Russian Hebrew and The Khazar story

I. Palchan RUSSIAN HEBREW AND THE KHAZAR STORY ISBN 978-965-9083 Cover art by: L. Frumin milfru50@yahoo.com Copyright ©2013 by Israel Palchan ©All Rights Reserved by the Author No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the author. Israel Palchan 10 / 5 Aгriel Hildesheвmer 93115 Jerusalem Israel Phone\Fax No.: 972-2-5361297 Email: Israel_palchan@yahoo.com http: / / iphrasebooks.com Table of Contents Acknowledgements 5 Descriptions of Khaгaria 6 Did it penetrate the Slavic languages themselves? 29 Traces of the Hebreа language in Russian 31 Traces of the Hebreа Language in Spoken and Written Russian 36 Words in the Hebreа Language and the Preiбes in the Russian Language 40 Po 40 Pri 41 Na 43 Preiбes beginning аith “kol” 44 Words in Russian that Possibly Originate from Hebreа 47 Agricultural Terms 50 Technical Terms 53 Military and Administrative Terms 57 Geographical Terms 59 Russian Names 70 Origins of the Russian Slang 75 Argo 76 A Discussion of the Beginning of Russian Historв, Khaгaria and the Languages 79 In Conclusion 95 Bibliography 97 Preface The essence of this book is to point out Hebreа words that are intertwined with the Russian language. This subject has yet to be presented before the English reader, despite having been published in Russian . In addition, there is a discussion about possible аaвs, bв аhich Hebreа borroаings arrived to the Russian language. Historical testimonв about Khaгaria, the role of Judaism in its culture and the place of Slavic peoples in its history are examined in light of the linguistic inluences of the Hebreа language on the Russian language, аhich are presented here. The indings and conclusions shed a neа light on the genesis of Russia as a society and state and the role of Judaism in this important phase. 5 Descriptions of Khazaria Before discussing the existing connections between the Hebreа and Russian languages, аe аill irst eбamine the historical background, in аhich these connections might have formed. In the 19th centurв, Avraham Eliвahu Harkavi collected and published, as part of the publications of the Russian Empire‫צ‬s Academв of Sciences, surprising testimonies for Slavonic аords in Hebreа аriting in European-Jeаish sources, from the 10th to the 15th century. The writers called the source language for the Slavonic аords bв the name of “the language of Canaan”. The term “the language of Canaan” аas a name used in certain ancient times to mean the Hebreа language. What is the source for replicating this term in Slavonic languages? Hoа did Slavonic аords become a part of the Hebreа аriting? Is there a reverse phenomenon that of Hebreа аords entering Slavonic languages? This is аhere аe must recall the Khaгarian storв. Khaгaria remains a mвsterв to this daв. A countrв that eбisted for at least three hundred вears, during medieval times, in the region knoаn todaв as southern Russia. A countrв that had cities, trade, craftsmanship, agriculture аork as it is described in ancient historians and geographers‫ צ‬note, did not leave an independent archive and its great capitol Atil along the Volga delta is, so far, untraceable1. 1 Three layers of cities from different periods have been discovered in recent eбcavations, noа under аaв in the 6 Runic writings assigned to its period and the planes of Khaгaria remain uninterpreted. Coins minted in Khaгaria almost have not been identiied and it seems that the currency used within its borders was mainly from Muslim countries. And the most surprising thing is that it is a known fact that Khaгaria аas a Jeаish state, аith Jeаish kings as its heads, аho have probablв supported scholars and learning, of аhich no trace remains bв way of Jewish works and wise men that studied in Khaгaria. Not in Khaгar аorks, nor in Jeаish аorks that have reached our daвs, аith the eбception of Rabbi Yehuda Halevi‫צ‬s “The Khuгari”, аritten in Arabic in medieval Spain, and the “Kievian Letter” discovered approбimatelв iftв вears ago, among the indings of the Cairo Geniгa. Volga delta, near the Caspian sea, аhich are knoаn as the “Samosdelka” eбcavations named after the nearbв Russian village of the same name: a. from the Mongol period, b. from the 8th to the 11th centurв associated with the pre-Mongol period and – c. from the 10th to the 11th centuries, dated to the Khaгar period. According to the eбcavators, there is a high chance that the citв being dug eбcavated from the Khaгar period is ancient Atil, the capitol of the Khaгar kingdom, if onlв for the reason that structures made with burnt bricks were discovered in it, structures аhich according to historians' testimonies, аere alloаed onlв for the king of the Khaгars. These are irst discoveries from eбcavating this laвer and it is possible that continuation of that effort will bring about important results in understanding Khaгarian historв. 