Biological invasions represent a global threat to biodiversity. Particular attention should be made to the management of alien plants. The species from the Carpobrotus genus are well-known invasive plants native to South Africa, whose... more
Biological invasions represent a global threat to biodiversity. Particular attention should be made to the management of alien plants. The species from the Carpobrotus genus are well-known invasive plants native to South Africa, whose detrimental effects on native communities are widely documented. These impacts have become particularly important in terms of their invasive potential on small Mediterranean islands, where they often threaten particular ecosystems and endemic species. We report the experience from the efforts to eradicate this species from the island of Giannutri (Tuscan Archipelago, Italy)—an action included within the EU LIFE project “RESTO CON LIFE”—where the species occurred on about 14,000 m2 of coastal vegetation. The eradication employed an integrated approach with two control methods (manual removal and covering with mulching sheets) and involved mosaic rocky cliff coastal vegetation and disturbed areas with loose soil close to the cliffs. We present here the r...
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Xanthoria parietina is a widespread foliose lichen growing on barks and rocks showing a broad spectrum of tolerance to air pollutants such as NOX and heavy metals, and resistance to UV-radiation because of the screening properties... more
Xanthoria parietina is a widespread foliose lichen growing on barks and rocks showing a broad spectrum of tolerance to air pollutants such as NOX and heavy metals, and resistance to UV-radiation because of the screening properties provided by the secondary metabolite parietin. The aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of this lichen species to survive in the following simulated space conditions, UV-radiation in N2 atmosphere and UV-radiation in vacuum. The efficiency of the photosynthetic apparatus was used as an indicator of vitality, and was expressed in terms of chlorophyll a fluorescence (FV/FM) and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), which were measured within 72 h from the exposure. Additionally, during the irradiation, the IR reflectance spectrum of the lichen was monitored in situ to assess changes in spectral bands. The results showed significant differences in physiological recovery trends between the treatments, highlighting that UV-radiation in vacuum ...
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Raw data on community matrix and on samplig design
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Recent molecular studies on Parmelia revealed several new semi-cryptic and cryptic species, suggesting the existence of considerable genetic diversity within this genus that may not yet be expressed at the phenotypic level. This is the... more
Recent molecular studies on Parmelia revealed several new semi-cryptic and cryptic species, suggesting the existence of considerable genetic diversity within this genus that may not yet be expressed at the phenotypic level. This is the case of the two species Parmelia ernstiae and P. serrana that have been described in the P. saxatilis group from Europe and that are still poorly known in Italy. The main aim of this study is to shed light into the Italian distribution of these cryptic species on the basis of a systematic and taxonomic revision of exiccata and new specimens of the Parmelia saxatilis group collected along a biogeographical gradient through the Italian peninsula. In this revision, we combined morphological, chemical, and molecular data and evaluated their reliability for identification at the species level. Results indicate that P. saxatilis is the most widespread species and that P. ernstiae is much more widespread than previously thought. In contrast, P. serrana seems...
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Characterizing functional trait variation and covariation, and its drivers, is critical to understand the response of species to changing environmental conditions. Evolutionary and environmental factors determine how traits vary among and... more
Characterizing functional trait variation and covariation, and its drivers, is critical to understand the response of species to changing environmental conditions. Evolutionary and environmental factors determine how traits vary among and within species at multiple scales. However, disentangling their relative contribution is challenging and a comprehensive trait–environment framework addressing such questions is missing in lichens. We investigated the variation in nine traits related to photosynthetic performance, water use and nutrient acquisition applying phylogenetic comparative analyses in lichen epiphytic communities on beech across Europe. These poikilohydric organisms offer a valuable model owing to their inherent limitations to buffer contrasting environmental conditions. Photobiont type and growth form captured differences in certain physiological traits whose variation was largely determined by evolutionary processes (i.e. phylogenetic history), although the intraspecific component was non-negligible. Seasonal temperature fluctuations also had an impact on trait variation, while nitrogen content depended on photobiont type rather than nitrogen deposition. The inconsistency of trait covariation among and within species prevented establishing major resource use strategies in lichens. However, we did identify a general pattern related to the water-use strategy. Thus, to robustly unveil lichen responses under different climatic scenarios, it is necessary to incorporate both among and within-species trait variation and covariation.
