).
A imagem de marca a prpria imagem de marca da empresa propriamente dita influencia as probabilidades de
xito/fracasso da extenso de marca (Martnez, Montaner & Pina, 2005a, 2005b). Na opinio dos autores do presente
trabalho, a imagem de marca constitui um elemento central na aceitao dos consumidores de um produto alvo de uma
extenso. Concretamente, quanto mais favorvel e positiva for a imagem de uma marca no mercado, maior probabilidade
de xito ter a extenso. Contudo, o processo inverso tambm acontece, ou seja, o processo deextenso de marca influencia
tambm a imagem de marca das organizaes (Martnez & Pina, 2009).
A lealdade marca o facto de um determinado consumidor ser leal a uma marca incrementa a probabilidade de aceitao
da extenso de marca (Buil & Montaner, 2008).
Relativamente s variveis relacionadas com o produto alvo da extenso, podem mencionar-se as seguintes:
Dificuldade percebida face produo da extenso quando os consumidores interpretam que a classe de produto alvo de
extenso relativamente fcil de executar, tal poder ser prejudicial para o xito da extenso (Aaker & Keller, 1990; Rial,
Varela & Garca, 2001). Este fenmeno justifica-se pelo facto de os consumidores pensarem, geralmente, que a combinao
entre uma marca de qualidade e um produto fcil de conceber resulta em algo inconsistente ou mesmo dececionante.
RPM#31/2013
Grau de conhecimento e relevncia do produto objeto da extenso quando um determinado consumidor atribui uma
elevada importncia a uma classe de produto, ele tende a eleger uma marca em concreto; tal realidade acaba por
influenciar a avaliao das marcas que surjam posteriormente no mercado oferecendo o mesmo tipo de produto.
O apoio geral do marketing esta varivel refere-se s estratgias de marketing que permitem influenciar a perceo dos
consumidores (Vlckner & Sattler, 2006). Neste sentido, vrios estudos demonstraram um efeito positivo do esforo
publicitrio no xito das extenses de marca (Nijssen, 1999; Taylor & Bearden, 2003).
Finalmente, as variveis relacionadas com o grau de ajuste percebido entre a marca e a extenso podero ter um peso notrio na
avaliao das extenses (Aaker & Keller, 1990; Boush & Loken, 1991; Bottomley & Doyle, 1996; Bottomley & Holden, 2001) e
supem efeitos retroativos sobre a marca umbrella (Smith & Park, 1992; Morrin, 1999). As principais variveis associadas a este
ajuste percebido so:
A complementaridade indica o grau em que os consumidores percecionam como complementar a classe de produto
habitual e a classe de produto objeto da extenso. Por outras palavras, indica o grau em que o produto habitual e o produto
da extenso podem ser utilizados conjuntamente para satisfazer uma necessidade concreta.
O carcter substitutivo precisamente o contrrio da varivel anterior. Indica o grau em que os consumidores entendem
como substituto o produto habitual e o produto da extenso, ou seja, em que ambos supem uma aplicao e contexto de
uso semelhantes, sendo que ambos permitem a satisfao de uma mesma necessidade.
Transferncia este fenmeno prende-se com a forma como os consumidores percecionam a relao fabricante e novo
produto. Consiste, portanto, na capacidade percebida de uma marca de fabricar o novo produto como fabricou o produto
original da marca. A transferncia ser tanto mais elevada quanto mais os consumidores sentirem que os recursos
humanos, capacidades e o prestgio de uma empresa possam ser transferidos na conceo de um produto diferente do
habitualmente produzido nessa empresa.
Semelhana percebida (similaridade das caractersticas dos produtos) esta semelhana percebida entre ambos os tipos
de produto mais uma medida do que a relao entre o produto original e o produto da extenso. Na prtica, a maior parte
dos estudos encontraram uma relao positiva entre a dita semelhana e as avaliaes dos consumidores, a inteno de
compra e as vendas dos produtos criados pelas das extenses de marca.
Consistncia com a marca (consistncia do conceito da marca) remete para o grau com que o produto da extenso reflete
a identidade da marca umbrella. A perceo desta consistncia reflete, em ltima instncia, a capacidade do produto da
extenso reproduzir ou acomodar o conceito inerente marca umbrella.
Taxonomia o facto de se considerar uma marca como uma categoria permite prever os efeitos das extenses de marca. De
acordo com a Teoria da Categorizao, as categorias possuem uma estrutura graduada, na qual existem objetos mais
relevantes que outros.
Mais recentemente, outros autores tendem a considerar outro grupo de variveis, que se relacionam com o contexto no qual se
realiza o processo de extenso. Contudo, estas variveis seriam mais moderadoras do processo de extenso do que antecedentes.
Portanto, podem ser consideradas como facilitadores do xito de uma extenso de marca. Neste sentido, podem destacar-se as
seguintes variveis:
Grau de motivao dos consumidores que afeta outros processos psicolgicos latentes (Fiske & Neuberg, 1990; Monga &
Houston, 2002).
O risco percebido pelos consumidores (Flaherty & Pappas, 2000; Hem et al., 2003).
O esprito inovador dos consumidores (Klink & Smith, 2001; Hem et al., 2003).
O pas de origem dos consumidores (Aaker & Keller, 1990; Holden & Barwise, 1995; Guoqun & Saunders, 2002).
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Imagem 1. Variveis que afetam a extenso de marca (resumo)
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Tabela 2. Resultado de estudos que replicaram as hipteses propostas por Aaker e Keller (1990)
Hipteses
Referncias
Sunde e Brodie (1993)
H1 Qualidade percebida
H2 - Transferncia
H3 - Ajuste
H4 Dificuldade percebida
Barrett, Ashley e
Venkateswarlu
(1999)
Rial, Varela e
Garca (2001)
Buil e Montaner
(2008)
Pouca sustentao
Pouca sustentao
Pouca sustentao
Confirmado
Envolvimento
Confirmado
Confirmado
Imagem de marca
Tipo de extenso1contnua-ou
descontnua)
Confirmado
Confirmado
Dificuldade percebida
Grau de abertura
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Assim, a qualidade percebida (Sunde & Brodie, 1993; Bottomley & Doyle, 1996; Barrett, Lye & Venkateswarlu, 1999; Rial, Varela &
Garca, 2001; van Riel, Lemmink & Ouwersloot, 2001; Phang, 2004; Allard, van Riel & Ouwersloot, 2005; Vlckner & Sattler, 2006)
e o ajuste percebido (Varela, Rial & Braa, 1998; Barrett, Ashley & Venkateswarlu, 1999; Rial, Varela & Garca, 2001; Buil &
Montaner, 2008) surgem como as variveis mais frequentemente confirmadas em estudos empricos.
Portanto, o processo de extenso de marca dever ser coerente a nvel interno (e.g.: core business, projetos que a empresa esteja a
desenvolver, etc.), bem como a nvel externo, nomeadamente, a formas de comunicao e promoo que a empresa realiza, pois, o
que, em ltima instncia, influencia a imagem e o posicionamento que os consumidores tm de determinada marca.
Concluso
As empresas tendem a seguir uma estratgia de conteno de custos de modo a maximizar a rendibilidade dos investimentos
realizados e, em ltima instncia, permite aumentar a probabilidade de sobrevivncia no mercado. No entanto, com base em
investigaes no mbito do I+D+I (Investigao, Desenvolvimento e Inovao)o fenmeno da extenso de marca surge como uma
das estratgias mais utilizadas pelas empresas, estando mesmo subjacente em 81% dos produtos lanados no mercado, na dcada
de 90 do sculo XX. Todavia, o objetivo desta estratgia no reside apenas na pretenso de aumentar a probabilidade de
sobrevivncia das empresas no mercado, mas sim de ganhar quota de mercado a empresas concorrentes ou mesmo pugnar por
um posicionamento considerado estratgico e prioritrio. Neste sentido, os autores do presente estudo pretendem ilustrar a
importncia desta estratgia, identificando quais os principais fatores crticos que mais afetam a sua execuo e o seu fracasso ou
xito, com base na reviso da literatura sobre a temtica.
Assim, vrios trabalhos evidenciam a existncia de quatro importantes vetores no momento de planear uma estratgia de
extenso de marca. Um primeiro que diz respeito s variveis relacionadas com a marca, como so a qualidade percebida, o grau
de abertura da marca, o conhecimento e experincia que cada consumidor tem com a marca e o nvel de implicao que esta
suscita no mercado. Um segundo vetor diz respeito s variveis relacionadas com o produto alvo da extenso, que passa pela
dificuldade percebida face execuo da extenso, o grau de conhecimento e relevncia do produto objeto da extenso e o apoio
geral do marketing no suporte extenso de marca. Um terceiro vetor referente s variveis relacionadas com o grau de ajuste
percebido entre a marca e a extenso, que se baseia na complementaridade entre a classe de produto original e a classe alvo de
extenso, o carcter substitutivo da nova classe de produto, o fenmeno da transferncia, a consistncia com a marca e a tipologia.
Finalmente, existem autores que outorgam importncia na anlise das variveis relacionadas com o contexto no qual se realiza o
processo de extenso, como so o risco percebido pelos consumidores, o carcter mais ou menos inovador dos consumidores e
tambm o pas de origem dos consumidores.
No contexto da extenso de marca e com base no trabalho de reviso da literatura, propem-se um conjunto de orientaes que
visam orientar o planeamento de extenses de marca, seguidamente identificadas:
i.
A definio da identidade da marca. Primeiramente, os responsveis de qualquer marca devem ter uma noo muito clara e
inequvoca da identidade da marca que representam dado que esta se converte num emissor da personalidade fsica e
psicolgica da marca, no devendo gerar confuso ou dvidas no mercado real e potencial.
ii.
A determinao da imagem da marca. A imagem de marca converteu-se, nos ltimos anos, num dos principais ativos de
qualquer empresa, afetando em grande medida o seu capital enquanto marca. , ao contrrio da identidade da marca, um
conceito recetor que, sucintamente, se refere forma pela qual os consumidores percecionam a marca, com que atributos e
nveis de atributo desperta no mercado e no conjunto de associaes que causa nos consumidores (reais e potenciais).
Torna-se, assim, num elemento que reflete a qualidade percebida e o grau de abertura da marca, bem como na forma de
obter informao sobre que extenses podero ser ou no aceites.
iii.
A quantificao do grau de ajuste percebido entre a marca e a extenso. Uma vez identificadas as diferentes possibilidades
sobre a extenso de marca, torna-se necessrio determinar o grau de ajuste que os sujeitos atribuem a cada uma delas. Este
ajuste estaria determinado pelos conceitos de consistncia, taxonomia e transferncia (conceitos desenvolvidos
anteriormente). Por conseguinte, a gama de possibilidades seria reduzida e, portanto, o risco de fracasso tambm seria
mitigado.
iv.
O estudo do posicionamento da extenso. Embora a extenso de marca tenha sido filtrada nos trs passos anteriores,
mitigando o risco de fracasso e aumentando a probabilidade de xito da extenso, estratgico levar a cabo um estudo de
posicionamento que informe sobre a situao do mercado e dos vrios concorrentes. Desta forma, evitar-se-o surpresas
quanto a reaes desfavorveis suscitadas no mercado e permitiria orientar estratgias de comunicao e promoo que
melhor suportem a extenso de marca.
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Desta forma, obter informaes relativas dimenso endgena empresas (colaboradores, competitividade do know-how atual,
etc.), bem como a nvel exgeno (satisfao dos consumidores e dos distribuidores, imagem de marca e posicionamento)
converte-se em prioridade para apoiar qualquer estratgia levada a cabo por parte da empresa.
Os autores identificam, com base em fundamentos tericos e empricos que visam alterar elementos que interferem com a
probabilidade de xito ou fracasso de uma extenso de marca, dado que nos ltimos anos esta estratgia se converteu numa das
mais utilizadas pelos responsveis de marcas nacionais e internacionais como forma de sobrevivncia no mercado ou mesmo de
internacionalizao das empresas.
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O ENDORSEMENT NO MBITO DA COMUNICAO DE MARKETING:
UMA APLICAO AO SETOR BANCRIO
PALAVRAS-CHAVE: MARKETING, ENDORSEMENT, FIGURAS PBLICAS, INSTITUIES BANCRIAS, PORTUGAL
Resumo
O endorsement atravs de figuras pblicas tem vindo a
ganhar importncia ao longo dos tempos. Este processo
consubstancia-se num canal de comunicao da marca
atravs do qual uma celebridade atua como sua portavoz, sendo capaz de autentic-la e posicion-la,
consoante a sua popularidade e o seu estatuto na
sociedade ou experincia na rea. Assim, esta
investigao, aplicada especificamente ao setor bancrio,
pretende verificar se o endorsement funciona bem como
ferramenta promocional e se eficaz para a marca
comunicar com o cliente. As variveis que se pretende
analisar so: o grau de associao da figura pblica
endorsada instituio bancria; a influncia do
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Abstract
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1. Introduo
Vive-se atualmente na era do consumo, na qual todos os dias aparecem novas marcas, novos produtos, novos servios. Neste
cenrio, a comunicao assume uma relevncia acrescida. Comunicar com os consumidores torna-se essencial para se conseguir
chegar numa primeira fase ao pblico-alvo e, posteriormente, estabelecer relaes dinmicas constantes com o mesmo, em
qualquer lugar, em qualquer hora e de qualquer forma.
Num contexto de mercados altamente competitivos, a aposta em novos produtos e marcas diferenciadas cada vez mais uma
preocupao das empresas. A marca torna-se numa ferramenta imprescindvel de marketing, que permite empresa obter uma
vantagem competitiva sustentvel superior de outros fatores (Kotler, 2000). Existem mltiplas formas de comunicar ao mercado
essas vantagens. Por exemplo, o endorsement de figuras pblicas considerado um instrumento eficaz na promoo de marcas,
empresas, produtos, causas e servios. A sua popularidade tal que o relatrio da MarketWatch, j em 2006 referia que um em
cada quatro anncios publicitrios utilizava o endorsement de figuras pblicas.
