Comparative Studies on Islamic and Western Law

Individuals with disabilities constitute a significant minority in human society. However, despite the existence of Islamic, international, and domestic fundamental principles of human rights such as inherent dignity and equality, this group has faced deprivation in realizing their rights compared to others. The necessity of effective measures to guarantee their rights has raised the issue of "positive discrimination," which functions as a supportive basis in international documents, Islamic standards, and domestic laws. The main question of this paper is: What are the effects and consequences of positive discrimination as a supportive basis for ensuring and protecting the rights of persons with disabilities in domestic and international systems? This article, recruiting a descriptive-analytical approach, concludes that positive discrimination, due to its rational and intrinsic basis, legitimizes and serves as a significant factor in identifying protective rights for individuals with disabilities. The primary legal impact of positive discrimination lies in the recognition of this element in domestic laws and international documents, allowing persons with disabilities to enjoy their rights and equal social participation like other citizens. In this regard, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities adopted in 2006 and the Law on the Protection of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities passed by the Islamic Consultative Assembly in 2017 are considered symbols of the influence of positive discrimination in supporting persons with disabilities. However, it is worth noting that domestic measures have a stronger executive backing compared to the international arena. Nevertheless, it should be acknowledged that comprehensive theoretical discussions on positive discrimination for individuals with disabilities have not been adequately addressed in the legal literature of Iran.

Child custody is a significant issue faced by families after divorce in all legal systems. In Iranian law, custody refers to the keeping, care, and regulation of a child's relationships with others, while in Canadian and English law, it encompasses all the rights, duties, powers, responsibilities, and authorities that parents have concerning their child and their property. The crucial question to be addressed is how divorce affects child custody according to the legal systems of Iran, England, and Canada. It appears that while divorce itself does not have a direct impact on the priority of one parent over the other in terms of child custody in Iranian law, the actual determination of custody between the father and mother becomes evident after divorce due to their pre-divorce cohabitation. In Canadian and English law, explicit gender priority in post-divorce custody has largely subsided since the 1970s, with custody laws focusing on an independent assessment of the child's best interests and welfare, thus divorce does not affect the priority of one parent over the other regarding child custody. The research methodology employed in this study is descriptive-analytical and documentary, utilizing a librarybased approach. After analyzing the content, the following conclusions were drawn: firstly, it should be noted that Canadian law is similar to English law in most related aspects. Secondly, custody in Iran only encompasses child custody, while in common law, it also includes guardianship and wardship. In common law, both parents can jointly seek custody, and there is no priority between them. The court decides which parent should be responsible for custody based on the child's best interests and welfare. Additionally, the mother's remarriage does not affect custody arrangements. However, in Iranian law, although custody remains with the mother until the child reaches the age of 7, guardianship remains with the father. Anything that endangers the child, such as insanity, leads to the deprivation of custody. Iranian legislation considers the mother's remarriage as a ground for depriving her of custody, but it does not consider the father's remarriage as an effective ground for deprivation. Nevertheless, according to Article 41 of the Law on Family Protection enacted in 2012, the court has the authority to modify or extend custody duration and the custodial parent based on the child's best interests.

The concept of good faith is recognized in many legal systems and entails significant implications. It has received particular attention and influence in German and English law across various fields. The liability of non-owner possessors (in both legal and material terms) represents one of the most important areas. This paper aims to examine the possibility of the impact of good faith on the liability of non-owner possessors regarding damages caused to the subject of possession, as well as the quality of this impact, through a library-based comparative analysis. In German and English law, the recognition of the concept of good faith and the emphasis on attributing damages to the conduct of the possessor to recognize their liability, alongside the influence of good faith in establishing this attribution, have allowed the good faith of the possessor to eliminate or mitigate their liability in both tortious (obligatory) and contractual contexts. However, in domestic law, the influence of jurisprudence and the scope of the concepts of usurpation and quasi-usurpation, particularly in cases of material possessions, limits the support for a possessor acting in good faith, and it seems that the solution to protecting a possessor acting in good faith lies in distinguishing between the usurper and the quasi-usurper. On the other hand, in legal possessions, the attribution of damages to the conduct of the possessor receives more importance, and to some extent, the situation is similar to German and English law.

"Damages in lieu of performance" is one of the three types of damages for breach of contract provided by the German Civil Code. The main objective of this research is to examine this remedy in German law. Specifically, this study addresses the question of how, in a legal system that upholds the principle of contractual necessity and considers specific performance as the primary remedy for a breach of contract, damages can substitute for the actual fulfillment of the obligation. While the term "damages in lieu of performance" is not explicitly used in Iranian laws, certain instances of this type of damage have been explored in legal literature. By comparing these two concepts within the German and Iranian legal systems, it becomes evident that the German Civil Code provides precise and effective rules governing damages in lieu of performance, thereby offering a solid foundation for the comparative adaptation of such rules in Iranian law.