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Renato Benesperi 1 , Elisabetta Bianchi 1 , Giorgio Brunialti 2 , Lavinia Capaccioni 1 , Sergio Enrico Favero Longo 3 , Luisa Frati 2 , Paolo Giordani 4 , Deborah Isocrono 5 , Luca Paoli 6 , Giovanna Potenza 7 , Domenico Puntillo 8 ,... more
Renato Benesperi 1 , Elisabetta Bianchi 1 , Giorgio Brunialti 2 , Lavinia Capaccioni 1 , Sergio Enrico Favero Longo 3 , Luisa Frati 2 , Paolo Giordani 4 , Deborah Isocrono 5 , Luca Paoli 6 , Giovanna Potenza 7 , Domenico Puntillo 8 , Michele Puntillo 8 , Enrica Matteucci 3 , Juri Nascimbene 9 , Alessio Tepsich 1 , Luciana Zedda 10 . Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Firenze; TerraData environmetrics, Spin Off dell'Università di Siena; Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e Biologia dei Sistemi, Università di Torino; DIFAR, Università di Genova; Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie Forestali e Alimentari, Università di Torino; Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università di Siena; 7 Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali, Università della Basilicata; Museo di Storia Naturale della Calabria ed Orto Botanico, Università della Calabria; DAFNAE, Università di Padova; 10 BIO-Diverse, Bonn
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Thorns, prickles and spines are sharp appendices of different origins whose presence in the Mediterranean floras has an ecological, evolutionary and biological meaning. Nevertheless, little information is available on the number and on... more
Thorns, prickles and spines are sharp appendices of different origins whose presence in the Mediterranean floras has an ecological, evolutionary and biological meaning. Nevertheless, little information is available on the number and on the characteristics of the spinescent plants at local and regional scale. The aims of our research were: i) to create a check-list of spiny, thorny and prickly plants belonging to the wild flora of Italy and ii) to characterize this groupbasing on different morphological treats and ecological features
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We studied the secondary succession in semi-natural grasslands (dry grasslands and hay meadows) located in the eastern side of the Tuscan Apennines (Tuscany, Central Italy). We compared these habitats, investigating: (i) the changes in... more
We studied the secondary succession in semi-natural grasslands (dry grasslands and hay meadows) located in the eastern side of the Tuscan Apennines (Tuscany, Central Italy). We compared these habitats, investigating: (i) the changes in species richness, composition and phylogenetic diversity during the succession; (ii) whether the trends in species loss and species turnover in taxonomic diversity matched those in phylogenetic diversity. We performed a stratified random sampling, in a full factorial design between habitat type and succession stage (60 sampled plots, 10 × 2 types of habitat × 3 stages of succession). We constructed a phylogenetic tree of the plant communities and compared the differences in taxonomic/phylogenetic α- and β-diversity between these two habitats and during their succession. We identified indicator species for each succession stage and habitat. Looking at α-diversity, both habitats displayed a decrease in species richness, with a random process of species ...
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Research Interests: Chemistry, Bioaccumulation, Environmental Monitoring, Air pollution, Environmental Chemistry, and 15 moreMedicine, Multidisciplinary, Italy, Biomonitoring, Lichens, Biomonitor, Mineralization, Environmental monitoring and assessment, AQUA REGIA, Environmental Pollutants, Environmental Pollution Assessment and Monitoring, Hydrochloric Acid, Extraction of Acid and Bases, baseline, and Acid extraction
In this chapter, the main ecological factors that characterize the epiphytic environment and which determine the composition of epiphytic communities have been described. In particular, emphasis has been made to focus on epiphytic lichens... more
In this chapter, the main ecological factors that characterize the epiphytic environment and which determine the composition of epiphytic communities have been described. In particular, emphasis has been made to focus on epiphytic lichens which, due to their ecophysiological characteristics, represent a set of highly specialized organisms that live in a delicate balance in this habitat. The main threats that affect their survival have been analysed along with the conservation actions that have been undertaken to ensure the maintenance of the populations of the most endangered species. Furthermore, some good practices are suggested that can guarantee greater success of future protection actions.