A racionalidade de se gastarem avultadas quantias de dinheiro no endorsement de figuras conhecidas do grande pblico assenta
no facto de estas serem fontes da mensagem que iro acrescentar credibilidade ao anncio e comunicao em geral da
organizao (Sallam e Wahid, 2012). Assim, Spry, Pappu e Cornwell (2011) consideram que o endorsement de figuras pblicas
influencia a eficcia da publicidade, a notoriedade/reconhecimento e a reputao da marca, a inteno de compra e at o
despoletar de um comportamento. Por sua vez, Ogunsiji (2012) investigou o impacto do endorsement por celebridades na gesto
estratgica da marca e estabeleceu uma correlao significativa entre o sucesso do endorsement por celebridades e o poder da
marca no mercado. O estudo demonstra que o poder de uma marca no mercado se reflete nas atitudes cognitivas, afetivas e
comportamentais para com a figura pblica.
Apesar de o tema no estar ainda amplamente estudado, j foram desenvolvidas algumas investigaes sobre o endorsement
principalmente a nvel internacional (Estados Unidos da Amrica, Inglaterra, Austrlia, Brasil, etc.), destacando-se alguns autores
(Shimp, 2003; Ericsson e Hkansson, 2005; Alsmadi, 2006; Patel 2009) que tm desenvolvido modelos que contribuem para a
compreenso, evoluo e o aprofundamento desta problemtica. Denota-se contudo que ainda existem muitos aspetos por
investigar e hipteses por explorar, o que s por si justificaria a escolha do tema para a presente investigao. A outra razo que
se aponta para justificar a importncia do tema a parca investigao do mesmo em Portugal.
A investigao inicia-se com a reviso da literatura, a partir da qual se consegue chegar a um modelo terico que se traduz na
formulao de vrias questes de investigao que, posteriormente so analisadas atravs de um estudo emprico. Os resultados
so apresentados de seguida, e termina-se com a apresentao das concluses, limitaes e sugestes de futuras linhas de
investigao.
2. Marca e endorsement
Na perspetiva de Ogunsiji (2012), a marca um sinal de distino de qualidade e pode ser usado como uma vantagem competitiva
capaz de obter maiores retornos financeiros, bem como a alta fidelizao de clientes. As marcas podem torna-se smbolos cujo
significado usado para criar e definir o conceito do prprio consumidor. Uma marca pode, por si s, no nos dizer nada, mas
quando associada a uma individualidade assume o seu brilho, glamour, charme e aspirao.
Mais recentemente, Ogunsiji (2012) afirma no seu estudo que o valor da marca se reflete na forma como os consumidores
pensam, sentem e agem relativamente marca. No obstante, tambm fazem parte do valor da marca os preos, a participao no
mercado e a sua rentabilidade. O valor da marca (brand equity) tem uma forte dimenso psicolgica e financeira para as empresas.
Por sua vez, a reputao da marca um ingrediente crucial para o sucesso de uma empresa. No estudo levado a cabo por
Goldsmith, Lafferty e Newell (2000), a reputao corporativa definida como a perceo global das aes j desenvolvidas por
uma empresa, mas tambm como a anteviso do que ir desenvolver no futuro. Geralmente, os consumidores quando expostos a
anncios de determinadas marcas j tm percees previamente construdas dessas marcas ou empresas. A familiarizao com as
empresas resulta de uma acumulao de informao e da experincia adquirida com o passar do tempo.
Neste ponto pode ento falar-se na teoria de aprendizagem associativa que consiste num mecanismo pelo qual podem ser
estabelecidas ligaes ou relaes entre conceitos (Klein, 1991). uma estrutura de rede associativa de memria cujas
conexes/nodos so conceitos unidos (Till e Busler, 2000). Por exemplo, no contexto do endorsement, a celebridade e a marca
representam unidades conectadas a outras unidades, que correspondem ligao das nossas experincias com a celebridade e a
marca. Este jogo de conexes pressupe a associao entre a marca e a figura pblica. Esta repetio de representaes entre a
marca e o famoso constitui-se como parte do jogo de associaes, entre ambos.
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Este modelo frequentemente usado em contextos de marketing para explicar a estrutura da memria e as associaes dos
consumidores marca. Para Till e Shimp (1998), as figuras pblicas e as marcas representam elos individuais que se associam de
forma a que cada entidade se torne parte da associao de um conjunto. Esta ligao pode fornecer uma associao to desejada
que propicia a criao de brand-equity.
O endorsement pode ento ser considerado como uma estratgia de comunicao de marketing que ajuda a melhorar a
credibilidade corporativa, sendo uma deciso crtica que pode ditar o secesso da estratgia comunicacional (Yang, Lo e Wang,
2012). No entanto, a reputao a base das estratgias de comunicao e sem a qual no h credibilidade institucional. As
relaes pblicas, os patrocnios ou a associao a uma causa so aes fundamentais para aumentar a reputao de uma marca
ou empresa.
Conscientes de que os consumidores esto cada vez mais crticos e exigentes, as organizaes recorrem publicidade com figuras
pblicas de forma a obter percees positivas em relao ao produto (ou causa) anunciado. Para Fonseca e Borges (2006), a
utilizao de figuras pblicas nos media, enquanto geradoras de credibilidade, tem vindo a aumentar, tornando-se uma
ferramenta imprescindvel para o reconhecimento da marca, produto ou servio.
O processo de endorsement por figuras pblicas, que ser explorado no ponto seguinte, consubstancia-se num canal de
comunicao da marca atravs do qual uma celebridade atua como sua porta-voz, sendo capaz de autentic-la e posicion-la,
consoante a sua popularidade e o seu estatuto na sociedade ou experincia na rea.
O uso de celebridades como forma de endorsement cada vez mais comum no marketing atual, seja para anunciar produtos e
marcas, seja para promover organizaes. Keller (2008) refere que o uso de figuras famosas fundamental para a construo de
uma boa imagem da marca, quando ela est associada s caractersticas positivas da celebridade utilizada. Uma celebridade bem
selecionada melhora substancialmente a comunicao com potenciais clientes e capaz de estabelecer relaes entre os
consumidores e a marca.
As celebridades so figuras amplamente reconhecidas, e muitas delas so percebidas como credveis, produzindo assim uma
maior influncia tanto na avaliao da marca como na inteno de compra (Ogunsiji, 2012). Para Seno e Lukas (2007), o
endorsement por celebridades uma das formas mais recorrentes para promover uma gama de produtos e servios. Esta tcnica
publicitria visa utilizar vrios tipos de figuras pblicas no sentido de promover produtos ou marcas (Hsu e McDonald, 2002) de
modo a influenciar as intenes de compra dos consumidores (Kamins, 1990; Ohanian, 1991). O uso de celebridades com
propsitos comerciais tem como pressuposto utilizar a sua imagem bem como os prprios valores e personalidade, para assim
incutir na mente do consumidor a marca que representa.
Em 2000, nos EUA, cerca de um quarto das campanhas publicitrias utilizaram personalidades (Erdogan e Baker, 2000),
fenmeno que se tem vindo a confirmar noutros estudos empricos, que indicam que uma em cada cinco campanhas de marketing
recorre ao endorsement por celebridades (Koernig e Boyd, 2009). Contudo, o uso de figuras pblicas enquanto porta-vozes de uma
ou vrias marcas, em anncios, implica um investimento significativo para as organizaes. Mesmo assim, autores como Agrawal e
Kamakura (1995) comprovam que este tipo de endorsement suscetvel de ser lucrativo, capaz de chamar a ateno do pblicoalvo, aumentar o grau de recordao e de credibilidade dos anncios e at conseguir criar word of mouth (Koernig e Boyd, 2009).
Para Agrawal e Kamakura (1995), o uso difundido e contnuo de personalidades sugere que os marketers continuam a acreditar
que esta tcnica publicitria eficaz, e capaz de fazer face a todas as despesas envolvidas, na medida em que ajuda a melhorar a
atitude dos consumidores em relao marca (Friedman e Friedman, 1979), a aumentar as vendas (Friedman e Friedman, 1979;
Kamins 1989), e a incrementar a fidelizao marca (Bush, Martin e Bush, 2004).
Na opinio de Atkin e Block (1983), os anncios com celebridades so considerados mais interessantes, fortes e eficazes, e
normalmente focam-se em produtos mais apetecveis. Segundo Doss (2011), o endorsement com figuras pblicas no tpico de
uma categoria de produtos; pelo contrrio, pode abranger uma vasta gama de produtos e marcas. Este conceito constitui uma das
vantagens competitivas das marcas, capaz de diferenciar os seus produtos relativamente concorrncia. Esta vantagem prende-se
com o facto de lhes estar associada uma maior confiabilidade, atratividade e credibilidade quando comparados com outros
produtos que no so anunciados e/ou associados a figuras pblicas.
McCracken (1989) define uma celebridade endorser como um indivduo com reconhecimento pblico, utilizado em benefcio de
uma marca, mostrando-se com esse produto num anncio publicitrio. Para este autor, as celebridades tipicamente utilizadas so
as figuras televisivas, individualidades ligadas ao desporto, ao cinema, poltica, aos negcios, arte e vida militar. Friedman e
Friedman, j em 1979, consideravam nos seus estudos trs tipos de endorsers: (1) figuras pblicas; (2) especialistas reconhecidos
profissionalmente; (3) consumidores comuns. Para os autores as figuras pblicas so pessoas conhecidas do pblico,
principalmente pela sua rea de atuao, e no esto associadas classe daquilo que anunciam. Por outro lado, os especialistas
so indivduos com um conhecimento privilegiado relativamente ao produto anunciado. Finalmente, tem-se o consumidor
corrente que apenas tem contato com a classe do produto depois de adquirido e de usado.
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Por sua vez, Liu, Huang e Minghua (2007) apresentam uma classificao de quatro tipos principais de endorsers: a celebridade
propriamente dita, o CEO, o perito e o consumidor tpico. So quatro tipos de endorsers aplicados a diferentes tipos de produtos,
persuasivos de formas distintas, destinados a audincias tambm elas dspares. Todavia, para Till e Shimp (1998), quando
comparado com outros tipos de endorsement, o endorsement por celebridade mais eficaz nas dimenses de competncia,
confiana, empatia e persuaso.
Adicionalmente, Seno e Lukas (2007) afirmam que o endorsement se assume sob vrios gneros: explicitamente (eu anuncio este
produto), implicitamente (eu uso este produto), imperativamente (voc deveria usar este produto), ou presencialmente
(aparecendo com o produto). O processo de endorsement exige inicialmente uma boa seleo das celebridades e, posteriormente,
a criao de boas oportunidades de publicidade inovadora e carismtica (Till e Busler, 1998).
Seno e Lukas (2007) na anlise do endorsement de celebridades consideram que devem ser tidos em conta fatores mais globais
como a atratividade, assim como fatores de gesto, dos quais fazem parte a congruncia entre celebridade-produto e a
multiplicidade da celebridade.
2.1. Atratividade
Langmeyer e Shank (1994) definem a atratividade da celebridade como um conjunto variveis como a beleza exterior, interior, a
inteligncia, o charme, a estrutura fsica, etc. Apesar de opinies controversas, a reviso da literatura sugere que as figuras
pblicas mais atraentes tm um efeito positivo nas marcas e produtos a elas associadas (Kamins, 1990; Till e Busler, 1998, 2000).
Till e Busler (2000) demonstraram que a atratividade do endorser tinha um efeito positivo no s na atitude face marca, mas
tambm nas intenes de compra.
O modelo da atratividade da fonte de McGuire (1985) serve-se dos conceitos competncia e confiana, do modelo da
credibilidade da fonte referido no ponto anterior. A este modelo esto subjacentes trs dimenses: a familiaridade, a similaridade
(intimamente relacionada com a familiaridade), e a preferncia (McGuire 1969). A familiaridade definida como o conhecimento
que o pblico tem da fonte, quando exposta; a similaridade consiste na presumida semelhana entre a celebridade e a audincia; a
preferncia , por sua vez, o sentimento para com a fonte como resultado da sua atratividade fsica, comportamento ou valores. O
modelo da atratividade da fonte pressupe que a efetividade da mensagem depende da familiaridade, da semelhana, do
favoritismo e da atratividade da figura pblica. Estas personalidades, enquanto figuras pblicas idolatradas e estimadas pelo seu
pblico, so consideradas mais atraentes e persuasivas (McGuire, 1969).
Seno e Lukas (2007) lembram que os produtos representados por uma celebridade atraente so claramente beneficiados, sendo
que a atrao um fator especialmente importante na inteno de compra. Assim, a credibilidade e a atratividade so critrios
fundamentais para a seleo das figuras pblicas.
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up. Kamins (1990) sugere que a hiptese de match-up se centra, essencialmente, na atratividade fsica do endorser e demostra
que uma celebridade tanto mais eficaz quanto melhor se fizer corresponder com o produto.
3. Metodologia
Optou-se pela realizao de um estudo emprico dividido em duas fases, sendo que a primeira coincidiu com o levantamento dos
maiores bancos nacionais, cujas campanhas publicitrias tenham feito uso do endorsement de figuras pblicas. A segunda fase, por
seu turno, consistiu na recolha de dados atravs de inqurito por questionrio, recorrendo a uma amostra de 523 indivduos.
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produtos. Assim, as marcas fazem um esforo enorme para tentar descobrir quais so os fatores que mais potenciam a inteno de
compra, pelo que a segunda questo de investigao foi formulada nesse sentido.
Q2 - Ser que o conhecimento, a seleo e a atratividade da figura pblica so determinantes para a compra do produto
bancrio anunciado?