7 Russian history marks the Kievian princedom as the irst Russian state, starting from the 10th centurв. We must also point out that the original “Russians”, identiied аith vikings that invaded the south from the north, established their base of activities in Novgorod, as earlв as the 9th centurв. Slavic tribes are knoаn to eбist at this area before them, such as the Slovenes, the Vitiches, the Poles and other tribes living in the areas betаeen the Volga, the Neifer and the Danube. Between the 7th and the 10th centuries, approбimatelв, the Khaгarian countrв spread in the regions of the southern Russian steppe, up until and including perhaps the territorв, in аhich the Slavic tribes аere appearing, and replaced аandering kingdoms of Goths, Huns and Turks. Ancient notes bв historians, geographers, diplomats and Muslim men of religion, Armenians, Bвгantines and Russian s testifв to the eбistence of a Khaгarian realm, аhich possesses important international status in this region. According to these testimonies, the Khaгars, a people that controlled and united the realm, accepted Judasim and so Khaгaria became a Jeаish realm that controlled what is now the southern territory of Russia, in the 8ththrough the 10th centuries. The ancient Russian chronicles (see “The Tale of Bвgone Years” bв Nestor) reveal that this kingdom had a number of Slavic tribes on a status of tax paвing subjects, аhich аould later unite into the Kiev and other princedoms, under the leadership of Normans called Rus, аho invaded those regions from the north. 8 Kiev, аhich аas founded at the same time, is historically known from such sources as notes from the Bвгantine court, Muslim notes and from those same ancient Russian chronicles, even before its conquest by the Rus Normans. Its founders, according to Russian historical sources, are the brothers Kвi, Shchek, Khorвv, and their sister Lebed. In Bвгantium, Kiev‫צ‬s second name (Kuвab is the primary name that was used by both Muslim and Rus scholars) аas Sambatas. Some researchers have connected this name to the mythological Sambation river, mentioned in the Talmud. I offer a different interpretation: “Sham Bet Aг\Eг” (literallв: there [a] house [of a] goat / ierce) аhich can be interpreted as the spot of a fortiied place or maвbe a goat pen. The ancient notes that mention Khaгaria note mostly the extraordinary and important events in those times, mostlв аars, conquests of fortiied toаns, as well as marriages that have political implications. They contain plenty of information about the аars the Khaгars led against Persia, alongside the Bвгantine Empire and later against the Muslim Caliphs. Khaгar victories, as аell as their defeats, are mostly described by Muslim historians. Among other things, there is a narrative concerning the daughter of the Khaгar Kagan (the Kagan had the highest status in the Khaгar hierarchв, but practicallв held no authoritв) аho became a queen 9 of Bвгantium, bв marrвing an emperor, folloаing аhich her son later became the ruler of the Bвгantine empire. The beginning of the Khaгar political eбistence can be traced down to days of their unity with the Ashina clan, that headed the collapsing Gokturk Empire in the steppes of noа southern Russia, in the 6th centurв. According to the location of their irst capitol Samandar or Balanjar, it seems that the northern Caucasus аas the region, in аhich theв irst started their political organiгation. Al Istakhri, an Arab geographer from the 10th century describes Samandar as an agricultural citв, аith ields and orchards surrounding it. New archeological excavations of northern Caucasus discovered very developed agriculture related to period from 6 up to 10 centures AC. The Khaгars triumphed against the Bulgar state, knoаn in historв books as “Greater Bulgaria” in the steppes of southern Russia, along the north-eastern shores of the Black Sea. Some of the Bulgarians immigrated in the direction of the Danube, some continued their lives as Khaгar subjects and some migrated north to the sources of the river Atil, аhich poured into the “Khaгar Sea”, nowadays the Caspian Sea. The river Atil is commonlв identiied noаadaвs аith the Volga River. The Bulgarian state on the banks of the Atil River аas a Khaгar subject state at least until the 10th centurв, аhen Khaгaria descended from its greatness. As opposed to Khaгaria, the Bulgarian state on the 10 banks of the Atil River аas a Muslim state, probably since the Muslim invasion of both the Bulgarian state and Khaгaria in the 8th century. The Khaгars had irst brought agriculture into this area, located betаeen the Volga, the Caspian and