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In biomonitoring, the knowledge of background element content (BEC) values is an essential pre-requisite for the correct assessment of pollution levels. Here, we estimated the BEC values of a highly performing biomonitor, the epiphytic... more
In biomonitoring, the knowledge of background element content (BEC) values is an essential pre-requisite for the correct assessment of pollution levels. Here, we estimated the BEC values of a highly performing biomonitor, the epiphytic lichen Pseudevernia furfuracea, by means of a careful review of literature data, integrated by an extensive field survey. Methodologically homogeneous element content datasets, reflecting different exposure conditions across European and extra-European countries, were compiled and comparatively analysed. Element content in samples collected in remote areas was compared to that of potentially enriched samples, testing differences between medians for 25 elements. This analysis confirmed that the former samples were substantially unaffected by anthropogenic contributions, and their metrics were therefore proposed as a first overview at supra-national background level. We also showed that bioaccumulation studies suffer a huge methodological variability. L...
Research Interests: Physical Geography, Environmental Science, Bioaccumulation, Environmental Monitoring, Air pollution, and 13 moreMedicine, Multidisciplinary, Italy, Europe, Lichen, Biomonitoring, Lichens, Atmospheric pollution, Particulate Matter, Biomarkers of environmental pollution, Elsevier, Air Pollutants, and baseline
The epiphytic lichen Pseudevernia furfuracea is widely used as biomonitor of airborne trace elements and other contaminants and consists of two taxonomic varieties (var. furfuracea and var. ceratea). Here, we assessed the occurrence of... more
The epiphytic lichen Pseudevernia furfuracea is widely used as biomonitor of airborne trace elements and other contaminants and consists of two taxonomic varieties (var. furfuracea and var. ceratea). Here, we assessed the occurrence of inter-varietal differences in the elemental composition of paired samples of var. furfuracea and var. ceratea collected in 20 remote sites of Italian mountains. The concentration of 40 elements was measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy, after digestion with HNO3 and aqua regia. The magnitude of inter-varietal differences compared to the effect of large-scale site-dependent environmental factors (i.e., lithological substrate, host tree species, and altitude) on overall element content was explored by multivariate analysis techniques and tested by generalized linear mixed modeling (GLMM). Further GLMMs were separately fitted for each element testing taxonomic-related variability against uncertainty associated to the analytical procedu...
Research Interests: Taxonomy, Biology, Environmental Monitoring, Air pollution, Environmental Chemistry, and 15 moreMedicine, Italy, Biological Sciences, Phosphorus, Heavy metals, Environmental Sciences, Lichen, Biomonitoring, Lichens, Pollution, CHEMICAL SCIENCES, Bioindicator, Ascomycota, Air Pollutants, and Epiphyte
Riparian ecosystems host an high level of biodiversity but anthropic activities have deeply altered their naturalness and functionality. The present study was carried out in a protected area along a recently regulated tract of the upper... more
Riparian ecosystems host an high level of biodiversity but anthropic activities have deeply altered their naturalness and functionality. The present study was carried out in a protected area along a recently regulated tract of the upper River Tiber (Tuscany, central Italy). The study’s aim is to explore different components of plant diversity (species richness, species composition, β-diversity) in the riparian habitats to determine the most relevant conservation issues. Twelve transects were allocated along the riparian zone and a stratified random sampling was performed on the habitat detected along the transects with 184 plots of 1 x 1 m. Species richness was analysed by the use of set of species-richness estimators. The different patterns of plant diversity were analysed by NMDS, Indicator Species Analysis and SDR with symplex analysis. Five habitat types were detected in the study area. Three well-represented habitats (riparian woodlands, shrublands and dry bars) showed a higher...
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Vengono presentate nuove località e/o conferme relative a 37 taxa specifici e sottospecifici di piante vascolari della flora vascolare toscana, appartenenti a 35 generi e 24 famiglie: Amaranthus, Atriplex (Amaranthaceae), Leucojum... more
Vengono presentate nuove località e/o conferme relative a 37 taxa specifici e sottospecifici di piante vascolari della flora vascolare toscana, appartenenti a 35 generi e 24 famiglie: Amaranthus, Atriplex (Amaranthaceae), Leucojum (Amaryllidaceae), Centaurea, Cota, Echinops, Hieracium, Senecio (Asteraceae), Alyssum Matthiola (Brassicaceae), Euonymus (Celastraceae), Bulliarda, Sedum (Crassulaceae), Carex, Schoenoplectus (Cyperaceae), Euphorbia (Euphorbiaceae), Erodium (Geraniaceae), Gladiolus (Iridaceae), Lavandula, Micromeria (Lamiaceae), Lythrum (Lyhraceae), Montia (Montiaceae), Epipactis (Orchidaceae), Orobanche (Orobanchaceae), Osmunda (Osmundaceae), Glaucium (Papaveraceae), Gratiola, Plantago (Plantaginaceae), Polygala (Polygalaceae), Glyceria, Paspalum (Poaceae), Soldanella (Primulaceae), Anogramma (Pteridaceae), Staphysagria (Ranunculaceae), Urtica (Urticaceae). Infine, viene discusso lo status di conservazione delle entità e gli eventuali vincoli di protezione dei biotopi seg...