O processo de endorsement exige inicialmente uma boa seleo das celebridades e, posteriormente, a criao de boas
oportunidades de publicidade inovadora e carismtica (Till e Busler, 1998). Seno e Lukas (2007) lembram que os produtos
representados por uma celebridade atraente so claramente beneficiados, sendo que a atrao um fator especialmente
importante na inteno de compra. Contudo, diferentes figuras pblicas podero gerar diferentes percees relativamente sua
escolha (boa ou m) e sua atratividade (pouca ou muita), pelo que far sentido levantar a questo:
Q3 Existiro diferenas significativas entre as figuras pblicas no que respeita perceo da sua seleo e sua
atratividade?
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4. Resultados
Foi inicialmente efetuada uma anlise s frequncias, assim como aos valores mdios e outras estatsticas descritivas com vista a
caracterizar as respostas da amostra e fornecer um retrato mais global da mesma. A Tabela 1 apresenta assim uma sntese dos
resultados globais.
Tabela 1. Anlise genrica s questes includas no questionrio
QUESTO
RESPOSTA
Relativamente anlise da questo de investigao: Q1. At que ponto os indivduos associam corretamente a figura pblica
endorsada instituio bancria?, recorreu-se anlise das frequncias simples (Tabela 2).
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Tabela 2. Associao s figuras pblicas das instituies bancrias (respostas corretas)
Endorser/Banco
Frequncia
Percentagem
Cristiano Ronaldo
BES
455
87,0
Jos Mourinho
Millennium BCP
301
57,6
279
53,3
Fernanda Serrano
BPI
225
43,0
198
37,9
Slvia Alberto
Crdito Agrcola
156
29,8
100
19,1
A Tabela 2 mostra que 87 % dos inquiridos associam corretamente a figura de Cristiano Ronaldo ao BES. O treinador Jos
Mourinho associado ao Millennium BCP por 57,6 % da amostra. No caso da CGD, a tabela 2 mostra que 53,3% dos respondentes
associa este banco aos humoristas Bruno Nogueira, Jos Pedro Gomes e Miguel Guilherme e 43,0% associa Fernanda Serrano ao
BPI. Sandra Pereira e Laurent Filipe so reconhecidos como endorsers do Santander por 37,9%. Por outro lado, apenas 29,8% da
amostra associa a apresentadora da RTP Slvia Alberto ao Crdito Agrcola, e s uma minoria, mais precisamente 19,1%,
reconhece os ex-jogadores Paulo Alves, Cesar Brito e Jorge Couto como representantes dos produtos bancrios do Banif.
No que diz respeito questo de investigao: Q2. Ser que o conhecimento, a seleo e a atratividade da figura pblica so
determinantes para a compra do produto bancrio anunciado?, foi utilizada a regresso linear mltipla. Neste caso a varivel
dependente o Comportamento de compra e as variveis independentes so trs, o grau de Conhecimento dos endorsers, o grau de
Seleo dos endorsers e o grau de Atratividade dos endorsers. Com vista a analisar a varincia do modelo, o teste de F test foi
aplicado com um valor de significncia associado p-value de 0,000, o que indica que as variveis dependentes e independentes
esto relacionadas. De referir que a anlise foi feita banco a banco, pelo que pela sua extenso apenas se apresenta aqui o
resultado final.
Os dados denotam expressamente que de entre as trs variveis independentes, o grau de Conhecimento dos endorsers, o grau de
Seleo dos endorsers e o grau de Atratividade dos endorsers, apenas esta ltima parece ser relevante na formao da inteno de
compra; atravs da anlise do coeficiente de regresso verificou-se que apenas a varivel da Atratividade dos endorsers tinha
significncia estatstica (p<0.05) em todos os bancos testados.
Relativamente questo de investigao: Q3. Existiro diferenas significativas entre as figuras pblicas no que respeita perceo
da sua seleo e sua atratividade?, foram realizados testes do Qui-Quadrado (Tabelas 3 e 4).
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Tabela 3. Teste estatstico para analisar a perceo da seleo das figuras pblicas
Qui-Quadrado
Gl
Asymp. Sig.
Banif
BES
BPI
Crdito
Agrcola
CGD
Millennium
BCP
Santander
296,187
507,124
263,243
315,939
258,673
555,098
173,702
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
Tabela 4. Teste estatstico para analisar a perceo da atratividade das figuras pblicas
Qui-Quadrado
Gl
Asymp. Sig.
Banif
BES
BPI
Crdito
Agrcola
CGD
Millennium
BCP
Santander
238,367
300,547
194,964
254,753
177,392
381,962
178,252
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
O teste do Qui-Quadrado tem associado um nvel de significncia de 0,000 em ambos os casos (seleo e atratividade), pelo que se
verificam diferenas estatisticamente significativas no que respeita perceo da sua seleo e sua atratividade. Ou seja, para os
respondentes a opo por uma ou outra figura pblica no indiferente, nomeadamente quando se tem em conta os parmetros
seleo e atratividade.
Considerados os resultados no que respeita estatstica descritiva das perguntas Considera que as figuras pblicas de cada banco
foram bem selecionadas? e As figuras pblicas escolhidas so atrativas e refletem bem a marca e o produto bancrio que
representam? do questionrio, Jos Mourinho e Cristiano Ronaldo, em ambos os casos (seleo e atratividade), foram
considerados os mais bem selecionados e tambm os mais atrativos. Neste sentido, poder afirmar-se que as figuras
internacionais desportivas parecem ter maior relevncia no mbito do endorsement por celebridades, no caso do produto
bancrio.
McCracken (1989) refora este resultado defendendo que um elemento-chave no processo de harmonizao do endorsement
usar figuras com credibilidade internacional reconhecida em todos os mercados mundiais, que geralmente veem do desporto ou
da msica e que at j representaram outras marcas.
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A campanha publicitria Conta rendimento CR do BES a mais recordada. Este dado pode estar intimamente relacionado com os
dois resultados anteriores. Veja-se a tica de alguns autores j referenciados: as figuras desportivas so amplamente utilizadas
com vista a melhorar as vendas e a aumentar os nveis de recordao do produto. Figuras como atletas ou mesmo treinadores so
as celebridades preferidas neste tipo de endorsement (Bush, Martin e Bush, 2004). Agrawal e Kamakura (1995) reforam que o
endorsement atravs de figuras pblicas suscetvel de chamar a ateno do pblico-alvo e aumentar o grau de recordao.
Quando se questiona a amostra sobre a perceo da seleo correta das figuras pblicas e da atratividade do endorser, a tendncia
uma vez mais confirmada, pelo facto de a escolha recair maioritariamente na figura do treinador Jos Mourinho. Aqui est
subjacente um dos argumentos de Seno e Lukas (2007), para os quais a credibilidade e a atratividade constituem-se como
critrios fundamentais para a seleo das figuras pblicas. No seu estudo Sallam e Wahid (2012) reforam inclusive que a
atratividade uma componente mais significativa do que a expertise do endorser para lograr uma atitude positivados
consumidores em relao ao anncio.
As celebridades enquanto figuras amplamente reconhecidas, muitas delas percebidas como credveis, produzem uma maior
influncia na inteno de compra (Ogunsiji, 2012). Esta frase serve de mote para o prximo resultado, no qual o Jos Mourinho
considerado, pela amostra, a figura mais determinante na inteno de compra.
A atratividade pode influenciar efetivamente a formao da inteno de compra, embora tambm a seleo tenha tido alguma
influncia no caso dos bancos BPI e Santander. Neste sentido, esta informao reitera a opinio de Till e Busler (2000), na qual
demonstraram que a atratividade do endorser tem um efeito positivo no s na atitude face marca, como tambm nas intenes
de compra.
Os resultados comprovam que os inquiridos no so indiferentes no que diz respeito aos parmetros de seleo e de atratividade
dos endorsers. O processo de endorsement exige inicialmente uma boa seleo das celebridades e posteriormente a criao de boas
oportunidades de publicidade inovadora e carismtica (Till e Busler, 1998). Tambm Seno e Lukas (2007) lembram que os
produtos representados por uma celebridade atraente so claramente beneficiados, sendo que a atrao um fator especialmente
importante na inteno de compra. Assim, a credibilidade e a atratividade so critrios fundamentais para a seleo das figuras
pblicas.
Os resultados empricos deste estudo podero ser teis para as diferentes entidades bancrias analisarem a eficcia do uso de
figuras pblicas nos seus anncios, reavaliando ou mesmo ajustando as suas opes. Verificou-se que em relao a alguns aspetos,
a figura pblica alocada ao banco, nem sempre seria a mais adequada.
A aplicao do endorsement ao setor bancrio em Portugal por si s uma limitao do estudo, por isso mesmo os resultados
nunca podero ser generalizados para outros setores de servios ou at mesmo ao setor mas noutros pases do mundo.
A escolha e a incluso de vrios bancos (sete) para objeto de investigao pode ter influenciado o enviesamento dos resultados e
originando uma anlise pouco conclusiva. No que diz respeito metodologia, importa salientar que os resultados podem ter sido
enviesados tambm pelo facto da amostra recolhida ser uma amostra de convenincia. Nesta medida torna-se difcil generalizar
os resultados para a populao portuguesa. Por ltimo, tendo em conta que as campanhas no decorreram exatamente todas em
simultneo, tal facto pode ter condicionado o nvel de recordao das campanhas publicitrias.
Para futuras investigaes sugere-se a realizao de novos estudos com enfoque em outros setores de servios, nomeadamente no
caso de operadoras de telecomunicaes e seguradoras, por exemplo. Tambm no setor B2C fundamental perceber em que
medida o endorsement eficaz no caso de marcas de grande consumo.
A questo cultural tambm poderia ser futuramente explorada, averiguando se existem diferenas entre os vrios pases no que
respeita forma como veem o endorsement atravs de figuras pblicas.
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EVALUATING THE USE OF AVATARS IN E-COMMERCE
KEYWORDS: AVATARS, ONLINE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR, E-COMMERCE, TRUST, CREDIBILITY, SOCIABILITY AND HUMAN
WARMTH
Abstract
Resumo
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1. Introduction
The lack of consumer trust, particularly in the B2C segment, has been recognized as one of the greatest barriers for the
development of electronic commerce (Aldiri, Hobbs, & Qahwaji, 2010). This lack of trust can be largely attributed to the absence of
personal face-to-face interactions between the consumer and the seller. In traditional commerce, trust between parties builds in
these interactions (Aldiri et al, 2010) which constitute one of its main comparative advantages. Such interactions provide human
contact and create opportunities for the development of personal services in contrast with the impersonal e-commerce
interaction between the consumer and a Web server (Otto & Chung, 2001). E-commerce operators have already realized that
human contact is important in order to establish meaningful relationships with their customers (Qiu & Benbasat, 2005).
The literature suggests that the use of avatars (virtual characters with human characteristics created by technology) can increase
the persuasiveness of online sales channels (Wang, Baker, Wagner, & Wakefield, 2007) by increasing their credibility, perceived
trust, and allowing for social stimuli and human warmth in online stores interactions. Consequently avatars lead to greater
consumer satisfaction with the seller, a better attitude toward the product and increased purchase intent (Holzwarth, Janiszewski,
& Neuman, 2006).
The technology now available allows equipping a website with animated 3D avatars with high level of interactivity and multiple
graphic options. Avatars can be built from real human beings images, endowed with synthesized voice through text to speech
technology (TTS), with real human voice and even with Artificial Intelligence (AI) based on a knowledge library with tens of
thousands of topics that can be tailored to the specific online store specifications. Such technology allows consumers to engage in
a two-way conversation with the virtual character and find answers in a more intuitive and enjoyable manner.
In this paper, we report an experiment designed to test the impact of avatars. We compared an online store with a photo realistic
avatar endowed with real human voice, and an online store with a naturalistic avatar endowed with TTS voice, with an online
store without an avatar.
This paper is organized as follows: In the following section, we conduct a literature review about the introduction of social factors
and the use of avatars in e-commerce (E.C.). Section three presents the empirical study describing methodological considerations
and study design. Subsequently, we present the findings of the experiment. The results are discussed on section five. Finally, we
present the studys conclusions including the implications for management, limitations and further research directions.
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The social response theory argues that the use of human characteristics such as language, voice, interactivity and social role in
computers can enhance users' social responses despite the fact that users are aware that machines are not human beings (Steuer
and Nass, 1993; Reeves & Nass, 1996 apud Wang and Fodness, 2010). Thus, although there are no humans on the Internet avatars
can induce feelings of sociability on consumers during their interactions with the computer (Wang and Fodness, 2010). This
implies that avatars exert a social influence similar to the one sellers have on brick-and-mortar stores. In a laboratory experiment
carried out by Qiu and Benbasat (2009), results showed that the use of recommendation agents in humanoid form communicating
via voice in online stores strongly influenced perceptions of social presence among consumers. In return, consumers feelings of
trust, perception of fun and, finally, the intention to adopt the virtual agent as a decision aid increased.
However, contrary to face to face interactions, in a computer mediated environment, the characteristics of an avatar can be
tailored to promote any kind of impressions and reactions (Nowak & Rauth, 2005). Nowak and Rauth (2005) conducted a study to
evaluate avatars in a static context in terms of their androgyny, anthropomorphism, credibility, homophilia, attraction and the
possibility of being chosen during an interaction. Their results sustain that the responses to the images were consistent with the
Uncertainty Reduction Theory. According to this theory, in an interaction, the first objective of an individual is to reduce
uncertainty about the person with whom he is interacting. The findings of this study demonstrated that the anthropomorphism as
well as the masculinity or femininity of avatars (the absence of androgyny) reduces uncertainty about the characteristics of the
character represented by the avatar and influences people's perceptions about it. Anthropomorphic avatars were perceived as
more attractive, credible and susceptible of being chosen by people to represent them. Female avatars were considered by the
participants in the study as more attractive than male ones. The majority preferred avatars of their own gender (Nowak & Rauth,
2005). The results of this study contrast, in part, with previous studies that supported the idea that anthropomorphism would be
the biggest predictor of credibility of an avatar (Koda, 1996 and Wexelblat, 1997 apud Nowak and Rauth, 2005). However, the
study of Nowak and Rauth (2005) concluded that the most influential factor is the degree of masculinity or femininity of the
avatar (the absence of androgyny). Furthermore, results showed that images with strong features of masculinity or femininity
were perceived as more anthropomorphic than images without strong indication of gender.