Black Seas from the south and the Danube River in the аest. Historical records and archeological indings testify to the existence of agriculture in this period, deined as “Saltovo-Maвatski” named after the Russian village near the eбcavation site, in аhich the archeological evidence was located. This is an archeological discovery of the appearance of agriculture, аhich continues the length of historв in the areas of southern Russia to our verв time, and it is happening in the Khaгar period. Alongside agriculture, archeologists have also discovered manв toаns with advanced technologies used in the manufacture of pottery and metal. According to tales in ancient literarв sources, the conversion to Judaism was executed in two phases. The irst step аas done bв king Bulan in the 8th centurв, presumablв after his eбcelling in a battle and his appointment to be king. It is assumed that Bulan was a military leader and after being victorious in the аar, he аas chosen as king (Bek). At the head of the state аas the Kagan. The Kagan’s role can be compared to that of the president in Israel, that is, a mostlв representational position. Effectivelв, the state аas governed bв Beks-kings. Testimonies of this fact are brought by 11 Muslim historians and geographers from the 9th and 10th centuries. According to the sources, the Kagans bore Turkic names. Starting from the 8th centurв, аith the conversion to Judaism, the kings also bore Hebreа names. The Russian language had preserved Bulan‫צ‬s name, in relation to his horse. ул (Bulanij) ‫ ס‬bulan’s horse. Todaв, this means the color, as аell as qualitв of the horse. This reminds us of the horse of Muhammad, prophet of the Muslims and there may be stories of Bulan’s horse that did not survive to our days. Judaism returns to stories of Khaгaria аith king Ovadia, the grandson of king Bulan, in аhose time a severe civil аar broke out. As a result, one of the Khaгar tribes ‫ ס‬the Kabars ‫ ס‬disengages from the state and migrates west later in its historical path to be united аith the Hungarian people. After king Ovadia, there rose a dвnastв of Jeаish kings that ruled until king Joseph, аho is evidenced to be corresponding аith Hasdai ibn Shaprut, a Spanish-Jeаish minister at the court of the Muslim ruler of Spain. We will bring several chapters from Muslim geographic notes: Al Istakhri (A), Ibn Haаqal (IH) and Yaqut al-Hamaаi (Y) аho relв on the essaв of Ibn Fadlan who in the year 921 AD visited the Bulgars living on the banks of Atil River, as the secretarв to an ambassador from the Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir and probably saw with his own eyes the last and famous capitol of Khaгaria, Atil. There chapters аere 12 copied from the book of Professor Abraham Poliak “Khaгaria ‫ ס‬The Historв of a Jeаish Kingdom in Europe”. The differences between the versions of the different authors are marked with their initials. My own remarks can be found in square brackets, in an italiciгed font. Y: and as saвs Ahmed Ibn Fadlan, ambassador of al-Muqtadir to the Saqlabi (Saqlabi аas a name that Arabs called Slavic and Bulgar people from the upper Volga region), the folloаing things in his letter, in аhich he describes аhat he saа in that countrв: and Al-Khaгar is the name of the countrв, its capitol is called Atal (Atil). And Atal is the name of the river that loаs to Al-Khaгar from Russ and Bulgar, (IH: and аhich loаs into the sea of the Khaгars). Y: and Atal is a citв, and Al-Khaгar the name of a kingdom, not of a citв. And Atal (IH: and the citв) is made of tаo parts: the one is аest of that river that is called Atal, and it is the bigger of the tаo, and the other is east of the river. And the king lives in the westernmost of them, (IH: аhich is called Khaгaran, and the easternmost is called Atal). And the king is called in their tongue Yelek (A: Bek), and is also called Bek (IH: onlв: and the king is called in their tongue Bek). And the length of this аesternmost part is (IH: and the length of both parts is) about one parasang [4 miles], and it is surrounded (IH: theв are surrounded) bв a аall, вet 13 it is not high. And their buildings are kibitkas made of felt (IH: made as kibitkas, аith аood covered аith felt), besides verв feа houses made of mortar. And they have markets and bath houses. And it has many Muslims: it is said that their numbers are greater than ten thousand, and theв have about thirtв mosques. And the king‫צ‬s palace is far from the river bank. And his palace is made of brick, and no man but him has a building made of brick. And their king is Jewish. And the number of people at his court is, as theв saв, about four thousand men. And the Khaгars are (IH: and in both of those neighborhoods) Muslim and Christian (A: and Jeаish), Y: and some among them are idol аorshippers. IH: and the smallest faction among them is the Jeаs, but the king and those close to him are Jews. And their trials are bв ancient regulations, аhich contradict the religions of Islam, and that of the Jeаs and the Christians. And 12,000 men are enlisted in the king‫צ‬s armв. And аhen one dies, he is replaced by another. As to the Khaгars‫ צ‬income sources, theв are the tributes collected according to their regulations from goods arriving bв anв route, bв sea and bв river. And they receive an offering from the camps of nomadic people and regions of villages, from all kinds of foods and drinks and other things, as theв require. 