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ABSTRACT We compared epiphytic lichen communities of native broadleaved and secondary black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) forests to detect possible differences in community structure that could be indicative of biological homogenization... more
ABSTRACT We compared epiphytic lichen communities of native broadleaved and secondary black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) forests to detect possible differences in community structure that could be indicative of biological homogenization enhanced by the replacement of native by black locust forests. The study was carried out in two areas of Italy with different bioclimatic conditions using a balanced stratified random sampling. Results reveal a different pattern of community structure between native and black locust forests across the two regions that may reflect a process of biological homogenization. In particular, lichen communities of black locust forests share several species between the two study regions. This pattern of floristic homogenization parallels with a functional homogenization related to the spread of highly competitive species. This research provides early evidence that the decrease of native forests associated with the spread of black locust is a mechanism triggering biological homogenization of the epiphytic lichen biota.
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Summary This paper reports 24 lichens from the Ligurian Apennines, 11 of which are new to Liguria and 4 to Emilia regions in N-Italy.
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In the present study, mercury (Hg) concentrations were investigated in lichens (Flavoparmelia caperata (L.) Hale, Parmelia saxatilis (L.) Ach., and Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th.Fr.) collected in the surrounding of the dismissed Abbadia San... more
In the present study, mercury (Hg) concentrations were investigated in lichens (Flavoparmelia caperata (L.) Hale, Parmelia saxatilis (L.) Ach., and Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th.Fr.) collected in the surrounding of the dismissed Abbadia San Salvatore Hg mine (Monte Amiata district, Italy). Results were integrated with Hg concentrations in tree barks and literature data of gaseous Hg levels determined by passive air samplers (PASs) in the same area. The ultimate goal was to compare results obtained by the three monitoring techniques to evaluate potential mismatches. Lichens displayed 180–3600 ng/g Hg, and Hg concentrations decreased exponentially with distance from the mine. Mercury concentration was lower than in Pinus nigra barks at the same site. There was a moderate correlation between Hg in lichen and Hg in bark, suggesting similar mechanisms of Hg uptake and residence times. However, correlation with published gaseous Hg concentrations (PASs) was moderate at best (Kendall Tau = 0...
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Despite that congruence across taxa has been proved as an effective tool to provide insights into the processes structuring the spatial distribution of taxonomic groups and is useful for conservation purposes, only a few studies on... more
Despite that congruence across taxa has been proved as an effective tool to provide insights into the processes structuring the spatial distribution of taxonomic groups and is useful for conservation purposes, only a few studies on cross-taxon congruence focused on freshwater ecosystems and on the relations among vascular plants and lichens. We hypothesized here that, since vascular plants could be good surrogates of lichens in these ecosystems, it would be possible to assess the overall biodiversity of riparian habitats using plant data only. In this frame, we explored the relationship between (a) species richness and (b) community composition of plants and lichens in a wetland area located in central Italy to (i) assess whether vascular plants are good surrogates of lichens and (ii) to test the congruence of patterns of species richness and composition among plants and lichens along an ecological gradient. The general performance of plant species richness per se, as a biodiversity...