The independence of the legal profession means that all matters related to the diverse executive policies of the legal community (the Bar Association) are carried out by its members without interference from others. This study, conducted in a descriptiveanalytical manner with a comparative approach, aims to explore the legal foundations of this concept in the legal systems of Iran and England. The study relies on library resources to collect data. It argues that the basis of professional independence for lawyers in the legal systems of Iran and England, unlike the independence of the judicial branch which is based on the principle of separation of powers, is the oversight of an independent civil society organization over the proper implementation of the law within the judiciary, ensuring the right to a defense and upholding the rule of law. Therefore, a lawyer should not be appointed by the legislative or executive branches, as such appointment may lead to the interference of these branches in the independent judiciary, which is not permissible in accordance with Article 57 of the Constitution. On the other hand, if a lawyer is appointed by the judiciary, their role of defending the rights and interests of their clients and striving to achieve a balance in the rule of law and its enforcement undermines the independence of the judge. The notion of independence does not absolve the lawyer of accountability; if they commit an error, the relevant regulations and provisions regarding civil, disciplinary, and criminal liability will apply, thereby moderating this independence.

Failure to perform contractual obligations may be unintentional or intentional. Intentional breach represents the most severe form of contract violation, consequently leading to unique consequences not applicable in cases of unintentional breaches, among various legal systems. One of the significant effects of intentional breach within the framework of compensatory arrangements is the inability of the breaching party to rely on an exemption clause it has obtained as a contractual benefit. A party that intentionally and willingly fails to fulfill its obligations should not be allowed to escape the consequences of its deliberate harmful actions by seeking refuge in an exemption clause contained within the contract. This article employs a descriptive-analytical approach to examine the practical and significant impact of intentional breach on the validity of contractual exemption clauses from an objective perspective, within the regulatory framework and judicial practices of three major legal systems (Roman-Germanic, Common Law, and Islamic Law).

The founders of the modern criminal justice system in Iran initiated a transition from the traditional to the modern system by drawing inspiration from the criminal justice systems of developed countries. However, this process of change has consistently faced numerous challenges, and in some cases, the adoption of foreign models has been relatively unsuccessful. The adoption of the jury trial institution in English law is one such unsuccessful experience. This article, based on a scientific and systematic approach using the multiple streams theory, seeks to explain the reasons for this failure. The theory focuses on the changes in public policies and aims to identify the influential variables in this area. According to this theory, to develop a new policy, an undesirable situation, referred to as a "problem", must first be identified. This issue is heavily influenced by the values dominant in a society. After identifying a problem, multiple solutions are proposed, but only a solution that meets criteria such as feasibility, practicality, and normative acceptability remains as the answer to the problem. This article demonstrates, through the application of the aforementioned theory, that although the jury trial institution is a successful and effective institution in common law jurisdictions, it has not gained popularity in Iran. The reason for this failure should be sought in the lack of relevance of the jury trial institution to the Iranian context and its conflict with the public values and the values of the Islamic judicial system, which is judge-oriented.

Legal interpretation is an essential aspect in every legal system, consistently playing a significant role in the application of the law and its impact on the rights of individuals. In the common law system, two significant approaches, namely the "literal" and "purposive" approaches, exist in opposition to each other, each with its own proponents. This article, while tracing the trajectory of interpretive approaches in the common law system towards the purposive approach and elucidating its important principles such as the "mischief rule" and the "golden rule" of interpretation, seeks to analyze descriptively and analytically whether the purposive approach and to determine the extent to which the principles and rules of the purposive approach are acceptable and applicable in Islamic jurisprudence and the Iranian legal system. The research findings indicate that Islamic jurisprudence places special emphasis on the "text" of the law. However, discussions on topics such as the "Purposes of the Sharia" or similar concepts can be observed in the discourse and opinions of jurists, warranting further investigation. A comparable approach can be observed in Iranian laws and Islamic jurisprudence, indicating a movement towards the purposive approach despite legal pluralism.

The principle of proportionality in criminal law is considered one of the fundamental principles, which entails determining punishments that correspond to the social harm caused by the crime. In the case of drug offenses, the application of this principle during the legislative stage requires careful consideration and subtlety on the part of the Legislature due to the complexity of such offenses. By taking into account the effective factors in the application of the principle of proportionality, unjustness in the determination and implementation of punishments can be minimized, and the expected goals of punishment, such as deterrence, can be better achieved. The behavior of the offender, the nature of the committed crime, the role of the accused, their involvement in the crime, and the severity and gravity of the offense are among the most influential factors in the application of the principle of proportionality in drug offenses. However, the Legislature in the Anti-Drug Law has solely emphasized the proportionality between the quantity of drugs and the level of punishment, disregarding other essential factors.