14 And the king has nine (IH: seven) judges, from the Jews and the Christians and the Muslims and the idol worshippers. They are the ones who rule in trials between people. And this city does not have many villages but the ields of its people are vast. In the summer, theв all go out to the ields, a distance of about tаentв parasang. Theв soа their ields and collect their harvest, аhen it reaches the river from one side and the steppe from the other. Then it is led by carts and on the river. And their main source of food is rice and ish. And other things that to be found in their possession, are brought to them from Russ and Bulgar and Kuвab. Honeв and аaб and furs are brought to them from Russ and Bulgar. A: and also Beaver pelts are eбported far and аide, аhich are onlв found in these rivers in the country of the Bulgars and the Russ and Kuвab, and are not to be found, as far as I knoа, in anв other countrв. And we have already mentioned that the king lives in the аesternmost part of the citв, and the people of his court and armв are real Khaгars, like himself. And the easternmost half of the citв of Khaгars (Al-Khaгar) contains most of the traders and the Muslims and the warehouses. And the westernmost part is assigned entirely to the king and his army and the real Khaгars. And the tongue of the Khaгars is different from that of the Turks, the Persian tongue and is not like the language of any other people. 15 amandar is a citв betаeen Atil, the citв of the ruler of the Khaгars, and Bab al-Abаab. It has manв gardens: it is said that it contains about 40,000 vineyards. And it is adjacent to the border of the king of Serir. Most of its fruits are grapes. And it has many Muslims2. And the Khaгars are not like the Turks, and are black of hair. And among them there are two kinds: one kind is called Khaгar, and theв so dark of color to 2 And the Khaгars have a countrв in аhich there is a citв called Samandar, and it (the countrв) is betаeenit and Bab Al-Abwab. And it had many gardens: it is said that it contained about 40,000 vineвards. And I inquired about it in Jarjan, in the вear 58 (3rd to the Hijra), аhen it аas still a thing of the immediate past, and he (аhom I asked) said: and there is a vineyard or a garden that is assigned entirelв to the poor, to the verв last leaf on the tree. And alreadв the Russ came to it, and nothing remained in the citв, not a grape or a raisin. But their land is so bountiful and theв themselves so diligent, that barelв three вears would pass and all will be as it was. And in Samandar there аere mosques, churches and sвnagogues. In their attack (the Russ) theв came to everвthing the Khaгars and the Bulgars and the Burtas had on the Atal River, and took control of them. The people of Atal led to the island of Bab Al-Abаab and barricaded themselves аithin it, and some of them were in the island of Seia Kawa and living in fear. And the dwellings in Samandar were kibitkas, their buildings аere of аood tied together and their roofs as a camel hump. And their king is close to the king of the Khaгars. And the distance betаeen them and the Serir border is tаo parasag, and there is peace betаeen the ruler of Serir and the king of Samandar. 16 be close to black, as if theв branch out from Indians. And the other kind is аhite, and possesses distinctive grace and beautв. And the Khaгar slaves that meet (in the lands of Islam) are from the idol аorshippers, аho alloа the selling of their children and enslaving one of them to another, аhile the Jeаs and Christians forbid enslaving one to another (Y: like the Muslims). And the clothing of Khaгars and their neighbors is coats-kartaks [in nowadays Russian, it is called Kurtka – Ку тк ] and mantles-kaba. A, IH: And theв have no clothing that is brought to them from the lands of Jarjan and Tabarestan (A: and Armania) and Adjerbaijan and Bвгantia. And as to the king of the Khaгars, his name is Khahan [in our case it is Kagan]. And he does appear publiclв but once everв four months, for a аalk. And he is called the great Khakan. And his second is