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2.3. Trust
Trust in commerce/e-commerce is normally defined as the conviction for acting in accordance with the recommendations of the
seller and/or website (Cugelman, Thelwall, & Dawes, 2009). It is the willingness to depend on the goodwill of the trader; and to
become vulnerable to the seller (McKnight, Choudhury & Kacmar, 2002). Trust has been vastly reported as the first mediating
factor between consumer perceptions and intention to buy online (Cugelman et al, 2009).
Theory of Reasoned Action suggests that four trusting beliefs determine consumer attitudes of trustworthiness toward Web
vendors (Salam, Iyer, Palvia, & Singh, 2005):
In the benevolence of the vendor: perceptions of good will, caring, responsiveness, and concern;
In the competence of the vendor: perceptions of characteristics such as honesty, credibility, reliability, dependability and
discretion demonstrated by the Merchant;
In the competence of the vendor: perceived competence in its product design, manufacturing, order processing, delivery,
after-sale service, and customer problem solving.
In the predictability of the vendor: this belief involves perceptions of predictability and consistency in the vendors actions,
reducing perceived consumer risk.
Trust is a complex social phenomenon reflecting technological, behavioral, social, psychological, and organizational interactions
among human and nonhuman technological agents. Technical approaches to establishing credibility and integrity are necessary
but not sufficient for creating long-term trusting relationships between consumers and online businesses (Salam, Iyer, Palvia, &
Singh, 2005, p. 77).
A recent study by Wang and Fodness (2010) revealed that consumers perceptions of sociability, the emotional answers, and the
trust toward the online seller, are more positive when an avatar with the capacity to be likeable and to create empathy with the
consumer is present on the online store. If avatars are absent, or the avatar is not able to generate affection and empathy with the
consumer, those perceptions are less positive.
This result, associated with the findings of Nowak and Rauth (2005) and Nowak, Hamilton, and Hammond (2008) suggests that
drawing photo-realistic likeable avatars which are able to generate empathy with the consumers can, in fact, generate positive
emotions and induce consumer trust toward the online trader. Thus the following hypotheses are proposed:
H2 - Avatars based on real images of human beings and with real human voice induce trust towards the online seller.
H2a Trust towards the seller increases the purchase and repurchase intention.
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with which it interacts. This comparability mediates the influence of the avatar attractiveness on consumers persuasion;
Similarly, avatar expertise influences the perception of credibility and this mediates the influence of avatars expertise in
consumers persuasion (Holzwarth et al, 2006; Culgman et al 2009).
H3 - Avatars based on images of real human beings and with real voice induce credibility in the online store.
H3a Credibility in online store directly increases the purchase and repurchase intention.
H3b - Credibility has a positive impact in trust.
3. Research Design
This study followed an experimental design. This approach was adopted since only an experiment can ensure the maximum
possible control of external variables such as the influence of design and degree of sophistication of the website, the influence of
the type of product, price and the always important factor of influence that is the brand.
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The experimental plan was organized on the form of three groups (X1; X2; X3) with control group and post-test. This
experimental design, although simple, is robust both in terms of internal validity and in terms of external validity.
X1 Interaction Level 1 - In this experience the participants visited a simulated online store (Shop 1) without any kind of avatar.
This online shop presented reduced social cues such as photographs and texts. This group worked as the control group.
X 2- Interaction Level 2 - In this experience the participants visited a simulated online store (Shop 2) containing a purely virtual
(naturalistic) avatar with TTS voice.
X 3- Interaction Level 3 - In this experience the participants visited a simulated online store (Shop 3) displaying an avatar based
on the image of a real human being (photo-realistic with real voice) representing the trader or one employee.
After the treatment (experiments with the three different simulated online shops), the post-test (questionnaire) was
administrated to all groups.
The three online stores had a technically simple design as similar as possible to a real online store. The chosen products for sale
were regular sports shoes since these are shopping goods which do not require a very complex decision making process.
There was an entry page where all products were visible (six in total). For each product there was also a specific page where the
product was described in detail by text on Shop 1; by text and voice on Shops 2 and 3. Before entering into the main page of the
stores, subjects were presented with a set of pages with instructions about the experiment and about technical features of the
websites to ensure perfect navigation. The technology used for the construction of the avatars was provided by Oddcast Inc.1 and
is available at SitePal2 Website.
The Web Design of the three stores was exactly the same with the only exception of the introduction of the avatar in stores 2 and 3
as described in the experimental plan.
Image 2: Online Store (Shop 3) main page
The Web Design of these interfaces was deliberately kept simple to minimize its influence on the attitudes of the subjects of the
experiment. The information transmitted orally by avatars in Shops 2 and 3 were exactly the same as the text of Store 1 and
product prices were the same.
In accordance with the findings of Nowak and Rauth (2005), female avatars were chosen to appear in Online Shops because they
are perceived by consumers to be more attractive.
Image 3: Used Avatars
1
2
http://www.oddcast.com
http://www.sitepal.com
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3.1. Questionnaire
A questionnaire was developed and presented to each of the subjects after the experiment. This questionnaire included sevenpoints scales to measure "Trust" (5 items rating scale, adapted from the study of Bart, Shankar, Sultan and Urban, 2005,
"Credibility" (4 items rating scale, adapted from the study of Cugelman et al, 2009), " Sociability and human warmth" (9 items
rating scale, adapted from Wang and Fodness, 2010) and "Purchase and Repurchase Intention" (3 items rating scale, also adapted
from the study of Wang and Fodness,2010).
3.2. Sample
The subjects of the experiment were recruited online through social media (Facebook and Linkedin) and Electronic Mail.
Participants were randomly assigned to the three groups and subsequently they were contacted by email and social media
websites with instructions to carry out the experiment and to answer the questionnaire.
The restriction of the recruitment process to the Internet aimed to control external variables like 'technology acceptance level' in
order to ensure all subjects recruited were skilled in Internet Technologies.
98 subjects participated in the experiment. Each of the three groups comprised a sample above thirty elements in order to
preserve the external validity of the experiment: X1 experiment (Control group) - 34 subjects, X2 - 31 and X3 - 33).
4. Findings
4.1. Sample Profile
The majority of the subjects were college graduates (57%), 23% had completed secondary education and 13% had incomplete
secondary education. Finally 7% of the subjects had only primary education. About gender, 54% of the subjects were male and
46% were female. The most represented age group was the 25 - 34 years old with 32% of the sample, followed by the group of 35
- 44 with 31%. The group 15 - 24 years old had 20% of the subjects. Finally, elements between 45 54 years old accomplished
13% of the total and between 55 - 64 about 5%. There were no subjects over the age of 64. In what concerns occupation, 23% of
the participants were students, 16% belonged to the professional-managerial group and 15% were Industrial/Skilled workers.
Regarding usage of internet, 86% of the subjects reported having already purchased at least once on the Internet, 56% reported
purchasing on the Internet several times a year and 13% reported doing it every month. Online banking operations are performed
by 60% of the subjects. If we consider the simultaneous use of the Internet to perform banking operations and to buy goods or
services to be an "advanced usage", we should then consider that 58% of the subjects fall into this category.
The analysis of the data for the three samples shows that there are no significant differences regarding the main demographic
characteristics.
Table 1: Sample profile for each group
Gender
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Total - n
Male
16
18
19
53
Female
18
13
14
45
15-24
10
19
25-34
12
10
31
35 44
12
30
45-54
13
55-64
Yes
15
18
24
57
No
19
13
41
Age
Advanced use
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The reliability of scales, used to measure the latent constructs "Trust, Credibility", "Sociability and human warmth" and
"Purchase and repurchase intention", was tested using Cronbach's Alpha. The results confirm their internal consistency:
0,94, 0,92, 0,96 and 0,96 respectively.
Given these results, four new composite variables were created using the arithmetic mean of each group of items
corresponding to the latent constructs "Trust", "Credibility", "Sociability and Human Warmth", and " Purchase and
Repurchase Intention".
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Although the measurement and structural parameters are estimated together, a PLS path modelling approach is a two step
process that involves (1) the assessment of the reliability and validity of the measurement model and (2) the assessment of the
structural model.
All latent constructs are reflective. Reflective measurement models must be assessed with regard to their reliability and validity.
In what concerns reliability and validity of measurement scales, all absolute standardized values of each indicator and all
constructs composite reliability values exceed 0.70, evidencing an excellent good level of internal consistency in the responses
(Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011). Similarly, the AVE for all constructs is adequate (above 0.50), which indicates an acceptable
convergent validity of each construct meaning that each latent variable explains more than half of its the indicators variance (op.
cit.).
With regard to discriminant validity, we tested if the square roots of AVE of all latent constructs were greater than the
correlations between latent constructs in the model (Fornell-Lacker Criterion) (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt,
2011; Gtz, Liehr-Gobbers, & Krafft, 2010). Regarding to the square root of AVE all latent constructs satisfied the second
condition.
Table 2: Summary of statistics
Items for each construct
Indicator
loadings
Credibility
1 - The product information provided on this electronic shop is credible.
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.92
0.91
- Warm
0.91
- Helpful
0.94
- Polished
0.85
- Informational
0.87
- Intelligent
0.93
- Pleased
0.95
- Satisfied
0.95
- relaxed
0.85
Trust
1 - This electronic shop seems to me more trust inspiring than others I've visited.
0.90
2 - This electronic shop belongs to a company that will fulfill what is committed.
0.94
0.95
0.92
0.94
Purchase/repurchase intention
1 - The atmosphere created by this store convinced me to buy a product.
0.97
2 - The atmosphere created at this store makes me feel comfortable to recommend a friend to buy a product on it.
0.98
3 - I will become a customer of this store and come back whenever you need to buy new products.
0.98
ca
veb
0.96
0.86
0.98
0.82
0.97
0.86
0.98
0.95
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Table 2 (continued)
Credibility
Purchase/Repurchase
Intention
Sociability/Human
Warmth
Trust
Credibility
0.93
0.85
0.87
0.88
Purchase/Repurchase Intention
0.85
0.97
0.90
0.88
Sociability/Human Warmth
0.87
0.90
0.91
0.85
Trust
0.88
0.88
0.85
0.93
AVE
Notes: ac(Composite reliability: 0.70 c 1); b ve (Convergent validity (AVE)): 0.50 ve 1); AVE (Discriminant validity) the diagonal (in bold) shows
the square roots of the AVE.
This analysis shows that our constructs have adequate measurement properties. Subsequently, we assess whether the structural
model supported the proposed theoretical model.
The goal of the prediction oriented PLS-SEM approach is to explain the endogenous latent variables variance. To accomplish that
objective, the key targets constructs level of R2 should be high. In marketing studies, R2 values of 0.75, 0.50 and 0.25 can be
described respectively as substantial, moderate or weak (Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011). The endogenous variable in our model
shows a R2 = 0.861, which means that 86% of the endogenous constructs variance is explained by the model. This is a substantial
result. The larger R2 is , the larger the percentage of the endogenous construct variance is explained for is exogenous variables
(Gtz et al, 2010).
For assessing the predictive relevance of the model we must apply a blindfolding procedure to the endogenous variable. The
Stone-Geisser Q2 is the predominant measure of predictive relevance and comes in two forms: the cross validated redundancy and
communality (Stone, 1974; Geisser, 1974). As recommended by Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt (2011) we chose the cross-validated
redundancy because it uses the PLS-SEM estimates of both the structural model and the measurement models for data prediction.
As so it fits perfectly the PLS-SEM approach. A Q > 0 is indicative of predictive relevance (Chin W. W., 1998). The Q2 for the
endogenous variable Purchase/repurchase Intention is equal to 0.810. Therefore we can postulate that its explanatory latent
constructs have predictive relevance.
Hypotheses H1a, H2a, H3a and H3b were tested by assessing the path coefficients significance. For that purpose we used
bootstrapping: 5000 samples, 98 cases as recommended by Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt (2011).
The individual path can be interpreted as standardized beta coefficients () of ordinary least squares regressions. Paths that are
nonsignificant or show signs contrary to the hypothesized direction do not support a prior hypothesis; significant paths showing
the hypothesized sustain the anticipated causal relationship. (Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011, p. 147). Critical t-values for a twotailed test are 1.62 for a significance level of 0.1, 1.96 for a significance level of 0.05 and 2.58 for a significance level of 0.01 (op. cit,
p. 145).
Performed the bootstrapping, the results showed for the path Sociability/Human Warmth Purchase/Repurchase Intention
(=0.537), hypothesis H1a, a t-value equal to 6.31; and for the path Trust Purchase/Repurchase Intention (=0.380),
hypothesis H2a, a t-value equal to 4.54. These two paths (Hypotheses H1a, H2a) are significant and the hypotheses accepted.
Hypothesis H3a, the direct path between Credibility and Purchase/Repurchase Intention, was not confirmed. The results
demonstrated that it has no direct impact (=0.049, t=0.82) over Purchase/Repurchase Intention. The results shows also a strong
path coefficient ( = 0.883 t=35.41) between Credibility and Trust (hypothesis H3b). Therefore we performed a Mediator
Analysis Procedure in PLS-SEM (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2014) and the achieved valor of Variance Account For (VAF) was
87%, which indicate a full mediation of Trust between Credibility and Purchase/Repurchase Intention.