The quasi-judicial body responsible for the enforcement of official documents is one of the most important auxiliary bodies within the registration system. This body possesses multiple legal competencies to handle specialized litigations, alongside other authorities within its legal system. The significance of these competencies lies in their nature as actions that guarantee fundamental rights of individuals within the judicial procedure of this body. The establishment of fair trial within this body is one of the key criteria to assess these competencies. This research adopts a descriptive-analytical approach with a comparative perspective. The article aims to examine the quasi-judicial procedure in the enforcement of official documents, considering its competencies, in the context of fair trial to answer the question: What is the approach of this body towards fair trial in its own judicial procedure? The findings of this research demonstrate that the quasi-judicial body possesses broad competencies under the regulations governing the enforcement of official documents, and some aspects of fair trial, such as the principle of legality, time limits, appealability, and religious exceptions, have been recognized; however, important criteria such as consistency, independence in decision-making, the right to legal representation, and the right to access case files have not been adequately addressed. Therefore, it can be argued that the quasi-judicial body in the enforcement of official documents applies an incomplete form of fair trial in its judicial procedure, which, in addition to ambiguities and inconsistencies within this body, leads to the violation of individuals' rights.

The concept of "capacity to be entitled" is an essential component of the definition of legal personality. If the law recognizes a "right" for an object or entity other than a living person, it implies the implicit grant of legal personality to that object. In the traditional common law system, death was regarded as the termination of legal personality. However, with advancements in experimental sciences and the emergence of intellectual property rights, the recognition of rights after death gradually gained importance, necessitating the consideration of legal personality after death. These rights include the right to donate body parts, the right to posthumous reproduction and the possibility of assigning a child to a deceased parent, the right to make decisions after death, the right to the integrity of the body, personal rights (privacy) after death, and the right to respect and honor the deceased. Despite the existence of the term "legal personality", Islamic jurisprudence continues to employ concepts and constructs such as capacity, which convey the meaning of legal personality and are applied to issues such as endowments, treasury, and holy places. Therefore, to identify traces of legal personality in Islamic jurisprudence, we must examine its consequences and effects. Jurisprudential recognition of certain rights, such as the right to make decisions after death, the right to inherit the estate (a subject of integrated religion), and the deceased's ownership in the prosecution of crimes against the deceased, indicates the limited survival and inviolability of legal personality after death. These findings rely on the application of Article 956 of the Iranian Civil Code.

According to the general rule of liability, a person is responsible for their own acts or acts committed under their instruction. Therefore, liability arising from the act of another person has exceptions and is contrary to the general rule. Another form of liability arising from the act of another person is known in common law as "vicarious liability," which is interpreted as proxy liability. In the civil liability sources of common law, the discussion of employer's liability for the actions of their employees has been addressed under the same title. This article, using a descriptive-analytical method, examines the latest theories on the foundations and conditions of this liability in Iran's and England's laws. According to Article 12 of the Iranian Civil Liability Law, employer's liability is based on the theory of fault and its specificity lies only in the fact that it arises from the act of another person. In contrast, in English law, this liability is considered distinctive from two perspectives: firstly, it is contrary to the principle of personal liability, and secondly, it falls within the framework of the theory of strict liability and is solely based on the element of harm.

The contract of maintenance and preservation is one type of service contracts that includes contracts such as cloud computing, parking services, lease of wombs, etc. In the European Union, this contract has been identified as a specific category of contracts, and its specific rules are provided in two documents, namely, the Principles of Euroean Law on Service Contracts (PELSC) and the Draft Common Frame of Reference (DCFR). According to this contract, one party is obligated to preserve and maintain the deposited property in exchange for receiving compensation. The aforementioned document includes obligations for the service provider, such as the obligation to provide necessary objects and personnel (providing premises, equipment, and suitable workforce), the obligation to exercise care, the obligation to return goods, the obligation to comply, and the obligation to provide reports. This research examines these obligations in the document of European Principles of Service Contracts and compares them with Iranian law. It appears that European countries have been successful in this regard by drafting the aforementioned documents, and the existence of specific laws in this area has led to the establishment of new and consistent procedures. Therefore, it is recommended that since Iran's law does not specifically address the contract of maintenance and preservation, the legislator should address ambiguities regarding this type of contract and related issues by enacting separate legislations, in order to achieve coherent rules and regulations based on the experiences of European countries in this realm.

In order to determine the timing of smart contract formation, which is considered a type of electronic contract, the authors initially examine the viewpoint of traditional contract law. In England and the United States, the doctrine of receipt of acceptance is accepted for instantaneous transactions, while the doctrine of dispatch of acceptance is applied to noninstantaneous contracts to determine the timing of contract formation. In Iran, a unified approach has not been adopted by legal scholars, and the authors advocate for the acceptance of the doctrine of declaration of acceptance. However, regarding the timing of electronic contract formation, the legal systems of England and the United States consider the time of sending the data message as the moment of contract formation, while the Iranian legal system, we claim, relies on the time of signing the acceptance letter as the criterion for contract formation. Various assumptions can be conceived regarding the timing of smart contract formation, and the authors argue that legal systems adhering to the theory of receipt of acceptance should rely on "receipt of the message containing acceptance of the smart contract," while legal systems favoring the theory of dispatch of acceptance should consider the "time of signing the contract with a private key by the acceptor" as the criterion for determining the timing of smart contract formation.