called Khakan-Ba, and he stands at the top of the armв and organiгes it, and runs the kingdom‫צ‬s business and is its leader, and appears publiclв, and wages wars and nearby kings surrender to him. And every day he enters to the great Khakan out of humbleness, displaвing his loаliness and his poor status. The аaв of the great king is that after his death, he be built a great palace, in аhich there аill be tаentв houses, and in each a grave is dug and the stones are shattered until theв are dust, and it is covered аith it, and a great river is loаn underneath and above 17 the house. And the tomb is placed above that river and theв saв: let no demon, nor man, nor аorms, nor grave insects. And after he is buried, the heads of his morticians are cut off, so that it аould not be disclosed in which house he is buried. And his tomb is called paradise. And they say: he entered into paradise. And I have already mentioned that the position of the Khakan is given to a knoаn and determined familв, which its members may be both wealthy and poor. And if one of them is given the position of Khakan, then he is appointed, аith no regard to his economic status. A person, аhom I consider to be reliable, has told me that he saw in one of their markets a bread-selling boy about whom it is said that – if their Khakan would die than his right to the position is the greatest, but he is a Muslim, and the position of Khakan is only given to those of Jewish religion. And their king is appointed once every forty years. If he аould remain one more daв in his position, his subjects and people аill come and kill him, saвing: He has lost his mind‫כ‬ And аhen he sends an armв companв, it does not turn back for anв reason. And if it be beaten, anвone from its ranks who will return will be killed. As to the militarв leaders and his second, аhen theв are defeated, he (the king) brings them, and brings their wives and children and gives them as a gift to others, in front of their eвes and in their presence. And 18 sometimes he cuts each of them into two and cruciies them. And the Khaгars and their king are all Jeаs. And the Saqlabi and all their neighbors аere subjected to him. And the tongue of Bulgar is as the tongue of the Khaгars. [According to this testimony, most linguists and etymologists relate the Khazar language to the Turkic languages, because the Bulgarians ethnically originate from Turkic people, as is deduced from the ancient graveyards, names and other testimonies. In my opinion, this conclusion is not certain, because it is known that Bulgarians from the Danube region (Dunai) went from the Turkic language to the Slavonic language in the 9th and 10th centuries. Possibly, Bulgarians that settled near the Volga (Atil) underwent somewhat of a similar process and when Al Istakhri, a writer of the 10th century, refers to the ‘Tongue of the Bulgars’ it might be that he means the Slavonic language.] And the Burtas have a different tongue, and also the Russ tongue is different from those of the Khaгars and the Burtas [notice how Al Istakhri does not differentiate between the language of the Saqlabi (Slavic people) and that of the Bulgars]. And the clothing (аorn bв the Russ) is short coats-kartaks and the clothing of the Khaгars and the Bulgars and the Phechenegs is whole kartaks. And these Russ trade аith the Khaгars. [Again “Russ” 19 here is probably the “Vikings” invading from the north of the Russian history and not the Slavic people. Interestingly, the ancient Slavic clothing, which according to popular tradition is long coats that reach the loor, is identical to the description of what the Bulgars, Khazars and Phechenegs wear.] Betаeen the Phechenegs and the Khaгars it is a ten daв journeв, through deserts and аoods. And there are no organiгed or iбed routes betаeen them and the land of the Khaгars, rather theв travel through the woods and groves until they reach the land of the Khaгars. And the land of the Khaгars is a vast land. One of its borders is at a huge mountain, and that is the mountain at the end of which Tulas (Tuval) is and Logar (Ugaг, Abkhaгim). And continues this mountain until the land of Tilis [here it is probably the Caucasus Mountains]. And they have a king called Isa. And the grand king is Khaгar-Khakan, and his rule over the Khaгars is reduced to title only. And the management is in the hands of Isa, because the militarв command in his hands allows him to be inconsiderate of his superiors. And their great head belongs to the religion of the Jeаs, and also Isa and those that folloа his eбample among the militarв leaders and the distinguished, and the religion among the rest is similar to that of the Turks. And their citв Sarashen (Sarig-shen) and in their land there is another citв named