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In recent years, several studies have reported on the exploitation endured by migrant workers in Southern European Union member states—especially in sectors such as agriculture and food production. However, there has been much less focus... more
In recent years, several studies have reported on the exploitation endured by migrant workers in Southern European Union member states—especially in sectors such as agriculture and food production. However, there has been much less focus on the North. New research now shows that agri-food workers in Northern Europe also face poor and even abusive conditions. In this light, Are Agri-Food Workers Only Exploited in Southern Europe? focuses on production in Germany, Netherlands, and Sweden. These three EU member states have stronger social protections than Italy, Spain or Greece—yet the dynamics driving wage compression and the violation of workers' rights are like those in Southern Europe. This publication provides recommendations on how the EU and national governments can act to make Europe's agri-food system more sustainable, benefiting farmers, consumers, workers, and the environment.
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The paper focuses on the issue of care assistance for people with disabilities in Italy, examining the recent Act n. 112 adopted by the Italian Parliament in June 2016 and entitled \u201cMeasures in the field of assistance for people with... more
The paper focuses on the issue of care assistance for people with disabilities in Italy, examining the recent Act n. 112 adopted by the Italian Parliament in June 2016 and entitled \u201cMeasures in the field of assistance for people with serious disabilities lacking family support\u201d (Disposizioni in materia di assistenza in favore delle persone con disabilit\ue0 grave prive del sostegno familiare). In particular, I explore whether and how this legislative intervention effectively meets the needs of people with disabilities, especially with regard to their right to live independently and be included in the community as provided by Article 19 of the 2006 UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. I hold that while Act 112/2016 constitutes a significant advance in ensuring people with disabilities the opportunity to live independently and be included and participate in society, it does not however really challenge the national family-centred welfare system, which continues to view families as the main subjects in charge of providing care and assistance to their dependent members
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EUROPEAN POLICY BRIEF 1 In Italy, domestic work, in particular care work, is a key sector of occupation for migrant workers, especially migrant women. The demand for domestic workers has been driven by multiple factors including an... more
EUROPEAN POLICY BRIEF 1 In Italy, domestic work, in particular care work, is a key sector of occupation for migrant workers, especially migrant women. The demand for domestic workers has been driven by multiple factors including an increase in the population’s ageing, a rise in women’s participation in the labour market, a gendered division of tasks in households, and a lack of efficient welfare services.
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Purpose – The purpose of the article is to analyse the Italian anti-trafficking system by examining its effectiveness in the protection of trafficked people. Design/methodology/approach – The article examines the protection of trafficked... more
Purpose – The purpose of the article is to analyse the Italian anti-trafficking system by examining its effectiveness in the protection of trafficked people. Design/methodology/approach – The article examines the protection of trafficked people in Italy, focusing in particular on the implementation of Article 18 of the “Consolidated Act of Measures Governing Immigration and Norms on the Condition of Foreign Citizens” (Legislative Decree n. 286/1998), which provides victims with protection and a residence permit independent of their cooperation with the competent authorities in criminal proceedings against offenders. Findings – The article demonstrates that, though the Italian legal framework on trafficking is considered one of the most innovative and advanced, especially in the area of victim protection, a number of inadequacies in its implementation undermine the effectiveness of the measures aimed at protecting trafficked people. These concern the absence of a clear and appropriat...
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This publication is available under a Creative Commons license that allows copying and distributing the publication, only in its entirety, as long as it is attributed to the Open Society Foundations and used for noncommercial educational... more
This publication is available under a Creative Commons license that allows copying and distributing the publication, only in its entirety, as long as it is attributed to the Open Society Foundations and used for noncommercial educational or public policy purposes. Photographs may not be used separately from the publication.
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This study, commissioned by the European Parliament’s Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs at the request of the Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality, explores the working conditions of migrant... more
This study, commissioned by the European Parliament’s Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs at the request of the Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality, explores the working conditions of migrant women in agriculture in the EU, focusing on some case studies in Italy and Spain. In particular, it aims to examine the factors that render women vulnerable to exploitation, paying attention to gendered dynamics and power relations. The study contends that to prevent and combat exploitation in agriculture it is necessary to implement concerted actions aimed at tackling, from a human rights and gender perspective, the structural factors of a socio-economic system which fosters and relies on workers’ vulnerability.
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1 Maria Grazia Giammarinaro is the UN Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons. Letizia Palumbo is research fellow at the Migration Policy Centre, European University Institute. Since its outbreak, the COVID-19 crisis has sharply... more
1 Maria Grazia Giammarinaro is the UN Special Rapporteur on trafficking in persons. Letizia Palumbo is research fellow at the Migration Policy Centre, European University Institute. Since its outbreak, the COVID-19 crisis has sharply exacerbated the structural inequalities that characterize the socioeconomic system of European countries, including Italy, disproportionately impacting people most affected by discrimination and social exclusion. At the same time, as this paper aims to highlight, the emergency measures adopted to address the current health crisis seem to build on and foster inequalities, by exposing vulnerable people such as migrants, to the risk of being subject to further forms of discrimination and fundamental rights violations.