Distinctiveness is a fundamental element of a protectable trademark, referring to its ability to differentiate goods and services of one person from those of others and indicate the source of origin. This component usually needs to be inherent, meaning that the trademark should possess this characteristic at the time of filing for registration. However, certain marks can acquire distinctiveness over time through continuous investment, advertising, and activities carried out by the mark's owner. The stance of different countries regarding acquired distinctiveness is not uniform, especially considering that trademarks are not of a single type, and we are currently witnessing the proliferation of non-traditional and modern marks that effectively serve as distinctive indicators with new approaches. This research employs an analytical-descriptive method, along with a library and field approach, to undertake a comparative study of this subject in selected legal systems. Ultimately, the research concludes that the significance of these marks has become evident today, and factors such as continuous use have been influential in establishing acquired distinctiveness. Additionally, the sufficiency or insufficiency of each adopted criterion in proving acquired distinctiveness appears to be dependent on the specific circumstances. Furthermore, signs of acceptance of acquired distinctiveness can be observed in the legal system of Iran.

The relationship between the foundation of ethics and the criteria for assessing good and bad actions and behaviors of individuals from the perspective of divine command theorists, and its connection with human rights, has always been a subject of contemplation. In one approach (the theory of divine command), the nature of ethical actions and behaviors is rooted in divine rules and the will of God. However, in another approach (human rights), ethical concepts inherently possess value rooted in a rights-based moral system and based on autonomy and inherent human dignity. This research aims to evaluate and analyze the prevailing discourse on human rights and its theoretical foundations in comparison to the theory of divine command. Through a descriptive-analytical method, the main finding of this study suggests that the relationship between human rights and the theory of divine command, which belongs to the duty-based ethics, is inherently contradictory in terms of their respective principles, and the emphasis on obligations in the duty-based approach hinders the assertion and claim of rights.

The intergovernmental Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) was established within the framework of Chapter VIII of the UN Charter to support the struggle of the Palestinian people, empower them to attain their inalienable rights, and ensure global and regional peace. The OIC requires all member states to adhere to its principles. However, despite the Zionist regime's persistent efforts to quietly plan the annexation of occupied territories and its failure to respect the minimum rights set forth in international law for the Palestinian people, some Arab states have signed peace agreements to normalize their relations with Israel. This study employs a descriptive-analytical approach to examine the international legal aspects of the normalization of relations between certain Arab states and the Zionist regime. It explores the Zionist regime's disregard for international law and regional requirements, as well as the need for other OIC member states to support the Palestinian people in accordance with the provisions of the Organization. The study aims to shed light on the dimensions of international law surrounding the normalization of relations between certain Arab states and the Zionist regime, highlighting the Zionist regime's non-compliance with international law and regional requirements, and emphasizing the necessity for other member states of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation to support the Palestinian people within the goals and requirements of the OIC. Additionally, the study underscores the importance of the OIC's role in effectively maintaining regional peace and stability.

Human Rights treaties which contain derogation clause, albeit allowing the derogation of some rights and freedoms in states of emergency, have provided some principles that must be observed by the States Parties for the derogation clause to be applicable. The purpose behind the prevision is the prevention from abuse of derogation right and gross violation of human rights by States under pretext of the existence of emergency situations. These principles can be divided into two general categories: substantive and procedural. The substantive principles are: the principle of exceptional threat, the principle of proportionality, the principle of observation of other international obligations, the principle of non-discrimination, the principle of good faith and the principle of non-derogable rights. The procedural principles are: the principle of proclamation and the principle of notification. Strict implementation of these principles requires their entry into domestic systems, especially in the constitutions of countries. Article 79 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran also deals with the application of necessary restrictions in times of war and similar emergencies. In the study, the issue of the status of emergency situations in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran and its compliance with the provisions of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) relating to the suspension of human rights in emergency situations has been examined comparatively. Findings indicate that Article 79 of the Iranian Constitution is slightly in line with Article 4 of the ICCPR and could be amended in a possible future revision.

The compensation for custody and the guarantee of its implementation, including criminal and civil law in Islamic jurisprudence, the laws of Iran and the United States of America, is discussed in the present study, which is addressed through an analytical-descriptive method. Findings indicate that the prominent Imamiyyah jurists believe that paying the compensation for custody is considered to be primarily the responsibility of the father, and in case of the father's incapacity or death, it is the responsibility of the paternal ancestor. Regarding the mother who is the guardian of the child, there are different views in two cases before and after the divorce. This matter has different aspects before divorce, and it may be in the form of conditions during and after the marriage, or there may be an agreement on its termination. The payment of custody compensation after divorce depends on the fact that if custody is regarded as an obligation, then it is not appropriate to receive a wage in return for it, but if custody is considered a right, it is possible to receive wages for custody and there is a clear position in Iranian Criminal Law. There is no objection to the payment of custody wages by the non-custodial parent, and it can hardly be included in the criminal provisions of the Family Protection Act, and in the criminal laws of the United States at the federal and state levels, there is a guarantee of criminal execution such as imprisonment and reduction from the salary of the working parent.