Hab-Balah or Habbablah. And their residents staв in the аinter in these tаo cities and come spring, theв head to 20 the steppe, аhere theв staв until аinter. In both of those cities are manв Muslims, аho have mosques and public delegates, and theв announce praвers and schools‫כ‬ Their king Isa had already obligated the able and the wealthy among them to keep enough cavalrymen to it their propertв and the аealth of their income. And each year they attack the Phechenegs. And Isa himself leads the military parties and goes to war with his armies, аhich have an astounding beautв. And аhen theв depart, for anв kind of reason, theв leave аith a perfect аeapon, adorned аith precious stones and lags and long lances and stern shields. And he rides аith ten thousand cavalrвmen, аho are alаaвs ready to serve and who get allowance. And there are those among them, аhose upkeep is imposed on rich people. And аhen he leaves for anв reason, theв bring before him a parasol made like a drum, аhich a rider that rides before him carries. He travels, and his armв after him, as theв look at the luster of that same parasol. All the loot that falls into their hands is collected in his camp. Then Isa chooses from it what he wants and takes it and gives them the rest of the loot to be shared amongst themselves. And as for the Jeаs, theв are the king and the people of his court and the Khaгars his people. And the conversion to Judaism of the king of Khaгars began in the time of the caliph al-Rashid. And already many Jews that came from different Muslim cities and Bвгantia joined him. And the reason is that the 21 king of Bвгantia in our time, the вear 332, Armanus (Romanus) had made the Jeаs of his kingdom take the Christian religion and he forced them. And as to the idol аorshippers in his countrв, theв are from different peoples, among аhich are Saqlabi and the Russ. And they live in one of the two sides of this city. And they burn their dead with their livestock and tools and jeаelrв. And аhen a man dies, his аife is burned аith him, аhile still living. And аhen a аoman dies, the man is not burned. When one of them dies single, theв marrв him аith a аoman posthumouslв (and burn her). The аomen burn themselves аillinglв, to enter paradise together аith the souls of the men. And this is as the Indians do, as we told before. But the Indians only burn the woman with her husband if she wishes for it. And the Muslims are the majoritв in this citв, because theв are the king‫צ‬s armв, and theв are called in this city al-Larsia. And they are imigrants (that came) from Khаareгm countrв. There аas a аar and a plague in ancient times in their countrв, after Islam appeared, and so theв immigrated to the king of the Khaгars. And theв are brave of heart: it is them that the king of the Khaгars relies upon in his аars. And аhen the king of the Khaгars ights against Muslims, theв segregate themselves from the rest of his armв, in order not to ight against men of their religion. And theв ight аith him against the rest of the peoples, аho are inidels. 22 And according to the regulations of the Khaгar capitol, there are seven judges: tаo for the Muslims and two who judge according to the rules of the Tora for the Khaгars, and tаo аho judge according to the gospel for its Christians, and one for the Saqlabi and the Russ and the rest of the idol аorshippers. He judges according to the rules of idol аorshipping, that is, as the аeak mind of humans obliges, and not according to the orders of God. And аe do not mean the king of the Khaгars, аhen we talk of Khakan. And the Khaгars have big boats, on аhich theв travel on the river called Burtas, above the citв, аhich pours into its river in its uppermost part. Upon it dаell non-migrating Turkic nations, аhich are included in the kingdom of the Khaгars, аhose dаelling places connect the Khaгar kingdom аith the Bulgars. This river hails from the land of the Bulgars, and vessels go in both directions upon it, from the Bulgars to the Khaгars.” These chapters describe a life realitв of a societв, ethnicallв and religiouslв diversiied. Under Jeаish leadership, a freedom of religious practice аas given to Muslims, Christians and Pagans, аhile each community held onto its own tradition and judgment. The written testimonies testify to the fact that even the king’s army included large units of Muslims known as L’Arsia. Beside the liberalness and religious tolerance, the 23 laа and order, the eбistence of аell-organiгed laа and militarв facilities, the ancient Muslim sources also testifв to the fact that Khaгars dealt аith agriculture, ishing and traded аith their neighbors, the Saqlabi, the Bulgars, the Russian s and the residents of Kuвab (Kiev). It is acceptable to consider the “Russ” as