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While both the topics of domestic work (DW) and trafficking human beings (THB) have received increased attention in scholarship, there is very limited research on the nexus of these two issues in Italy, i.e. on cases of THB in the DW... more
While both the topics of domestic work (DW) and trafficking human beings (THB) have received increased attention in scholarship, there is very limited research on the nexus of these two issues in Italy, i.e. on cases of THB in the DW sector. This paper investigates the forms of severe exploitation and THB in DW in Italy and examines the factors affecting the demand-side in this sector. Moreover, it analyses the gaps in current legal and political responses.
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The agri-food system across Europe relies heavily on migrant labour. Border lockdowns during the Covid-19 pandemic immobilised thousands of foreign farmworkers, giving rise to fears of labour shortages and food production losses in EU... more
The agri-food system across Europe relies heavily on migrant labour. Border lockdowns during the Covid-19 pandemic immobilised thousands of foreign farmworkers, giving rise to fears of labour shortages and food production losses in EU countries. Farmers’ organisations sought institutional interventions to address this labour demand. Although migrant workers have become a fundamental component of core sectors in recent decades, it is only in the current health emergency that they were recognised as ‘essential’ workers. The chapter analyses the working conditions of migrant farmworkers alongside national debates and institutional interventions in Italy and Spain during the pandemic. It provides a critical comparative analysis of legal and policy interventions to address migrants’ situations of vulnerability. Both countries depend on important contingents of EU and non-EU migrant farmworkers, especially in fruit and vegetable production; moreover, they present common aspects in supply ...
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In discussions on irregular migration in Europe, undeclared work is generally viewed as a "pull factor"—positive aspects of a destination-country that attract an individual or group to leave their home—for both employers as well... more
In discussions on irregular migration in Europe, undeclared work is generally viewed as a "pull factor"—positive aspects of a destination-country that attract an individual or group to leave their home—for both employers as well as prospective migrants, and especially in sectors such as agriculture. A closer examination of the agricultural model, however, reveals that structural forces are driving demand for work and incentivizing exploitation. This is particularly evident in Southern Italy, a region famous for its produce, where both civil society organizations and the media have documented exploitation of migrant workers. A closer examination of EU and member states efforts to avoid exploitation is needed.In Is Italian Agriculture a 'Pull Factor' for Irregular Migration—and, If So, Why?, a new study, authors from the Open Society Foundations' European Policy Institute and the European University Institute look at how Europe's Common Agricultural Policy, t...
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Building on exhaustive Open Society European Policy Institute and European University Institute publications on migrant labour in the agri-food system in Southern and Northern Europe, this short brief focuses on the impact of the Covid-19... more
Building on exhaustive Open Society European Policy Institute and European University Institute publications on migrant labour in the agri-food system in Southern and Northern Europe, this short brief focuses on the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on agri-food systems and migrant labour in Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain and Sweden. As all the country sections in this brief highlight, the Covid-19 crisis has further exposed the limits of long supply chains, including in terms of price distortions, unfair competition and distribution dynamics. The pandemic has also further exacerbated the conditions of precariousness and vulnerability of many workers employed in the agri-food system, especially migrant workers. This study shows that while national governments have adopted several measures to facilitate the mobility and recruitment of seasonal migrant workers, temporary and selective short-term regularisation measures cannot be the only response, above all to combat the exploitation of migrant workers. A profound revision of migration policies to develop safe and legal entry routes for low- and medium-skilled workers is needed. It is also necessary to adopt structural interventions to strengthen wages and labour rights, ensure decent living conditions, develop adequate welfare services and tackle subcontracting. This brief points out that the pandemic may constitute a crucial opportunity for a new EU drive to forge more environmentally sustainable and rights compliant agri-food systems.
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Along the lines of the first exhaustive report entitled ‘Is Italian Agriculture a “Pull Factor” for Irregular Migration – And, If So, Why?’ (2018), this new report, commissioned by the Open Society European Policy Institute (OSEPI) and... more
Along the lines of the first exhaustive report entitled ‘Is Italian Agriculture a “Pull Factor” for Irregular Migration – And, If So, Why?’ (2018), this new report, commissioned by the Open Society European Policy Institute (OSEPI) and drafted by a team of researchers coordinated by the Migration Policy Centre at the European University Institute (EUI), focuses on the agri-food systems in Northern European Union member states – Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden – seeking to unpack the interplay of factors underlying or contributing to the demand for low-paid, flexible and exploitative labour in this sector. These factors include the impacts of: EU and national policies on labour mobility, migration and asylum; supply chain dynamics; labour market policies; the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and national policies on agriculture and rural development; policies to fight and prevent trafficking and labour exploitation; and additional drivers identified in the different countries. The study shows that most abusive and exploitative labour practices in the agri-food system in these countries take place in a ‘grey zone’ through gaps and shortcomings in the legal framework. In this scenario, highly flexible labour market dynamics and practices, in particular indirect employment through agencies, play a crucial role, providing workers with staggered economic and social entitlements. The report also reviews relevant good practices which have the potential to be scaled up to the EU level.