One of the main factors in the formation of thought system in international litigation and arbitration is the cultural considerations pertaining to judges and arbitrators. That is to say, due to their educational and cultural backgrounds, judges and arbitrators obtain a particular legal culture, which leads them to consider legal matters through the prism of their cultural background. Cultures may have close similarities with each other or may be distant from one another. The intersection of opinions and actions of judges and arbitrators with each other and with other actors, contributes to a form of cultural diversity or similarity in international judicial practice. The present article-in explaining this concept and analyzing its role in international arbitration and in the proceedings of the International Court of Justiceattempts to suggest that diversity of legal cultures leads to formation of a specific language in its own turn, through which actors in this field engage in various communicative exercises. Awareness and knowledge of this common language can lead to a better understanding of relevant legal issues in theory and practice.

Judgment in the Iranian law will be civil if the perpetrator commits a mistake or unconventional negligence by refusing to hear the case, but if he makes a mistake, he will be responsible for compensating the government. Recruiting an analyticaldescriptive design, the study is aimed at clarifying the commonalities and differences between Imamiyyah jurisprudence and the common law system in this regard. Findings indicate that in addition to Article 171 of the Constitution, the State of the Islamic Republic of Iran recognizes relative immunity under the influence of Imamiyyah jurisprudence in order to protect the independence of the judge. They knew absolutely. In general, by anticipating the principles of ethics to monitor the misconduct of the judiciary along with appealing their decision to the extent that the US government believes in the principle of "exercise of sovereignty" is derived from the federal system, refrain from making decisions in the US. He was acquitted and the judiciary in this country, by insuring itself, found a certain limit for possible problems.

Independence in responsibility is considered as requisite by reason and justice; hence, it has been identified by many legal systems under different titles. Of course, its existence in the legal systems, does not mean the sameness of its extension in all of them. Independence in responsibility implies that each person is responsible for the action he has committed. In the absence of international criminal responsibility for the states, independent international legal responsibility is based on its own requirements. T e study investigates independent responsibility by "vizr rule" in Imamiyyah jurisprudence and independent responsibility in the International Law Commission of the United Nations, as a scientific body for the gradual development of international law that it makes the teachings and ideas of Islamic law play a far greater role in the development of international law. This way, not only would it contribute to the enrichment of international law and make the international legal system more efficient, it would also help the spread of Islamic countries profits, specially, Iran.

Whereas contracts are the legal tools for the substantiation of economic transactions, in order to respond to the needs of economic actors in accordance with the evolution of economic approaches, they have changed. Developments in economic schools can be classified in one sense in the form of classical, neoclassical and behavioral schools. The main purpose of the study is to examine the developments of contractual justice from the perspective of economic developments in the context of these schools. Recruiting a descriptive-analytical design, the study revealed that commutative and distributive justices are the foundations of contractual justice and complement each other. Commutative justice has always been the basic principle of contract law; however, its scope has expanded beyond the concept of fair pricing in the pre-classical era. Distributive justice, after the advent of neoclassical economics, became more prominent at the same time as the need for government intervention in the economy to address the side effects of a free economy. The school of behavioral economics, by questioning the hypothesis of rational choice and the neo-classical school of economics, raised the need to pay attention to the cognitive biases of individuals in decision-making, especially in the consumer market and in terms of standard terms. It has, despite the optimization of the concept of justice in contracts, at the same time, created fears of excessive government protectionist interventions in contracts. In general, commutative and distributive justice complement each other in establishing contractual justice.

Venture capital is one of the new methods of financing, the operating mechanism of w ic is done in t e form of a "venture capital fund". T e subject of t is met od of financing is investing in assets based on innovative ideas and financing investable companies. The necessity of explaining the nature of this financial institution is important because understanding the rulings and their effects is influenced by knowing its nature. Meanwhile, looking at the systems ahead in this field can pave the way for the internal legal system. To this end, the present study, with an approach to the British legal system as one of the pioneers in this field, has investigated the nature of a venture capital fund. Recruiting an analytical-descriptive design, findings revealed that the nature of the financial institute is in the comparative dimension of the type of partnership-in contrast to other common organizations and business structures in that country-and among the types of partnerships, it also falls into the category of limited partnerships; however, from the domestic law perspective, it is one of the examples of non-commercial for-profit organizations and institutes.