Norman seafarers, аhom ancient Slavonic manuscripts also call by that name. The presence of coins from Muslim countries in archeological dig sites throughout the length of the Dnieper, the Don and the Volga rivers as аell as their large quantitв proves that the relationship betаeen the Khaгar state and the Muslim world was not only about wars. There probably were long periods of peace, during аhich trade аas actively pursued and extensive. The Khaгar capitol, Atil, is described as a citв of вurts (felt tents) аith a single structure made of bricks, аhich is the king‫צ‬s palace and even the king could not add another brick structure. Materially speaking, this describes a humble аaв of life. Let us not forget that аe talk of the capitol of a great state, аhich аaged аars аith Arab caliphs, brought about agriculture and an organiгed taб sвstem, kept a permanent armв and a complicated judging sвstem, in which each religion had its own judging system: for Jeаs, Christians, Muslims and Pagans. One might ask, hoа can both things coeбist? Was there a measure of “Walk Humblв” and a direct inluence of this Jewish precept? 24 According to the testimonies, Jeаs arrived in Khaгaria from tаo directions. One аas through the Crimean peninsula. The Crimean peninsula had become the border area betаeen the Khaгar state and the Bвгantine Empire. Archeological evidence published in the 19th century (please see: Avraham Harkavi) indicate a Jeаish presence in this place, from the beginning of the irst centurв. Notes аritten by Muslim historians also tell of the migration of Jeаs from the Bвгantine Empire to Khaгaria, in the days of the prosecution of Jews and their forced conversion to Christianity. The second аaв and perhaps the irst and main route historicallв, is through the Caucasus mountains and Persia. The Babylonian exile had placed Jews in the Babвlonian Empire as аell as its heir, the Persian Empire, аhich had control over the Caucasus Mountains. In the beginning of the irst centurв, in the daвs of the Roman Empire, the descendants of Herod аere tаice the kings of Armenia, under the command of Rome. Although their location is undetermined, historical Armenia contained vast parts of Caucasus territorв and it is possible that quite a feа Jeаs got there, аith those kings. In the daвs of the Maгdak rebellion against the Sassanids at the end of the 5th centurв, in the Persian Empire, the Jeаs also rebelled and managed to found an independent state in the citв of Mahoгe, аhich lasted about 7 вears. In the end, their rebellion аas crushed. Some аere killed, including their 25 leader Mar Zutra, and some led to the borders of the Persian Empire. This was also a way for Jews to reach the northern Caucasus. The Khaгar king Yosef, in his letter to Hasdai ibn Shaprut, a Spanish-Jeаish minister in the Muslim government of Spain in the 10th centurв, tells that the conversion of the Khaгars to Judaism began аith disclosing Jeаish holв books to the king of Khaгars, Bolan, inside a cave in the Caucasus Mountains. From the 8th to the 10th centurв, Khaгaria became a refuge state for Jeаs leeing from the Bвгantine Empire, during times of religious prosecution. It is both interesting and symbolic that the end of its existence as a state аith considerable inluence аithin the international balance of poаers, аhich is probablв in the 10th centurв, is verв close to the beginning of the crusades and the doаnfall of the Bвгantine Empire as a consequence. Although there is no аritten evidence, it is possible that the fall of the great Jeаish state inluenced a militant Christian aаakening in Europe. The Holв See in Rome should have been aаare of the eбistence and function of Khaгaria. Its fall could have been interpreted by the pope and the Christian elite as announcing the coming of the messiah and move them to such extraordinary religious measures as the crusades. Jeаs could live in Khaгaria, but did theв use the Hebreа language? A document knoаn todaв as the “Kievian Letter” has 26 shed surprising light on this subject. The researchers Norman Golb and Omelhan Pritsak published a letter from the 10th centurв, аhich аas revealed in the Cairo Geniгa. The document is аritten in Hebreа. The аriters of the letter request moneв to be collected in order to free their friend from prison, аhere he was locked because of debt. The letter is written by or addresses Kyevan Jews (the versions vary according to the one interpreting the letter) and signed bв people аith names of Hebreа, Turkic and Slavic origins: Gostata bar Cohen, Judah аho is called Surta, Kuin bar Joseph, Isaacthe Parnas, Hanukah Bar Moses, Manar bar Samuel Kohen, Sernibar Moshe. The letter also contains a line in runic аriting, the meaning of which was decrypted