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Carpobrotus acinaciformis and C. edulis are well-known invasive alien plants native to South Africa, whose detrimental effects on native communities are widely documented in the Mediterranean basin and thus largely managed in coastal... more
Carpobrotus acinaciformis and C. edulis are well-known invasive alien plants native to South Africa, whose detrimental effects on native communities are widely documented in the Mediterranean basin and thus largely managed in coastal ecosystems. Most of the literature on these species focuses on their impacts on habitats of sandy coastal dunes, while the effects of Carpobrotus spp. invasion on other habitats such as rocky cliffs and coastal scrubs and garrigues are almost neglected. We present a study case conducted on a small Mediterranean island where Carpobrotus spp. invaded three different natural habitats listed within the Habitat Directive 92/43/CEE (Natura 2000 codes 1240, 1430, and 5320). We surveyed the presence and abundance of native species and Carpobrotus spp. on 44 permanent square plots of 4 m2 in invaded and uninvaded areas in each of the three habitats. We found impacts on plant alpha diversity (intended as the species diversity within each sampled plot) in all the ...
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Gli studi di biomonitoraggio attivo e passivo di elementi in traccia basati sul lichene epifita Pseudevernia furfuracea sono molto numerosi ma caratterizzati da una importante eterogeneit\ue0 metodologica: si \ue8 ritenuto perci\uf2... more
Gli studi di biomonitoraggio attivo e passivo di elementi in traccia basati sul lichene epifita Pseudevernia furfuracea sono molto numerosi ma caratterizzati da una importante eterogeneit\ue0 metodologica: si \ue8 ritenuto perci\uf2 opportuno procedere alla sua caratterizzazione mediante la revisione critica di 62 lavori di rilevanza nazionale e internazionale. I dati di contenuto elementare derivanti dal processo di revisione, integrati da quelli ottenuti dalla campagna di campionamento condotta in Italia nel 2014/15 dagli autori, sono stati raccolti in 3 dataset distinti, rispettivamente per (i) talli nativi raccolti in aree di background (BG), (ii) talli nativi utilizzati in studi di biomonitoraggio passivo (P), e (iii) talli trapiantati (T). Il confronto inter-dataset effettuato su 25 elementi tramite test non parametrici ha evidenziato valori significativamente inferiori per il dataset BG, proposto come riferimento preliminare per studi di biomonitoraggio a livello europeo. Al ...
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Assessing the ecological impacts of environmental change on biological communities requires knowledge of the factors driving the spatial patterns of the three diversity facets along extensive environmental gradients. We quantified the... more
Assessing the ecological impacts of environmental change on biological communities requires knowledge of the factors driving the spatial patterns of the three diversity facets along extensive environmental gradients. We quantified the taxonomic (TD), functional (FD), and phylogenetic diversity (PD) of lichen epiphytic communities in 23 beech forests along Europe to examine their response to environmental variation (climate, habitat quality, spatial predictors) at a continental geographic scale. We selected six traits related to the climatic conditions in forest ecosystems, the water-use strategy and the nutrient uptake, and we built a phylogenetic tree based on four molecular markers. FD and climate determined TD and PD, with spatial variables also affecting PD. The three diversity facets were primarily shaped by distinct critical predictors, with the temperature diurnal range affecting FD and PD, and precipitation of the wettest month determining TD. Our results emphasize the value...
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Microclimatic conditions are important in determining lichen distribution at small scale, and may determine whether the species persist when the surrounding environmental conditions have drastically changed. This is the case with forest... more
Microclimatic conditions are important in determining lichen distribution at small scale, and may determine whether the species persist when the surrounding environmental conditions have drastically changed. This is the case with forest management, since a sudden variation of microclimatic conditions (increase of solar radiation, temperature, wind and a reduction of humidity) may occur after logging. In this study, the combined effect of forest logging and microclimatic conditions on the growth probabilities and growth rates of the model species Lobaria pulmonaria was assessed in mixed oak stands. To this purpose, 800 fragments of L. pulmonaria (<1 cm) were transplanted in logged and unlogged stands for two years. Young and adult fragments were positioned on Turkey oak boles according to distance from the ground (100 and 50 cm) and aspect (north and south). The results, evaluated by generalized linear mixed models on a yearly basis, highlighted differences in growth—particularly ...
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Terricolous lichen communities in lowlands occur especially in open dry habitats. Such communities are often dominated by species of the genus Cladonia, which are very variable in morphology, reproduction strategies, and secondary... more
Terricolous lichen communities in lowlands occur especially in open dry habitats. Such communities are often dominated by species of the genus Cladonia, which are very variable in morphology, reproduction strategies, and secondary metabolites. In this work, we investigated traits-environment relationships considering vegetation dynamics, substrate pH, disturbance, and climate. A total of 122 plots were surveyed in 41 acidic dry grasslands in the western Po Plain (Northern Italy). Relationships between Cladonia traits and environmental variables were investigated by means of a model-based Fourth Corner Analysis. Thallus morphology and metabolites responded to vegetation dynamics, substrate pH, disturbance, and climate, whereas reproduction strategies responded only to vegetation dynamics. Traits’ correlations with vegetation dynamics elucidate their colonization patterns in open dry habitats or suggest biotic interactions with bryophytes and vascular plants. In addition, correlations...