The study examines a relatively novel legal presumption called "Unexplained Wealth Orders" (UWRs). According to this legal rebuttable presumption that is accepted in some countries, including England, a person is required by court order to explain about the legal origin of his wealth and assets-which is considered as extraordinary wealth, with regard to his/her known and legal income; otherwise, it is assumed that these properties and assets are illegal and must be restituted. The study argues for the adoption and development of this assumption in the Iranian legal system through a descriptive-analytical design, citing the laws and judicial procedures of t e Iranian legal system as well as examining some adīt s. Findings, with regard specifically to the jurisprudence of Special Courts of Article 49 of the Iranian Constitution, suggest that accepting such assumption could be one of the effective steps in fighting financial corruption.

Securitism, as an intellectual point of view, makes it possible to maintain the order and security of the society through the strict control of the ruling powers and extensive intervention in the scope of individual freedoms and privacy of people, and does not attend to endogenous security and relying on the civil society. The result of securityism in the criminal justice system, especially in the crime detection stage, is the granting of wide powers to officers and investigation authorities, in such a way that maintaining security is preferred over individual freedoms and privacy. Recruiting a descriptiveanalytical design and analyzing the laws and regulations and the judicial procedures of Iran and the United States in relation to the challenges of security and privacy of individuals in the stage of crime detection, it was revealed that the criminal justice system of Iran is transitioning from the traditional security-oriented system to the citizenoriented justice system. This transition period can be clearly seen in the Criminal Procedure Law approved in 2014. On the other hand, despite the long history of the United States in protecting privacy, with the events of September 11, 2001, relying on laws such as the Patriot Act and under the pretext of ensuring the security of society, the police and the judicial system of the country considerably violated citizens' privacy; to the extent that this approach has caught the American criminal justice system in the vortex of a kind of new securityism.

In an era when governments are not considered the only actors in the field of public administration, regulation is considered as one of the most important functions of new governance. For this reason, many countries have turned to the establishment of regulatory institutions, especially economic regulation.recruiting a descriptiveanalytical design, the study shows that the negative and unsuccessful experiences in this field in some countries, including Iran, indicate that the concept of economic regulation is closely related to the political structure of governments, the prevailing economic approach and the reason they have their general management; so that regulatory goals cannot be achieved in any political system with any management method and simply by creating institutions and enforcing regulations. The prerequisite for any economic regulation is the existence of at least three components of the minimalism of governments in economic affairs, the existence of a free market and regulatory governance. It seems that the main causes of regulatory inefficiency in Iran are rent-seeking economy, government intervention and domination over the economy, and the implementation of sovereignty instead of governance along with other structural and normative flaws of regulatory institutions. Therefore, unless fundamental changes are formed in the economic foundations and the type of management of public administration, mere structural reform and determination and replacement of powers of regulatory bodies and the adoption of various laws and regulations are not only ineffective but also lead to a strong bureaucracy that encourages more governmental intervention.

The establishment of regional organizations is one of the most important tools for the economic and trade development of the commonwealth of independent States. The expansion of economic relations requires the use of tools of wealth circulation, i.e., international commercial contracts such as sale, transportation, and insurance between allied countries. In the event of a dispute between the parties over the implementation of these contracts, filing a lawsuit in the courts of each of the interested countries is a traditional and, of course, not very efficient solution. In contrast, the growing tendency of merchants to include the clause of choosing a court in contracts and agreeing on the jurisdiction of one of the competent and even incompetent courts is a relatively new and efficient method. However, the question is which regional organizations have taken steps to recognize this business practice? Also, what conditions do the instruments of these organizations provide for the validity of the mentioned agreement and the resulting jurisdiction? Finally, what is the solution to regional instruments in the event of a conflict of resources? Recognition of the status of consensual jurisdiction can be a good model for those regional organizations to which Iran is a member. In addition, identifying credible instruments in this area will assist Iranian courts in dealing with cases of enforcement of foreign judgments based on consensual jurisdiction.

The law of contracts is an important part of any legal system. A major challenge in this regard is how sanctions are determined in the event of the breach of a contract. Consistent with a set of pre-determined goals, all legal systems have made certain rules for the breach of contractual obligations. In the law of the United States, a strict liability system governs in terms of preservation of a contract as well as compensations for the damages of a contract breach. Nevertheless, drawing on the different aspects of the consequences of this liability, researchers have developed new perspectives on the fault-based enforcement of liability in recent decades. The Iranian Law, rooted in the Islamic jurisprudence (the Fiqh), limits the claim for contractual damages circumstantially to the affirmation of parties, customary law, or civil laws due to the differing opinions of Islamic jurists (the Foqahā) on the issue. Following the aims of the laws of civil liability in fully compensating for the damages incurred to contract parties, the loss can be estimated according to its attributability to the offending obligator. Use was made of the descriptive, analytical, and comparative methods in carrying out the present study.