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Image 4: PLS path estimates
To assess the influence strength (Effect size ) of each latent exogenous variable on a particular latent endogenous variable one
must estimate twice the structural model: once with and once without the independent latent variable (Cohen, 1988).
Values for
of 0.02, 0.15, or 0.35 indicate respectively a weak, moderate or substantial influence of the exogenous variable on
the endogenous latent variable (Cohen, 1988; Gtz, Liehr-Gobbers, & Krafft, 2010). The results were
= 0.20 for Trust, a
moderate but significant effect over Purchase and Repurchase Intention,
= 0 for Credibility, an absolute null effect, and
= 0.43 for Sociability and Human Warmth, which is a very substantial effect.
Those were the results for the aggregated data. But, in addition, we must assess if all three different groups of subjects coincide
with the overall results or if exists significant differences between groups in what concerns to the influence of the exogenous
constructs over Purchase/Repurchase Intention. I.e., if there is significant differences between the path coefficients of the
exogenous constructs among groups. Therefore we performed a multi-groups analysis (Chin W. W., 2004).
Data (Appendix A) revealed, in general, great coincidence, with slight difference between groups, of the results of each group and
the results of aggregated data. In sum, in all three groups we can consider that Sociability and Human Warmth and the conjoint
Credibility+Trust have strong predictive capacity of the consumers behavior for Purchase/Repurchase Intention. In all groups,
paths Sociability Purchase/Repurchase Intention and Trust Purchase/Repurchase Intention have strong statistical
significance. The non significance of the path Credibilty Purchase/Repurchase Intention is also confirmed in each of the three
groups.
5. Discussion
Overall, the results confirm the proposed hypotheses (H1, H2 and H3): photo-realistic avatars endowed with pre recorded real
human voice in an online store have a direct positive effect in trust, credibility and sociability and human warmth. Naturalistic
avatars endowed with TTS voice did not confirm the generality of the existing literature about the capacity of avatars to induce
feelings of trust. However they confirmed previous studies in what concerns credibility and sociability and human warmth. This
result may be due to the fact that our TTS avatar did not present the necessary ability to be likeable and to evoke empathy with
the subjects giving them increased feelings of trust towards the seller (Wang & Fodness, 2010).
Although the means obtained were higher, photo-realistic avatars did not seem to induce notable differences in perceptions of
consumers when compared with the naturalistic TTS voice avatars with the exception of "Trust" in relation to Group I. The
differences in the evaluations made by the subjects of the experiment, which were in all cases favorable to the photo-realistic
avatar, are not statistically significant. Again, a possible explanation for this result may be the fact that our photo-realistic avatar
was not perceived as significantly different from the TTS avatar in order to be perceived as more likeable and capable to generate
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increased empathy. Another explanation may be the fact that advances in TTS technology nowadays have rendered it is so similar
to human voice that it can create generally the same feelings of empathy and perception of sociability as photo-realist avatars with
real human voice. However, Qiu and Benbasat (2009) concluded that TTS voice does not carry significant social stimulations when
compared with real human voice. It should also be taken into account that the subjects may have not perceived the photo-realistic
avatar as a representation of a real human being.
Concerning the predictive capacity of "Sociability and Human Warmth", Trust and Credibility" of consumers "Purchase and
Repurchase Intention" (hypotheses H1a, H2a, H3a) the results confirm the importance of the induced active feelings of trust (H2a)
and sociability and human warmth (H1a). This result is, in general, consistent with previous studies (Wang & Fodness, 2010;
Hassanein & Head, 2005/06; 2007). The direct influence of Credibility on Purchase/Repurchase Intention was not confirmed. The
influence of Credibility on the consumers purchase and repurchase intention is fully mediated by Trust. Hypothesis H3a was
not confirmed, but hypothesis H3b was fully confirmed. This result contradicts, in part, the studies developed by Cugelman et al
(2009) who concluded that Credibility of a web site, although mediated by Trust, holds a direct impact on consumer behavior. Our
result may be due to the fact of concepts of credibility and trust are related and, in general, credibility precedes trust. In fact,
humans trust on what they first consider to be credible. The data seems to confirm it.
In sum, the variable with the most positively effect in "Purchase and Repurchase Intention" is "Sociability and Human Warmth",
which demonstrates the importance of sociability factors in E.C. sites. As sustained by the literature, Trust, has also a significant
positive effect on "Purchase and Repurchase Intention".
6. Conclusions
This article focuses on the introduction of avatars as sociability and human warmth stimuli in sites of electronic commerce and its
implications in consumer behavior. Overall, the study validates the all proposed hypotheses except one (H3a). We can conclude
that the introduction of avatars at EC sites, particularly photo-realistic avatars, has visible practical effects in sociability and
human warmth perceptions, in trust towards the seller, in the credibility of the online store and can enhance costumers purchase
and repurchase intention.
Underpinned on this study, as also on the findings of Wang and Fodness (2010) and Qiu and Benbasat (2009), we can say that
animated avatars exert an influence on online consumers similar to real salespeople in brick and mortar shops.
Avatar technology, that can be combined with A.I., is also promising in the field of Customer Relationship Management (now
transformed into e-CRM), in the market segmentation and in lead generation. A.I., based on libraries of knowledge about
customers can equip avatars with the ability to recognize the customer with whom they are dealing with and create a
personalized relationship making suggestions about products based on their purchase history. Companies can take advantage
from this capability providing as much information as possible to their client, improving their shopping experience and reducing
operating costs (Dionsio, Rodrigues, Faria, Canhoto, & Nunes, 2009, p. 41).
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6.2. Limitations and directions for further research
This research is not without limitations. A single experiment conducted online has limited generability to assess all the
implications of the introduction of photo-realistic avatars endowed with real human voice as a sociability factor in e-commerce
sites. New experiments with larger samples should be conducted. Conducting a similar experiment in a strict laboratory
environment in order to ensure the homogeneity of technical conditions among subjects (monitors, processing speed, Internet
access, loading speed of applications, quality and volume of audio and the use headphones to ensure subjects concentration on the
experiment) could also be considered.
The difficulty to operationalize and even distinguish constructs such as "credibility", "Trust" and "Sociability and Human Warmth
also presents some limitations. These constructs have idiosyncratic implications and are interpreted differently by consumers
depending on their ages and cultures (Wang & Fodness, 2010).
Despite the fact that the recruitment of our sample has been performed in a universe much larger than a college campus, and
thereby tried to escape is the so- called science of university students", we still must acknowledge that it is wounded with the
sample convenience due to the fact that subjects were recruited only through the Internet. This methodology was suitable for
controlling the variable "Technology acceptance level", but prevents us from generalizing the results to those not accustomed to
dealing with the Internet and the Electronic Commerce. Broader samples, in order to obtain a better representation of the
population, should be tried.
One aspect that has not been assessed by us is the interaction between avatars (which must vary their expertise and even their
appearance: age, gender, etc.), type of product and online stores design. Trust and credibility towards the seller or a store that
sells basic clothes or footwear and high end stores are distinct. The manipulation of avatars attractiveness and expertise makes
them more effective for different types of consumers. Expertise, for example, has positive effects on more involved consumers
with the product. This is prevalent when it comes to expensive and technically advanced products. Thus we can also assess the
possible contributions of the avatars for customer segmentation. This functionality can be achieved by equipping them with A.I.
That was not considered in our study. A.I. also allows introducing a higher level of interactivity and achieving a two-way
interaction between the avatar and the consumer. That was not possible in our study either.
Another path of research is the use of photo-realistic avatars based on the image of opinion leaders. This may lead to a greater
identification between the consumer and the virtual entity and consequently have implications on consumers purchase and
repurchase intentions.
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Group I
n=34
Group II
n=31
Group
III
n=33
SOCI
PURCH/REPURCH
TRUST
PURCH/REPURCH
CRED
PURCH/REPURCH
CRED TRUST
0.725
0.246
0.020
0.910
5.82***
1.83*
0.186
31.27***
SE
0.1246
0.1347
0.1050
0.029
0.354
0.460
0.158
0.884
2.23**
2.58***
1.304
21.35***
SE
0.1585
0.1781
0.1213
0.0414
0.664
0.299
0.007
0.732
4.895***
2.28**
0.093
7.73***
SE
0.1356
0.1312
0.0739
0.0946
1- 2
t-value
p-value
1- 3
t-value
p-value
2- 3
t-value
p-value
0.371
1.886
0.067*
0.061
0.337
0.737
-0.310
1.516
0.135
0.214
0.974
0.329
0.053
0.286
0.776
0.161
0.746
0.459
CRED TRUST
0.066
1.3271
0.1901
0.178
1.8271
0.076*1
0.112
1.1021
0.2771
CRED
PURCH/REPURCH
-0.138
0.878
0.383
0.013
0.1031
0.9191
0.151
1.0801
0.2851
SOCI
PURCH/REPURCH
TRUST
PURCH/REPURCH
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APLICABILIDADE DA ESCALA MBE AO PARADIGMA DA
MODELAGEM DE SEGUNDA ORDEM: UMA ANLISE DO CONSUMO
DE CAMISAS DE FUTEBOL
PALAVRAS-CHAVE: MODELAGEM DE SEGUNDA ORDEM; CONSUMER-BASED EQUITY (MBE); INTENO DE COMPRA
UNIVATES, Brazil
Resumo
Abstract
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1. Introduo
Academicamente, observa-se que a modelagem matemtica tem sido uma metodologia de pesquisa bem til, no entanto a
discusso da validao emprica tem se tornado cada vez mais necessria (Liljeblom & Vaihekoski, 2009; Koufteros, Babbar &
Kaighobadi, 2009), principalmente nos estudos de marketing. Conceitualmente, a modelagem de equaes estruturais (MEE)
permite ao pesquisador testar estudos tericos na prtica, proporcionando uma avaliao do ajuste do modelo e dos parmetros
individuais, atravs de um conjunto de ajuste de ndices e ferramentas (Koufteros et al., 2009). O problema que a relao
terico-emprica pode sofrer algum vis de anlise no processo de execuo da MEE. Como, por exemplo, o modelo terico sugerir
alguns resultados e as avaliaes empricas matemticas indicarem resultados contrrios (Gerbing, Hamilton & Freeman, 1994;
Liljeblom & Vaihekoski, 2009). Esse fato pode ser gerado pela idiossincrasia e pela agregao parcial.
Quanto idiossincrasia, considerado o efeito da mesma causa em uma varivel e pode ser modificado devido validade
unidimensional e discriminante na especificao de ordem superior. O problema que a idiossincrasia faz com que alguns
construtos fiquem altamente correlacionados (Koufteros et al., 2009). Outro ponto que alguns pesquisadores procuram somar
os escores de variveis manifestas em uma lgica chamada de agregao parcial, do ingls partial aggregation, para cada
subdimenso (que nomeamos aqui de construtos de primeira ordem). Embora essa abordagem possa ser simples e rpida, ela no
consegue explicar totalmente a variabilidade de cada uma das variveis manifestas (Gerbing et al., 1994).
A soluo para o problema da relao terico-emprica sofrer algum vis de anlise o uso de tcnicas avanadas de modelagem.
Desse modo, faz-se necessrio pensar em construtos de segunda ordem, especificando os de primeira ordem atravs de um grau
de abstrao (Koufteros et al., 2009). Estudos que empregam tcnicas avanadas de MEE como modelagem de ordem superior so
escassos no meio acadmico. Na verdade, existem trabalhos acadmicos que exemplificam a modelagem de estrutura de ordem
superior. No entanto, existem poucas tentativas de apoiar conceitualmente esse processo e seu nvel de abstrao (Liljeblom &
Vaihekoski, 2009). Existem pesquisas que especificam modelos de ordem superior corretamente (respeitando as variveis
manifestas como construtos de primeira ordem na formao de construtos de segunda ordem); no entanto, no avaliam a eficcia
das estruturas de medio de outros modelos. possvel que outros modelos de medio possam representar os dados
igualmente ou ultrapassar o desempenho dos construtos de segunda ordem. Desse modo, deve-se incentivar a comparao entre
modelos alternativos, para sugerir que uma especificao de ordem mais elevada seja mais adequada relao teoria-prtica
estudada (Koufteros et al., 2009).
Esta compreenso pode auxiliar no refinamento de modelos consolidados e complexos do campo do marketing. Especificamente,
evoca-se aqui a compreenso de brand equity (valor de marca) como um conjunto terico amplamente testado atualmente para
ilustrar a eficcia e a utilidade de modelagem de ordem superior. A compreenso de brand equity foi escolhida devido s distintas
abordagens e propsitos para os quais o tema tem sido utilizado (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 2003; Lassar, Mittal & Sharma, 1995; Yoo &
Donthu, 2001).
Brand equity tem sido definido como o efeito de marketing ou o resultado advindo de um produto com uma determinada marca,
quando comparado com um mesmo produto que no possui uma marca (Aaker, 1991; Keller, 2003). Este efeito tem sido
mensurado de duas formas principais: uma considerando aspectos da empresa, como preo e lucratividade (perspectiva
financeira) e outra na envolvente do consumidor (perspectiva do consumidor - consumer-based) (Christodoulides & Chernatony,
2010). Diante dos diferentes caminhos para analisar brand equity, especialmente ligados perspectiva do consumidor, o modelo
de consumer-based brand equity apresenta testes empricos prvios robustos, item necessrio para a modelagem de segunda
ordem.
Consumer-based brand equity consiste num modelo multidimensional desenvolvido incialmente por Keller (1993), enfatizando a
conscincia e associaes marca e por Aaker (1996) enfatizando a qualidade percebida e lealdade marca. Posteriormente, Yoo
e Donthu (2001) suportaram empiricamente trs dimenses, unificando as dimenses conscincia da marca e associaes da
marca num s fator reflexivo. Este modelo tem sido amplamente testado por meio de modelagens de primeira ordem em diversos
contextos (Yoo & Donthu, 2001; Washburn & Plank, 2002; Vazquez, Del Rio, Iglesias, 2002; Buil, Chernatony & Martinez., 2008;
Tong & Hawley, 2009, entre outros), inclusive no contexto brasileiro (Vargas & Luce, 2006; Costa & Almeida, 2012).