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Forest logging can be detrimental for non-vascular epiphytes, determining the loss of key components for ecosystem functioning. Legal logging in a Mediterranean mixed oak forest (Tuscany, Central Italy) in 2016 heavily impacted sensitive... more
Forest logging can be detrimental for non-vascular epiphytes, determining the loss of key components for ecosystem functioning. Legal logging in a Mediterranean mixed oak forest (Tuscany, Central Italy) in 2016 heavily impacted sensitive non-vascular epiphytes, including a large population of the threatened forest lichen Lobaria pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm. This event offered the background for this experiment, where the potential effects of logging in oak forests are simulated by means of L. pulmonaria micro-transplants (thallus fragments <1 cm). Our working hypothesis is that forest logging could negatively influence the growth of the thalli exposed in logged stands compared to those exposed in unlogged stands. One hundred meristematic lobes and 100 non-meristematic fragments are exposed for one year on 20 Turkey oak trees (Quercus cerris), half in a logged and half in an unlogged stand. Chlorophyll (Chl) a fluorescence emission and total chlorophyll content are used as a proxy for t...
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Community ecology has experienced a major transition, from a focus on patterns in taxonomic composition, to revealing the processes underlying community assembly through the analysis of species functional traits. The power of the... more
Community ecology has experienced a major transition, from a focus on patterns in taxonomic composition, to revealing the processes underlying community assembly through the analysis of species functional traits. The power of the functional trait approach is its generality, predictive capacity such as with respect to environmental change, and, through linkage of response and effect traits, the synthesis of community assembly with ecosystem function and services. Lichens are a potentially rich source of information about how traits govern community structure and function, thereby creating opportunity to better integrate lichens into ‘mainstream’ ecological studies, while lichen ecology and conservation can also benefit from using the trait approach as an investigative tool. This paper brings together a range of author perspectives to review the use of traits in lichenology, particularly with respect to European ecosystems from the Mediterranean to the Arctic-Alpine. It emphasizes the...
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Climate change and the anthropic emission of pollutants are likely to have an accelerated impact in high-elevation mountain areas. This phenomenon could have negative consequences on alpine habitats and for species of conservation in... more
Climate change and the anthropic emission of pollutants are likely to have an accelerated impact in high-elevation mountain areas. This phenomenon could have negative consequences on alpine habitats and for species of conservation in relative proximity to dense human populations. This premise implies that the crucial task is in the early detection of warning signals of ecological changes. In alpine landscapes, high-elevation forests provide a unique environment for taking full advantage of epiphytic lichens as sensitive indicators of climate change and air pollution. This literature review is intended to provide a starting point for developing practical biomonitoring tools that elucidate the potential of hair-lichens, associated with high-elevation forests, as ecological indicators of global change in the European Alps. We found support for the practical use of hair-lichens to detect the impact of climate change and nitrogen pollution in high-elevation forest habitats. The use of th...
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The interpretation of lichen bioaccumulation data is of paramount importance in environmental forensics and decision-making processes. By implementing basic ideas underlying previous interpretative scales, new dimensionless,... more
The interpretation of lichen bioaccumulation data is of paramount importance in environmental forensics and decision-making processes. By implementing basic ideas underlying previous interpretative scales, new dimensionless, species-independent “bioaccumulation scales” for native and transplanted lichens are proposed. Methodologically consistent element concentration datasets were populated with data from biomonitoring studies relying on native and transplanted lichens. The scale for native lichens was built up by analyzing the distribution of ratios between element concentration data and species-specific background concentration references (B ratios), herein provided for Flavoparmelia caperata and Xanthoria parietina (foliose lichens). The scale for transplants was built up by analyzing the distribution of ratios between element concentration in exposed and unexposed samples (EU ratio) of Evernia prunastri and Pseudevernia furfuracea (fruticose lichens). Both scales consist of five...