Many Western thinkers distinguish ethics from law and legitimize some rights which are legal yet essentially immoral. This way, the right to be wrong comes into play in modern human rights discourse. The basic principles of this right include separation of law from ethics, non-interference of the State in norm-making, and acknowledgement of the right to civil disobedience.  However, there are some other Western thinkers who refute the right, and in effect its principles, holding that it leads to an unrestrained law. The Islamic thinkers, unlike Western thinkers, believe that the source of right belongs exclusively to God and that Man is obligated to follow the divine commands to achieve eternal bliss. They maintain that it is the duty of the State to set the scene for the obedience of mankind. And that it is only the divine law which is inclusive of both ethics and law and can lead man to salvation. Moreover, civil disobedience is strictly prohibited in Islamic law unless it is done in accordance with ethical principles and in Mantaqa al-Farāq. Use was made of the descriptive-analytical design in conducting the present study.

Obligations are of two types: personal and non-personal. Generally, obligations are not bound to the obligator’s character, and in effect, the he will be obliged to fulfill the specific performance should he refuse the performance of non-monetary obligations. In Article 2-2-7 of the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts (UPICC), the rule of specific performance the same non-monetary obligation is acknowledged; however, in Clause D of the Article, as acknowledged in the regulations of many countries, performance of an exclusively personal obligations is excluded. Art. 239 of the Iranian Civil Code maintains "if the obligator cannot be convinced to perform the subject of the contract and it might not be performed by a third party either, the other party will hold the right to terminate the contract. Art. 729 of the Code of Civil Procedure of 1939 considered the performance of an exclusively personal obligation mandatory- which was repealed in 2000. Yet, drawing on the same Art., Art. 47 of the Law on Execution of Civil Judgments of 1978 considers the performance of an exclusively personal obligation mandatory. Recruiting a descriptive-analytical design, the current study investigates the sanctions for the performance of personal obligations in the international trade documents as they arranged in line with the domestic laws of the countries party to the agreements. Findings suggest that the elimination of sanctions in the implementation of Art. 47 of the Law on Execution of Civil Judgments, the impossibility of specific performance and execution of the judgement in such obligations, and considering the right of termination for the party in loss are consistent with the new legal and Fiqhi standards on this type of obligation.

The Islamic Republic of Iran was originally constituted on the principles of monotheism, justice and human dignity. The economic outlook prescribed by her Constitution, accordingly, endorses these principles. Indeed, the constituent power viewed the economic system as a means of providing the material needs of people to achieve loftier goals- defined in the Constitution as human growth. Respect for human dignity is a top priority of the Islamic Republic. Stated in the preamble, several more articles reinforce the growth-oriented economic theory and propose mechanisms the State shall deploy to achieve human excellence and growth other than merely economic development. Much in the same vein, the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany, albeit instituting a free-market social order, builds on the religious and philosophical ideologies to depict human as a spiritual-moral being who shall act freely. Bound by moral forces, these actions may help the human grow and develop a moral personality.

Preference for prevention over cure is a truism. Precaution is an important type of prevention. Particularly, the Precautionary Approach in Civil Liability has been increasingly emphasized in recent decades. However, what the term precaution conveys and the specific stance it takes in civil liability is underexplored. Indeed, despite the many recommendations for the Precautionary Approach, little has it been studied to define what it is or how it works. In this vein, recruiting a descriptiveanalytical design, the present study seeks to answer this fundamental question. The Principle of Precaution has already established itself as a moral and legal duty, and of great importance in dealing with various issues, especially social behaviors. Findings suggest that, among the many proposed and conceivable roles, precaution could logically be considered as the goal of civil liability in this respect. Explanation and justification on other roles are beyond the scope of the study.

The ability to resist the attractions of crime has been referred to as self-control; the very decisive factor in crime rate in General Crime Theory. Vara, Morāqebah, and Taqwā have been used as equivalents in several Islamic texts including Mahajjatol-Baydā. Despite prima facia similarities, self-control is wider in temporal and palatial aspects in viewpoints of Feyz Kashani and Hirschi, with the former believing in the existence of a persistent and omnipresent guardianship and the latter concentrating on the socialization of all members of the society. Recruiting an analytical-descriptive design, the study revealed that Feyz Kashani provides a more comprehensive account of self-control in purifying the mind of the criminal fancies and perversions and generalization of the effect of self-control on the unified status of the offender and victim. He did not believe that self-control is age-dependent; rather, he proposed several other socializing strategies including Sela-Rahem and training instructions on mastering internal stimuli.

Achieving sustainable development requires the utilization of a variety of financial, human, technical and scientific resources. In this vein, social security can be utilized as a means of resource procurement. It is not, however, explicitly mentioned in any of the documents on sustainable development. Recruiting a descriptive, analytical and comparative design, the present study investigates the bases, scope and mechanisms of social security in achieving sustainable development in the views of Islam and the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (hereinafter the UNCESCR). Social security has been identified and addressed frequently in the verses of the Quran and the Hadith. Yet, despite the provisions of the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (hereinafter the Covenant), social security has not been properly addressed at the international level. Finally, the Covenant’s approach to social security and the actions taken by the UNCESCR as the oversight body of the Covenant to link social security and sustainable development, how social security can be utilized in so doing, and the eminence of social security in Islam are further analyzed in the study.