Contudo, apesar do interesse na validao de escalas para mensurar brand equity, existe uma constante chamada para obter uma
amplitude terica na mensurao deste importante conceito de marketing (Buil et al., 2008, Pappu, Quester & Cooksey 2005;
Christodoulides & Chernatony, 2010). Esta ampliao na compreenso do fenmeno se justifica pelo fato de que a consumer-based
brand equity fornece uma viso ex-ante, ou seja, antes das decises de marketing que geram valor para a marca (Yoo & Donthu,
2001). Assim, a resposta efetiva do consumidor estaria na inteno de compra, uma vez que um efeito positivo de brand equity
tenderia a gerar inteno de compra (Cobb-Walgren, Ruble & Donthu, 1995). Para reforar esta relao, a modelagem de segunda
ordem emerge como uma ferramenta til, pois permite relacionar dois construtos chaves no marketing (brand equity e inteno
de compra), adicionado um grau de abstrao de ordem elevada.
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Desta forma, o presente estudo se prope a analisar as influncias dos construtos de primeira ordem da escala multidimensional
consumer-based brand equity (MBE), desenvolvida por Yoo e Donthu (2001) em relao inteno de compra de camisas de times
de futebol por torcedores por meio da aplicao da modelagem de ordem superior. O contexto de consumidores de camisas de
times de futebol foi escolhido visando reduzir a influncia da concorrncia ou produtos similares na inteno de compra. Alm
disso, a relao dos torcedores com os seus times garante a formao de uma imagem de marca positiva por parte destes. Destacase que o foco deste estudo est na aplicabilidade da ferramenta de modelagem de segunda ordem no modelo de Yoo e Donthu
(2001). Assim, buscou-se reduzir influncias externas na relao entre brand equity e inteno de compra.
As partes que seguem esta introduo visam primeiramente construir um aparato terico acerca da escala multidimensional
consumer-based brand equity (MBE) e a sua estrutura hierrquica como abstrao de segunda ordem. Em seguida, o design
metodolgico e as anlises dos resultados so descritos. Quatro modelos foram testados, validando a modelagem de segunda
ordem como uma ferramenta prudente no desenvolvimento de modelos para anlise de brand equity.
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Abstrao de 2
ordem
MBE
1
Abstrao de 1
ordem
Lealdade a
Marca
1
L01
L02
Qualidade
percebida
2
L03
Q01
Q02
Associao
Reconheciment
o
Q03
R01
R02
R03
R04
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4. Anlise de Resultados
O captulo de ana lise dos resultados foi dividido em cinco etapas: (i) Ana lise Preliminar das Estatsticas Descritivas e Purificaa o
dos Dados; (ii) Validaa o Individual dos Construtos; (iii) Abordagem Hiera rquica e a Construo de Modelos de Medio
Alternativos; (iv) Anlise dos Modelos Alternativos; e, por fim, (v) Modelo Estrutural Final e a Influncia na Inteno de Compra
da Camisa do Time de Futebol.
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4.1 Anlise Preliminar das Estatsticas Descritivas e Purificao dos dados
Os dados desta pesquisa foram coletados no primeiro semestre de 2012 e o gnero predominante da amostra foi o masculino, com
54,1% de participao, sendo a idade mais frequente a faixa entre 19 e 25 anos (47,2%), com Ensino Superior em andamento
(71,1%) e renda mensal na faixa de R$ 1.000,00 a R$ 3.000,00 (50,4%). Com relao distribuio entre os clubes: 335 (49,62%)
eram torcedores do Grmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense e 340 (50,38%) do Sport Club Internacional.
A purificao dos dados teve como objetivo a preparao para a realizao das anlises subsequentes, para evitar possveis
problemas nas mesmas, uma vez que comum detectar imperfeies em dados brutos (Hair et al., 2009). Alm disso, esta etapa
atende ao pressuposto bsico da anlise multivariada de dados (Kline, 1998). Por essa razo foram identificados os outliers da
amostra. Nesse raciocnio, seguiu-se os seguintes procedimentos: (a) anlise de frequncia para todas as questes dos
questionrios; (b) observao dos questionrios respondidos; (c) observao dos outliers univariados; e (d) observao dos
outliers multivariados.
O primeiro procedimento foi caracterizado pela observao ou no de um nmero muito grande de no respostas a uma nica
varivel. Essa iniciativa procura verificar se alguma pergunta utilizada na pesquisa foi mal interpretada, sendo que um nmero
expressivo de no resposta (maior que cinco) pode caracterizar tal falha. Nesse procedimento no foi eliminada nenhuma
questo, pois nenhuma varivel teve o ndice de no resposta superior ao citado.
O segundo procedimento se dividiu em duas etapas: na primeira, realizou-se a observao dos questionrios respondidos por
apenas um ou dois pontos da escala Likert, em todas as respostas. Essa ao visa a eliminar possveis fatores influenciadores nas
anlises estatsticas que sero realizadas posteriormente, pois questionrios respondidos dessa forma se caracterizam como
dicotmicos e no intervalares. No segundo procedimento foram identificados os questionrios que tiveram mais do que 10% das
questes no respondidas. Na primeira etapa no foi excludo nenhum questionrio, pois no foi detectado o referido problema. J
na segunda etapa foi identificado dois questionrio, que foram eliminados da amostra final.
A etapa seguinte partiu para a anlise dos outliers univariados, os quais so identificados quando se tem escores pouco usuais
numa varivel (Kline, 1998). A identificao destes elementos se d pelo clculo dos escores Z. Valores superiores a |3|
caracterizam um comportamento atpico da varivel (Hair et al., 2009). Nessa etapa foram eliminados quarenta e seis
questionrios. A ltima etapa compreendeu a observao de casos atpicos multivariados, que se caracteriza por ter escores
extremos em mais de uma varivel. A anlise realizada se deu a partir do clculo de Mahalanobis, que detecta uma distncia
grande entre o valor individual e as mdias amostrais obtidas (Kline, 1998; Jreskog, 1993). Nessa anlise no se identificou
nenhum outlier. Ultrapassada a purificao dos dados, seguiu-se na amostra final a ser trabalhada, que foi de seiscentos e vinte e
sete respondentes.
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CC
AVE
0,72
0,87
0,94
0,96
0,66
0,83
0,79
0,97
0,81**
0,33*
0,22*
0,27*
0,91**
0,36*
0,34*
0,88**
0,25*
0,98**
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apresentarem ndices frgeis. Contudo, vale ressaltar que o modelo de melhores ndices no necessariamente o que ir ser
utilizado, uma vez que deve ser levado em considerao questes importante, tais como validade discriminante, grau de
multicolinearidade e identificao do modelo (Rindskopf & Rose, 1988; Koufteros et al., 2009).
Isso em mente, parte-se para a explorao dos quatro modelos citados anteriormente, cujos resultados apresenta-se no quadro 2.
Quadro 2. ndices dos modelos alternativos
ndices
(n = 627 )
2 (df)
2/df
GFI
NFI
IFI
CFI
RMSEA
378,37 (35)
10,81
,890
,818
,832
,831
,125
600,76 (35)
17,16
,836
,711
,723
,722
,161
106,34 (32)
3,32
,966
,949
,964
,963
,061
106,34 (32)
3,32
,966
,949
,964
,963
,061
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Examinando com mais detalhe o modelo 04, observa-se que as cargas dos fatores de primeira ordem, refletindo o fator de segunda
ordem, esto todos acima de 0,68 e que os valores t so estatisticamente significativos. Isso aponta para uma relao forte entre os
fatores de primeira ordem e o fator de segunda ordem, atestando a validade convergente do modelo posto de segunda ordem.
Desse modo, um modelo de segunda ordem bastante eficaz na representao dos dados.
4.5 Modelo estrutural final e a influncia na inteno de compra da camisa do time de futebol
Partindo para a utilizao do modelo 04, que foi o selecionado na etapa anterior por apresentar melhor adequao metodolgica e
terica, realizou-se o teste do modelo estrutural (figura 04). Nesse caso, assume-se a inteno de compra da camisa do time de
futebol como a varivel dependente, tendo o fator de segunda ordem (MBE) como a varivel que ir afet-la. Analisando a
adequao do modelo estrutural final, observa-se que os ndices de ajustamento bastante adequados (GFI=0,956; NFI=0,958;
IFI=0,978; CFI=0,974; RMSEA=0,050).
Da mesma forma, a relao X/df apresentou resultados bastante satisfatrios, de acordo com a s recomendaes encontradas na
literatura (Mulaik, James, Van Alstine, Bennet, Lind & Stilwellet, 1989). A relao da MBE com a inteno de compra da camisa do
time de futebol foi de 9,172 (z-valor), sendo bastante significativo. O modelo explicou 83% da variao da inteno de compra da
camisa do time de futebol. A relao MBE e a referida inteno de compra teve um efeito 0,498. Todas as variveis da inteno de
compra da camisa de futebol foram significativas no construto. Como anlise adicional, realizou-se a avaliao do possvel efeito
moderador dos clubes estudados e a relao dos construtos em teste. A referida anlise, efetivada por meio de modelagem de
equaes estruturais multigrupos (ver, Marco, 2010), no identificaram diferenas significativas (p > 0,50) e, portanto, no foi
dectectada a moderao nas respectivas relaes.
Figura 2. Modelo Final
1
Lealdade marca
1
Y1
2
Y2
Qualidade
percebida
2
MBE
1
Y4
Inteno de
compra
2
Y3
Associao
Reconhecimento
3
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Estes resultados reforam os estudos anteriores, que detectaram uma relao positiva entre brand equity e inteno de compra
(ex., Cobb-Walgren, Ruble & Donthu, 1995). Contudo, com a abstrao de segunda ordem possvel explorar estes resultados
alm da simples relao entre os construtos refletem o modelo MBE e do construto de inteno de compra. Destaca-se que a
construo da brand equity por parte dos consumidores ocorre a partir do somatrio dos trs diferentes construtos, uma vez que
cada um destes contribui na percepo da imagem de marca na mente dos consumidores. Assim, as tentativas de identificao de
relaes individuais expressam uma fraqueza na mensurao em relao s anlises integradas. A imagem de marca refere-se a
associaes em relao marca, seja reconhecimento, associaes entre o produto e a marca, percepo de qualidade, cada
elemento contribuindo na agregao de um fator de diferenciao no momento da escolha pelo consumidor (Aaker, 1996;
Marconi, 1999). Assim, a anlise da inteno do consumidor em adquirir uma determinada marca passa pela compreenso da
interligao entre o conjunto de alternativas que refletem a brand equity de um determinado produto (Laurent, Kapferer &
Roussel, 1995). Assim, compreende-se que a aplicao da modelagem de segunda ordem consiste numa poderosa ferramenta para
o refinamento de modelos de marketing, principalmente contribuindo no desenvolvimento e solidificao de relaes
previamente estabelecidas, como o caso da MBE e inteno de compra.
5. Consideraes Finais
O presente estudo teve como objetivo analisar as influncias dos construtos de primeira e segunda ordem da escala MBE, na
inteno de compra de camisetas dos dois principais clubes de futebol do estado do Rio Grande do Sul. O estudo torna-se
relevante a partir do momento em que se apresenta uma tcnica de anlise pouco usual nos trabalhos acadmicos realizados no
Brasil e, ainda, pela importncia dentro do contexto em que o assunto est sendo aplicado, uma vez que nos prximos anos
acontecero muitos debates e reflexes no mbito acadmico e empresarial, sobre aspectos relacionados ao futebol no Brasil, pois
em 2014 o pas estar recebendo o principal evento esportivo do mundo.
Os ndices encontrados para os construtos que refletem a MBE foram conceituados de forma muito significativa, apresentando
todos eles explicaes importantes na formao do comportamento estudado. Pode-se observar que a abordagem hierrquica
para avaliar uma conceituao de ordem superior prudente, uma vez que outras estruturas poderiam tambm representar os
dados de maneiras diferentes. Essa abordagem envolve uma avaliao rigorosa dos coeficientes e do modelo de mensurao
(Kishton & Widaman, 1994). Assim, a varincia dos coeficientes modelos de medidas deve ser avaliada antes do teste de varincia
do modelo estrutural. Desse modo, pode considerar uma especificao de segunda ordem como uma forma de agregao. A
agregao til, pois pode representar as relaes entre as variveis com mais parcimnia. Por exemplo, variveis manifestas
podem ser representadas por uma nica varivel latente de primeira ordem. Da mesma forma, um fator de segunda ordem pode
incorporar o significado de muitas variveis latentes de primeira ordem. Assim, o nmero de variveis que devem ser estimadas
no contexto de um modelo estrutural pode ser reduzido significativamente (Bagozzi & Heathertin, 1994; Coffman & MacCallum,
2005).
A motivao para o uso da modelagem de segunda ordem foi primeiramente conceitual, sendo que o interesse cientfico central
encontra-se na anlise geral da MBE, e sua influncia na inteno de compra de camiseta do clube de futebol. O fator de ordem
superior refletiu os fatores de ordem inferior.
Mesmo apresentando rigor cientfico na execuo deste estudo, algumas limitaes metodolgicas foram constatadas e devem ser
detalhadas, para efeito da compreenso dos resultados. A primeira delas com relao composio da amostra no
probabilstica por convenincia e que pode trazer algum vis nos resultados. Desse modo, os resultados devem ser apreciados sob
a perspectiva da amostra considerada, no devendo ser generalizados, por decorrncia de caractersticas desse tipo de
amostragem. Sugere-se que novas coletas de dados sejam efetuadas, com outras amostras, assim como com torcedores de outros
times, permitindo a comparao aos resultados encontrados nesta pesquisa.