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Since Covid-19 hit Italy, regularisation for undocumented migrants was seen as important not only to protect migrant workers’ rights but also to counter their vulnerability to contagion. Regularisation agreed in May 2020 is a step... more
Since Covid-19 hit Italy, regularisation for undocumented migrants was seen as important not only to protect migrant workers’ rights but also to counter their vulnerability to contagion. Regularisation agreed in May 2020 is a step forward, but it contains significant inadequacies, leaving out of its scope many migrants in conditions of irregularity and precariousness. This blog argues that regularisation should cover all migrant workers, irrespective of their role in the labour market while it is itself a shorter-term fix that does not provide longer-term solutions to the exploitation of migrants.
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In the Italian agri-food sector there is not a labour shortage, but a shortage of rights for workers.
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Contentions: The Court should recognize that 1) States must protect the victims of just merely internal (not cross-border) trafficking; that prostitution is different from the exploitation of prostitution, and di per se it is not... more
Contentions: The Court should recognize that 1) States must protect the victims of just merely internal (not cross-border) trafficking; that prostitution is different from the exploitation of prostitution, and di per se it is not trafficking. Moreover, we ask to the Court to consider framing human trafficking under article 3 and not 4: in this way, it will allow the Sates to draw a line between kinds of exploitation based on a severe limitation of freedom and those that imply a lenient limitation of it or just an abuse of conditions of vulnerability.
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Care workers are now an essential part of reality for many Italian families. Yet, despite advancements in regulating domestic work, abuses are widespread. This article explores why exploitation in domestic work is rarely viewed as such... more
Care workers are now an essential part of reality for many Italian families. Yet, despite advancements in regulating domestic work, abuses are widespread. This article explores why exploitation in domestic work is rarely viewed as such and addressed with policies concerning trafficking and exploitation. I look at the way in which the care issue has been addressed by the Italian state and at the peculiar relationship between employers and domestic workers. Furthermore, I focus on the gaps in policies on trafficking and exploitation. I argue that the interplay of these factors results in the “normalization” of exploitation in domestic work.
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This paper focuses on labour and sexual exploitation faced by Romanian female workers employed in the agricultural sector in Ragusa, Sicily, Italy. Drawing on fieldwork conducted in 2013 and 2014 with Romanian female farm workers in... more
This paper focuses on labour and sexual exploitation faced by Romanian female workers employed in the agricultural sector in Ragusa, Sicily, Italy. Drawing on fieldwork conducted in 2013 and 2014 with Romanian female farm workers in Ragusa, the paper identifies factors that contribute towards their vulnerability to exploitation. By paying specific attention to the experiences of women who are mothers with dependent children, we look at structural factors that increase their vulnerability and consider how this vulnerability 'forces' women into situations whereby they effectively accept and/or submit to abuse. We also highlight how European Union (EU) citizenship does not automatically protect migrants from such abuse. This is important because, as we argue, the mistreatment experienced by participants in this study can be regarded as cases of forced labour and trafficking, based on International Labour Organization (ILO) indicators 1 and the definition of trafficking provided by the Directive 2011/36/EU. For a long time, these cases have mostly been neglected by incompetent authorities or addressed using only repressive and assistentialist approaches. Thus, this paper also investigates the limits and potentialities of the Italian legal framework on trafficking, and the ways local institutions and organisations confront the rights violations occurring in the agricultural sector. We contend that in order to effectively counter these phenomena, labour rights measures and anti-trafficking interventions have to be combined based on a comprehensive approach aimed not only at assisting victims, but also at tackling the structural factors that create their vulnerability.
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This study, commissioned by the European Parliament’s Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs at the request of the Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality, explores the working conditions of migrant... more
This study, commissioned by the European Parliament’s Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs at the request of the Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality, explores the working conditions of migrant women in agriculture in the EU, focusing on some case studies in Italy and Spain. In particular, it aims to examine the factors that render women vulnerable to exploitation, paying attention to gendered dynamics and power relations. The study contends that to prevent and combat exploitation in agriculture it is necessary to implement concerted actions aimed at tackling, from a human rights and gender perspective, the structural factors of a socio-economic system which fosters and relies on workers’ vulnerability.