The right to life is the leading natural human right which is respected in all legal systems. It is preliminary to the many rights which are basic to the human being and there are tight restrictions on the circumstances one might be deprived of it. Recruiting an analytical-critical approach, the present study is aimed at examining human rights documents to determine (a) the extent to which the right is cherished, (b) how "death penalty and abortion" is viewed, and finally (c) whether the documents adopt a consistent stance on the circumstances which lead to the deprivation of the right. Findings suggest that despite the highly restricting approach on death penalty, abortion is legally and rather generously accredited. Finally, it is maintained, such a paradoxical stance on the right to life-emanating from the liberal and feminist views-is in obvious opposition to both religious values and human rights standards.

One of the conditions for Qisās, according to the majority of Imami and Sunni jurists, is the absence of a father-child relationship between the killer and the killed. This means that if a father commits the murder of his child, he will not be subject to Qisās. It is maintained that if the child born is the result of an illegitimate relationship between a Muslim man and a Muslim woman, the Shariah discredits the father-child relationship. Due to the lack of such relationship, it is then a bone of contention whether the adulterer who intentionally kills his illegitimate child shall be punished by Qisās. Recruiting a descriptive-analytical design, the researchers have examined Shariah texts as well as the expert opinions of the jurists and found that the adulterer can apparently be exempted from a Qisās even in the absence of the legitimate father-child relationship. It is due to the fact that the Shariah has not exclusively stipulated the legitimacy/illegitimacy condition of the child birth upon deciding on the Qisās issue. It is also more consistent with the principle of caution in Islam.

Public interest includes affairs that are beneficial to the people en masse. Building on the the right of every individual to file lawsuits as well as non-governmental organizations to do so on behalf of the people, public interest litigations play an important role in fulfilling justice and actualizing the rights of the public which might have been disregarded due to poverty, disabilities, illiteracy, negligence, etc. Consistent with Art. 156 of the Iranian Constitution (hereinafter the Constitution), the Judiciary Branch is held accountable for maintaining justice in the society. Paragraph (2) of the Art. exclusively stipulates that the very task of restoring public rights- which itself precipitates the restoration of justice- is entrusted with this branch. The Guidelines on the Supervision and Pursuit of Public Rights- developed based on Art. 156 of the Constitution- has specifically made the prosecuting attorney liable for the restoration of public rights. However, it has not so far been fulfilled properly mainly due to the many onerous supervisory and judicial responsibilities the prosecuting attorney is entrusted with. It, therefore, behooves the Legislature to formally acknowledge public interest litigation and the potential it carries in restoring public rights- and in effect social justice. Recruiting a descriptive-analytical method, the researchers have examined the body of laws and regulations in the Iranian as well as some foreign legal systems. It is concluded that the right of the individuals in filing public interest lawsuits has not been identified in the Iranian legal system which, it is recommended, shall be reconsideredt.

The Iranian Competition Law has been introduced under the General Policy Implementation Law of Article 44  of the Constitution. One of the major issues in competition law is the competition body. There are such institutions in different countries, from countries with a long history of competition law, such as the United States, to countries in the Middle East. In Iran, the Competition Council is the only nationally-recognized authority to review anti-competitive practices and has the authority to make various and important decisions. Because these decisions can seriously affect the rights of stakeholders and economic actors, it is necessary to monitor and control their decisions. Due to its paramount importance and existing disagreement, competence of the Administrative Court of Justice in exercising judicial review over the decisions of the Competition Council and its Appeal Board will be investigated in the present study. The research method is descriptive-analytical. Results of the study indicate that to identify the authority competent to exercise judicial review over the competition council, one should pay attention to the structure and nature of the said council and the type of its decisions. The conclusion of the article is that the Administrative Court of Justice has the authority to exercise judicial review over general decisions, case decisions and the decisions and opinions of the Competition Council in the capacity of dealing with anti-competitive procedures. Moreover, the decisions of the Appeal Board of the Competition Council as well as the decisions and actions of the National Competition Center and their officials are subject to judicial review and criminal prosecution of the court.

It is well agreed that "profitability" is a driving force behind all progress. Yet, there are two sides to the coin: (1) increasing competition affects trade competition, quality, transparency, the environment and society in general, and (2) jeopardizes the peaceful coexistence of business and society. Social responsibility holds “give back what you got from people.” In the new social responsibility, society is not only one of the stakeholders but also the main goal. The concept of social responsibility has been emphasized in verses of the Holy Quran and various narrations. In the present study, this issue has been studied in the jurisprudence and practice of transnational companies with a descriptive-analytical method. The study investigates the scope of social responsibility reflected in the regulations approved by the Iranian Oil Industry in 2019 and its regional and thematic scope in accordance with the practice of international transnational companies in the field of responsibility to see if it is social and if the wide range of issues, from health to road construction, etc. are valid only for the territory of Iran. What has been introduced in Iran under social responsibility is that the oil industry is different from the concept, procedure and practical approach of other countries.