Alm disso, no que se refere a estudos futuros, investigao es em outros estados e pases permitiriam comparar os resultados em
funa o das especificidades locais, bem como a incorporaa o de outras varia veis poderiam representar um avano na construao
do modelo. Ademais sugere-se aplicao de estudos desta natureza em metodologias alternativas, como caso de mtodos
experimentais e medidas neurocientficas onde possa ser possvel avaliar com mais consistncias os aspectos cognitivos que
interferem no comportamento de consumo de produtos de clubes de futebol. O consumo de camisetas de clubes de futebol tratase de um tema evidente, especialmente pela diversidade de times existentes no Brasil e no mundo, pelo crescimento dessa
indu stria e pelo constante crescimento no nu mero de torcedores desse esporte. E tais fatores enfatizam a utilizaa o cada vez mais
frequente das ferramentas de marketing nesse segmento.
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REVISTA PORTUGUESA DE
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CUSTOMER RESPONSE TO MESSAGE FRAMING IN CAUSE RELATED
MARKETING
KEYWORDS: CAUSE RELATED MARKETING, CONSUMER, MESSAGE FRAMING, WILLINGNESS TO PAY, REPUTATION,
CONSUMER SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Abstract
Organizational campaigns promoting Cause Related
Marketing (CRM) have gained significance with regard to
consumer participation. This is evident as business
organizations have been found to express humanity and
values in emotionally compelling ways so as to meet the
expectations set by customers, other stakeholders.
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Resumo
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1. Background
Over the last decade, a number of enterprises have implemented Cause Related Marketing (CRM) thus CRM is gaining in
popularity, as marketers attempt to make a positive contribution to the communities on which they depend (Demetriou,
Papasolomou, & Vrontis, 2010). Marketing communications laced with social dimensions have assumed relevance (Drumwright,
1996). During the year 1983, American Express Company launched a Cause-Related Marketing Program (CRMP) in support of the
renovation of the Statue of Liberty. Under this program American Express promised to donate a penny to the renovation for each
use of its charge card and a dollar for each new card issued in the U.S. during the fourth quarter of 1983. The objective of this
program was to increase card usage, increase the number of applications for new cards to be issued and at the same time raise
money and awareness for the non- profit organization. American Express had a 28% increase in card usage over the same period
in 1982 and a sizeable increase in the number of new cards issued. This $6 million national promotion campaign resulted in a $1.7
million contribution by American Express to the Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation. CRM gained popularity among
marketers as it offers dual benefits of philanthropy and increased brand sales (Varadarajan & Menon, 1988). CRM is defined as
the process of formulating and implementing marketing activities that are characterized by an offer from the firm to contribute a
specified amount to a designated cause when customers engage in revenue providing exchanges that satisfy organizational and
individual objectives (Varadarajan & Menon, 1988 p. 60).
Bronn & Vrioni (2001) reported that one-third of Americans were of the opinion that price, quality and companies responsible
practices influence their purchase decisions, if price and quality are equal Americans are likely to switch to a brand which is
associated with a cause.
Vaidyanathan and Aggarwal (2005) stated that since long corporations have shown interest in using variety of marketing
communication techniques for inducing compliance behaviour among their target audience.
CRM campaigns should ensure that firms and partnering cause alliance focus on the factors that can encourage consumers to
participate, since their behaviour plays a crucial role in impacting company sales and non-profit earnings (Grau & Garretson Folse,
2007).
Individualized messages from organizations are important to the consumers as they engage in purchasing goods from the
company and thus donate their time, money and efforts in relation to their purchase activity (Adkins, 2011).
Cause Related Marketing makes use of firms communication through its advertising, packaging, promotions etc. their corporate
social responsibility namely their alliance with a non-profit organization or support for causes. Thus the firm can draw attention
of consumers wanting to make a difference in society through their purchasing (Bronn & Vrioni, 2001).
The manner in which a message is framed in an advertisement linking a product to a cause can have an impact on the consumers.
The influence of donation proximity and message framing cues on the less involved consumer was studied by (Grau & Garretson
Folse, 2007). How customers process cause-focused messages that involve emotional appeals was investigated by (Chang C.-T. ,
2011). Primarily this study investigates whether association with a cause increases consumers Willingness To Pay (WTP).
Although message framing using vague quantifiers in advertising copy formats, affecting consumers estimates of the amount
being donated, has been studied by (Pracejus, Olsen, & Brown, 2003), impact of message framing on WTP has not been studied in
the context of Consumer Social Responsibility. This research seeks to address this gap.
2. Research Objectives
This research attempts to find whether association of a product with a cause increases Willingness To Pay (WTP), how the
message framed in an advertisement could affect customers Willingness To Pay for a product associated with a cause, when the
customers role is manifested in a direct manner or when the role of the customer is manifested in an indirect manner (company
direct).
Specifically this research strives:
a) To examine whether association of the product with a cause affects customers Willingness To Pay (WTP).
b) To ascertain whether message framing has an impact on WTP.
c) To examine whether reputation of the brand has an impact on WTP.
d) To explore whether Consumer Social Responsibility has an impact on WTP.
e) To determine the impact of message framing on WTP as moderated by reputation of the brand and Consumer Social
Responsibility and to determine the impact of Consumer Social Responsibility on WTP as moderated by reputation of the
brand.
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Message Framing
CRM campaigns serve as a platform for gaining insights that help in understanding consumers interpretation of promotions with
social dimensions and exploring their behavioural responses to such corporate do-gooding (Webb & Mohr, 1998).
Duncan & Moriarty (as cited in Bronn & Vrioni, 2001 p. 215) defined Cause Related Marketing or Mission Marketing as the
ultimate brand contact, the manifestation of a companys mission and philosophy, which can drive communication campaigns and
even strategy
According to Lafferty and Edmondson (2009) CRM campaigns to a large extent make use of print ads as marketing
communications tool.
Chang C. and Lee Y. (2008) stated that framing as a communication strategy is widely used by marketing campaigners.
Framing refers to the presentation of one of two different but equivalent value outcomes to decision makers, where one outcome
is presented in positive or gain terms and the other in negative or loss terms (Chang & Lee, 2010).
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The way information is labelled or framed can to a large extent be responsible for influencing individuals judgments and
decisions (Levin, Schneider, & Gaeth, 1998).
The manner in which the information within the Cause Related Marketing campaign is framed can appeal to the consumers,
capture their attention and thus make them respond to Cause Related Marketing campaign (Grau & Garretson Folse, 2007).
The positive effects of product type in Cause Related Marketing may only occur when donation information is framed in absolute
dollar terms or when the product has a lower price rather than information expressed in relative percentage of sales price. The
objectives of marketers is to portray superiority to consumers and expedite their purchase decisions in a Cause Related Marketing
context, and the essence of this strategy is that marketers stand to gain not just by changing the donation magnitude of
advertising package but by introducing appropriate framing of their offered products in a manner that increases the probability of
consumers purchasing a product linked to a cause (Chang & Lee, 2008).
Companies are expected to handle serious and persistent social ills of great concern, ranging from malnutrition and HIV to
illiteracy and homelessness (Margolis & Walsh, 2003).
Basil & Weber (2006) demonstrate that individuals are of the opinion that companies must attempt to engage in corporate social
responsibility activities.
Consumers expect companies to be socially responsible (Cone, 2007).
When a company undertakes a CSR initiative, the extent to which the consumers perceive similarity of traits between the
company and self, they are more likely to support the company (Lichtenstein, Drumwright, & Braig, 2004).
The amount of corporate charitable donation in CRM as a marketing strategy, is determined by consumer purchases of a specific
product (Wymer & Samu, 2009).
Persuasive messages can be framed in such a manner that they make an individual recall ones hopes, goals, dreams, duties and
ideals (ideal self-guide framing) or can be viewed in the context of ones duties, obligations, responsibilities and oughts (ought
self-guide framing) (Evans & Petty, 2003).
When a person evaluates the content of the message positively, the feeling right experience has a positive impact on ones
perception and thus the message is more likely to be persuasive (Dijkstra, Schakenraad, Menninga, Buunk & Siero, 2009).
Cause Marketing campaigns must recognize that its success and effectiveness to a large extent depends on whether the target
customers are able to quickly and easily identify themselves with the core of such a campaign (Agarwal, Kumar, Gupta, & Tyagi,
2010).
Message framing in previous studies takes into consideration donation framing (Grau & Garretson Folse, 2007; Pracejus, Olsen, &
Brown, 2003), temporal framing (Tangari, Garretson Folse, Burton & Kees, 2010).
However little is understood of how the message framed, incorporating the role of a consumer, company could impact consumers
Willingness To Pay. The success of CRM campaign to a large extent depends on how the message is framed in a CRM
advertisement. The message framed can favourably incline the consumer to purchase a product linked to a cause based on the
consumers perception of his/her role or the role of others while also taking into consideration the reputation of the company.
Although conventional wisdom suggests that companies should support social causes as they have more resources to do so and
thus consumers would expect companies to be socially responsible. Some studies mentioned above reveal that, how an individual
perceives messages in terms of his/her responsibilities could result in making the message more persuasive for him/her. Thus
we felt the need to study whether incorporation of roles in the message framed could have an impact on WTP as some consumers
expect companies to be socially responsible while other may view social responsibility as their duty. Therefore we hypothesize
that,
H2: Message framing in which the role of the company is manifested in a direct manner (customer indirect) will have
higher WTP as compared to the message in which the customers role is manifested in a direct manner.
This implies that how the message is framed could favourably or otherwise impact the consumers WTP.
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Reputation
Since long firms have strived to enhance their corporate image, create favourable attitude in the minds of consumers, achieve
incremental sales by vigorously advertising their acts of philanthropy and sponsorship of worthy causes (Varadarajan & Menon,
1988).
Shapiro (1983) considered good reputation as a valuable asset owned by a firm.
Reputation is a global perception of the extent to which an organization is held in high esteem or regard (Weiss, Anderson, &
Macinnis, 1999, p. 75).
Roberts & Dowling (2002) defines reputation as a perceptual representation of a companys past actions and future prospects
that describe the firms overall appeal to all its key constituents when compared to other leading rivals .
Popular brands that tie up with a charity would create a positive interaction between popular brand and charity (Wymer & Samu,
2009).
Fombrun & Shanley (1990) stated that established reputations themselves can go a long way in influencing actions of firms
stakeholders.
Chun (2005) mentioned that reputation provides a value judgment about an organizations qualities which emerge with time
reflecting what the organization does and how it behaves.
Corporate reputation affects stakeholders behaviour towards an organization, influencing factors such as employee retention,
customer satisfaction and customer loyalty (Chun, 2005).
Reputation with regard to quality can influence buyers to pay higher price (Rao & Monroe, 1996).
Shapiro (1983) emphasized that higher prices linked to quality can be viewed as either return on reputation or as an incentive
payment which producers of reputed products are likely to charge in order to maintain quality.
Dowling (as cited in Fombrun & Shanely, 1990) stated that corporate audiences routinely rely on the reputation of firms in
making investment decisions, career decisions and product choices.
Klein & Leffler (1981) believe that reputations may offer or provide benefits. As consumers focus on quality and perceive high
quality as worth premium price, favourable reputation may permit firms to charge premium price.
Reputation is an intangible asset that companies strive to build, it helps a company to face competition and secure the competitive
advantage. Reputation gives greater visibility to a brand. From the literature cited above it appears that consumers are more
likely to pay more for brands perceived by them as reputed. However more needs to be understood of how communication used
in framing of messages could affect consumers Willingness To Pay based on the reputation of the company. We thus felt the need
to study whether reputation of a brand can result in higher WTP in a CRM context.
Thus we can hypothesize that,
H3: Reputation of the brand has a positive impact on customers WTP.
This implies that WTP would increase if the consumers perceive that the company is highly reputed.
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impression to others and differentiate themselves from others by consuming products aligned to social causes as means of
boosting their self esteem or ego (Youn & Kim, 2008).
Identification with an organization engaged in good CSR practices can influence consumers perceptions and this can contribute to
consumers self-esteem (Sen & Bhattacharya, 2001).
There is a growing tendency towards socially responsible consumption as individuals take into consideration social and
environmental issues while making consumption choices (Gonzalez, Korchia, Menuet, & Urbain, 2009).
Buying products linked to social causes may be viewed as responsible behaviour displayed through consumption to those who
attach great importance to personal and social responsibility (Youn & Kim, 2008).
Socially conscious consumer is defined as a consumer who takes into account the public consequences of his or her private
consumption or who attempts to use his or her purchasing power to bring about social change (Webster Jr., 1975).
Socially Responsible Consumption includes purchasing products and services which are perceived to have a positive or less
negative impact on the physical environment and /or the use of purchasing power to express social concerns (Lecompte-Francis
& Roberts, 2006).
A socially responsible consumer would, therefore avoid buying products from companies that harm society and patronize
products from companies that help society (Mohr, Webb, & Harris, 2001)
Extending support for social causes through a commercial activity of purchasing is a form of pro-social behaviour because it
promotes social norms. Consumers differ in terms of needs, expectations this also implies that there is a distinctive segment that
is passionate about consumer social responsibility (Youn & Kim, 2008).
Consumers commitment to behave in a responsible manner can influence their attitude towards CRM. Individuals who behave
responsibly usually tend to purchase products that support social causes (Youn & Kim, 2008).
In a competitive business environment, competition has increased as well as consumers expectations from companies have also
changed. Companies make efforts to meet the expectations of various consumers. This opens the way for research in consumer
social responsibility in the context of CRM. There is need to identify and understand consumers who would engage in purchasing
products linked to causes. We felt the need to understand whether perception of responsibility by the consumer would be carried
forward by them not only in terms of purchasing a product linked to a cause but more so would it result in higher WTP. We can
thus hypothesize that,
H4: Consumer Social Responsibility has a positive impact on Willingness To Pay (WTP).
This implies that consumers who perceive that he/she has a greater degree of responsibility in solving social problems or
contributing to social well being would be Willing To Pay more for the product rather than those who perceive a lower degree of
responsibility.
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companies marketing the product. But those low on social responsibility are likely to feel that companies should contribute to
causes more than customers.
Hence when the customers role is manifested in the message, those with high Consumer Social Responsibility are likely to pay
more and when the role of the company is manifested in the message, customers with high Consumer Social Responsibility are
likely to pay less. Thus we can hypothesize that,
H6: Impact of message framing on WTP is moderated by Consumer Social Responsibility.
Customers with high social responsibility are likely to support a non-reputed brand more than a reputed brand and those with
low social responsibility are likely to support a reputed brand more than a non-reputed brand and hence their WTP is likely to
differ between reputed and non-reputed brands. Thus we can hypothesize that,
H7: Impact of Consumer Social Responsibility on WTP is moderated by reputation of the brand.
Thus there are four main effects (H1, H2, H3, H4) and three interaction effects (H5, H6, H7) in this study in the context of Cause
Related Marketing.
FIGURE 1: Conceptual Framework
4. Methodology
The purpose of experimental research is to allow the researcher to control the research situation so that causal relationship
among variables may be evaluated. The experimenter therefore manipulates a single variable in an investigation and holds
constant all other relevant, extraneous variables as stated by (Zikmund, 2010).
The study is conducted as a laboratory experiment in which message framing in an advertisement and reputation of the company
are manipulated. The experiment is conducted using two levels of message framing and two levels of reputation. It also measures
Consumer Social Responsibility of the respondents. Cause, message framing, reputation and Consumer Social Responsibility were
the independent variables while Willingness To Pay (WTP) was the dependent variable.
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depicted as ). The product selected for the purpose of the experiment was a 200 pages note book as a book would be a utilitarian
product for the subjects under the study.
Each group was administered a treatment which is a combination of a brand and a message. The reputed brand represented ITC
while the non-reputed brand (fictitious) represented Priya. In round one, the first group consisting of 7 subjects were shown the
book individually with the message printed on the book Every time you purchase an ITC book the company contributes 1/towards rural education (the reputed brand). The book was compared with a non-cause, non-brand book with a reference
(control) price of 15/- printed on it. The subjects were not allowed to interact with each other. On close examination of the
books the subjects were asked to individually state in writing the price they were Willing To Pay on page 1 of a questionnaire
(WTP is studied for a product as a whole) and on completion of the same, page 2 was administered which consisted of statements
to be answered in the range of Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree using a five-point Likert Scale to determine the level of
consumer social responsibility. Systematic random sampling was used to select the subjects. While the second group was shown,
the same message printed on the book with the non-reputed brand (Priya). The third group was administered the treatment of
the message Every time you purchase an ITC book you contribute 1/- towards rural education printed on the book of the
reputed company (ITC) while the fourth group was shown the same message with the non-reputed brand (Priya). In a similar
manner round two and round three of the experiment was conducted.
TABLE 1
Division of Subjects for the experiment.
Company pays
Customer Pays
Total
ITC
21
21
42
Priya
21
21
42
Total
42
42
84
5. Results
Table 2 represents the results of t-test for different combination of messages with reputed and non-reputed brands and low and
high Consumer Social Responsibility, as well as brands with different reputations with low and high Consumer Social
Responsibility, the mean WTP of which are tested against the reference (control) price of 15/- . All the combinations had
significantly high mean WTP as compared to the reference price of 15/- as represented by t values significant at 1% level of
significance.
The results indicated in table 3 are t-test for difference of means for different message framing, different reputations and different
levels of Consumer Social Responsibility. The t values for difference of means between different message framing and the mean
values of different reputations of brands were not significant. However consumers with low social responsibility were found to
have higher WTP as compared to customers with higher social responsibility as represented by a t value significant at 10% level.
Table 4 indicates the test of significance for moderation effects, the impact of message framing on WTP is not moderated by
reputation nor moderated by Consumer Social Responsibility. The impact of Consumer Social Responsibility on WTP was found to
be moderated by reputation as represented by a f value significant at 10% level.
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TABLE 2
One sample t-test for WTP for combination of independent variables with control value.
Sample size
Mean WTP
Standard Deviation
T Value
21
19.8810
2.085
10.727***
21
20.1667
3.035
7.802***
16
20.4062
2.067
10.460***
22
19.3864
2.609
7.885***
21
19.3000
2.929
6.727***
21
19.0952
3.093
6.068***
15
19.5867
2.667
6.661***
20
18.6250
2.476
6.549***
30
21.6933
3.721
9.851***
27
20.0926
4.024
6.576***
20
19.3000
2.364
8.134***
32
19.2266
2.794
8.559***
***Significant at 1% level
The results of one sample t-test with the control value of 15/- (printed on the book without message and brand name) reveals
that in all the combinations the test values were significantly high. Hence, it is evident that the cause makes a difference and
customers are Willing To Pay for the cause.
TABLE 3
Test of Dufference for WTP between levels of Independent variables.
Mean
Standard Dev.
Company Pays
20.0238
2.576
Costumer Pays
19.1976
2.977
19.5905
2.528
19.6310
3.074
20.0097
2.373
19.0238
2.545
T value
Significance
1.360
Not Significant
-0.066
Not Significant
1.683*
0.097
Significance
Significance
Message * Brand
0.159
0.691
Not Significant
0.002
0.961
Not Significant
3.783
0.056*
Significant at 10%
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FIGURE 2
The main intent of this study was to determine whether incorporation of roles in the message framed in a CRM context can impact
consumers WTP. The impact on WTP based on reputation of the brand and Consumer Social Responsibility was also investigated.
One sample t-test for different combination of messages, reputation and Consumer Social Responsibility taken two at a time
indicate that the cause makes a difference to WTP hence the hypothesis (H1) that Association of a product with a cause increases
WTP is supported. WTP was not found to differ between reputed and non-reputed brands, WTP also did not differ when the roles
of the customer and company was made manifest in the messages, hence (H2) and (H3) are not supported.
The significant difference between WTP between customers with low social responsibility and high social responsibility support
(H4).
The test for moderation effects indicates that the impact of message on WTP is not moderated by reputation nor moderated by
Consumer Social Responsibility resulting in lack of support for (H5) and (H6). However (H7) is supported by a significant
moderation effect of reputation on the relation between Consumer Social Responsibility and WTP.
6. Discussion
Strahilevitz (1999) found that consumers respond favourably when larger donations are associated with frivolous products. Our
study did not involve comparison on the basis of nature of the products (frivolous v/s practical necessities) it however
demonstrates that association of a product with a cause helps to increase Willingness To Pay. As Webb & Mohr (1998) in their
study had identified consumers who buy only on the basis of traditional criteria, others who keep charitable giving separate from
purchasing products linked to causes, we were drawn towards investigating how consumers respond to association of a product
with a cause in terms of Willingness To Pay.
In their study Pracejus, Olsen, & Brown (2003) revealed that when vague terms are used in CRM advertisements the consumers
perceived that greater support to charity was extended by the company, thus donation framing impacts consumer perceptions.
Chang & Lee (2010) in their study depicted how vivid presentation make framing effects strong in terms of advertising persuasion
when it is congruent with the framed message. Their study highlights the fact that negative framing is more effective than positive
framing and also reveals how statistics presented with large numbers can have an impact on positively framed messages with a
positive story.
Although message framing has been studied in various contexts like donation framing, temporal framing, to the best of our
knowledge no study has been conducted incorporating the role of the consumer and the company in the message framed
impacting Willingness To Pay.
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As consumers attach importance to reputaion of brands when engaging in purchase activity we tried to study whether reputation
of the brand in terms of popularity also affects consumers Willingness To Pay in the CRM context.
As there is a growing concern for the environment, social issues, among consumers we felt the need to investigate the concept of
Consumer Social Responsibility in the context of CRM. Webb & Mohr (1998) identified four different types of consumers i.e.
skeptics, balancers, attribution-oriented and socially concerned. The socially concerned were people who responded positively to
CRM offers primarily because of their concern and desire to help causes about which they care.
This lead us to investigate whether the socially concerned consumers would carry forward this concern in terms of higher WTP.
Vaidyanathan and Aggarwal (2005) stated that despite a high degree of expressed concern about the environment, few
individuals are willing to follow up this concern in terms of actions from their side supporting the environment, more so when
these actions require the individuals to bear some costs.
Thus our study depicts that consumers are more sensitive to a cause and cause matters to them irrespective of brand reputation
and how the message is framed. It is evident from the fact that consumers WTP increases when a product is linked or associated
with a cause. The study depicts that consumers with low Social Responsibility showed increased Willingness to Pay for a reputed
brand and were Willing To Pay less for a non-reputed brand. Although it is difficult to predict the exact reason for this behaviour it
appears to be more of a stated intention, however the actual purchase behaviour may be different. Fishbein and Ajzen (as cited
in Shen & Dillard 2007) state a behavioural intention is a course of action that an individual aims to follow. Heckhausen and Kuhl
(as cited in Shen & Dillard 2007) suggest that the probability that an attitude will be transformed into an intention increases as a
function of opportunity, time, importance, urgency, and means.
7. Conclusion
The study demonstrates that association of a product with a cause helps to increase Willingness To Pay. Consumers with lower
social responsibility are Willing To Pay more if the brand is reputed while consumers with higher social responsibility were
Willing to Pay more for a nonreputed brand. The study also indicates that Consumer Social Responsibility has an impact on WTP.
It is thus evident that Cause-Related Marketing campaigns to a large extent have the potential of increasing consumers
Willingness To Pay. The study depicts that consumers ultimately bond and establish a connect with the cause dimension
regardless of the reputation of the company involved. Helping others matters, as long as some donation is made. Besides, the
study also revealed that the impact of Consumer Social Responsibility on WTP is moderated by brand reputation. The study does
not indicate that message framing has an impact on WTP. Reputation of the brand does not have an impact on WTP. The impact of
message framing on WTP is not moderated by the reputation of the brand and the impact of message framing on WTP is not
moderated by Consumer Social Responsibility.
8. Limitations
This research faces the limitations common to many laboratory experiments in which student participants are used, including the
questions of generalization. Replication with the real-world sample is essential before extending the results of this study.
Results may indicate significant difference with the increase in the sample size.
9. Implications
As companies try to communicate with consumers using messages it is important for practitioners of CRM to understand whether
consumers identify and perceive, their role and the role of the company in the message framed and whether their perception has
an impact on their WTP coupled with the reputation of the brand and consumer social responsibility.
The study depicts that incorporation of roles in the message framed in the CRM context would not be effective and as such
marketers could identify other aspects of message framing to make CRM more effective. However the study proves that
association of a product with a cause matters more to the consumers.
Understanding consumer behaviour in terms of their perceptions towards message framing in CRM could provide insightful
information to marketers as they attempt to design effective campaigns that could mould, support and transform the behaviour of
consumers in a competitive business world.
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The findings of this study may help the marketers as products linked to causes have pricing implications. This calls for proper
segmentation of population and thus based on the social responsibility of the target audience, pricing can be varied by the
marketer. Differential pricing depending on the reputation of the brand, for target audience with different Consumer Social
Responsibility can be adopted.
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Academic Research
Research activities oriented towards scientific community (scientific research projects in partnership with key research units,
peer-reviewed papers in international journals, international and national scientific evaluation committees) in a marketing
science logic for each researcher.
Research Studies
Applied research studies with large empirical studies that analyze relevant issues for the companies and society in general.
Qualitative and quantitative approaches are balanced and combined by our specialists to better draw benefits from scientific
models and reality constraints, as well as to be cost-effective while rigorous.
Junior Research
Research projects developed by and with students, scientific training programme in all new research methods with effective and
rigorous results, mingling research and studies in our schools (marketing laboratories and MSc studies), data collection and
methodological coaching for academic theses.
O Essencial do Questionrio:
Preparao, Recolha e Tratamento de Dados em SPSS
Esta obra mais do que um livro de mtodos e tcnicas; apresenta-se como um
mapa que nos guia, atravs de um exemplo ilustrado, pelo percurso muitas vezes
complexo e cheio de encruzilhadas que a pesquisa emprica. No ignorando o
enquadramento de um processo de investigao de base cientfica, evidenciando
as tcnicas de amostragem e diferentes ferramentas de inqurito, ajusta-se ao
pragmatismo que qualquer aluno ou investigador necessita nos momentos chave
em que necessrio decidir o que fazer com os dados recolhidos. Para quem no
acredita fcil comear: basta abrir o livro, juntar o SPSS e j est anlise de
dados ao alcance de todos.
O Gestor Lean
Lean uma estratgia de negcios para aumentar a satisfao dos clientes
atravs da melhor utilizao dos recursos. A filosofia de gesto Lean procura
fornecer consistentemente valor para os clientes com os custos mais baixos
(Propsito) atravs da identificao de melhoria dos fluxos de valor principais e
de suporte (Processos) por meio do envolvimento das pessoas qualificadas,
motivadas e com iniciativa (Pessoas). O foco da implementao deve estar nas
reais necessidades dos negcios e no na simples aplicao das ferramentas
Lean.
O livro aborda de forma aprofundada o conceito de Gesto Lean, uma estratgia
de negcios que se fundamenta no aumento da satisfao dos clientes atravs da
melhor utilizao dos recursos. A obra apresenta 16 estudos de caso que
explicitam a aplicao prtica, atravs de casos reais, das diversas filosofias,
ferrametas e anlises que compem as bases deste tipo de gesto
Os livros das Edies IPAM encontram-se venda na Bubok em formato papel e e-book em:
http://ipam.bubok.pt/