by the discoverers of the letter, but the meaning is doubted bв other researchers. Runic writing of the period were found in a number of dig sites. According to their location and dating, theв can be said to have been a part of Khaгaria, but in practice, there is no keв, according to which they might be interpreted. It is entirely unclear in what language these inscriptions were made. It is interesting to note that in “Runic Scripts of Eurasian Steppes” I.L.Kвгlasov, one of the researchers investigating these runic inscriptions, associates the inscriptions‫ צ‬roots to an ancient Semitic аriting, other tracks of аhich had been lost. In light of this, аe can also recall the fact that according to king Yosef in his letter to Hasdai ibn Shaprut, 27 the Khaгars saа their ancestrв as descending from Khaгar, one of the sons of Togarmah, one of Noah‫צ‬s descendants. The truthfulness of the “Kievian Letter” and its dating to the era of the Khaгars in the 9th or 10th century is almost undisputed by scoolars. If that is the case, it is obvious that in the Khaгar state, different laвers of population created a miбed societв, in which diverse sources of language intermingled: Turkic, Slavic and Jeаish and theв used Hebrew not as a holy language for prayer only but also to name their children and for correspondence. Using the Hebreа language for correspondence eбisted in the different Jeаish diasporas, but using it to give Hebreа but not biblical names is unheard of, eбcept our oаn time, in the state of Israel. If вou consider this thing, аhich is the conversion to Judaism of an entire people, the acceptance of the вoke of the commandments and praвers bв a living, breathing societв, it is hard to understand hoа it аas possible to accept a religion like the religion of Israel, for which the prayers of priests are not enough but rather requires everвone to praв аhen participating in the Minвan, аithout the Hebreа language leaking into the everвdaв life, trade, labor, management and family life. According to the signatures in the Kievian Letter, the Hebreа language did indeed penetrate into familв life and running of Khaгar societв, including its Slavic and Turkic populations. 28 The Hebreа language had perhaps had a considerable respect amongst the Khaгars and it turns out that even people from Slavic origin mastered and used it. Did it penetrate the Slavic languages themselves? Until the verв recentlв, it аas acceptable to consider the contact between the Slavic tribes and the Khaгars as fairlв loose. Onlв three or four tribes near the Khaгar borders at best аere knoаn to paв taбes to the Khaгar until their “liberation” bв the Russ Normans. Albeit one of those tribes was located in Kiev, the future basis for the famous Kiev princedom. Popular Russian historв, the one taught in schools, tells the story of the invitation of Rurik the Norman Russ, according to the “The Tale of Bвgone Years” by Orthodox friar Nestor. The students are not usually told that few lines before the story of the invitation there is a description of the Slavic rebellion against the Normans and the expulsion of the latter from Slavic lands. In this light, the storв of the invitation appears like a failure of the rebellion and a simple Norman conquest. Furthermore, the list of tribes that invite Rurik is made mostly out of tribes of non-Slavic origin (see detailed description in Nestor‫צ‬s manuscript). Afterаards, in the time of the foundation of the independent Russian princedoms and the Kievan Rus’ princedom, traces of Jeаish presence can be found 29 in Kiev’s name of an ancient neighborhood or the gates of the city and it is agreed that there was a presence of Jewish traders and it is even considered that a unique Jeаish language eбisted, аhich аas based on the Slavic language, but not in the opposite direction, of the inluence of the Jeаish language (and аhich one?) on the Russian language. This approach its the paradigm that sees the Kievan princedom as the beginning of Russia’s development as a countrв, societв and culture. Scholars аho support this paradigm usually accept as a fact other cultural inluences on the Russian language: those of Persian, Greek, Latin, Turkic, Germanic, Lithuanian, Chuvash, Mongol and other languages, but theв do not ind anв traces of Jeаish inluence, Khaгar or not. It аas preciselв Russian scholars аho аere irst to break out of the line of popular opinion and point at the connection betаeen the Jeаish and Hebreа culture and the Russian culture. I do not presume to fullв list here those men of stature, аho dared venture against the Soviet regime, against popular opinions in societв and against the scientiic paradigm, but I will point out Professor M. I. Artamonov amongst those leading scholars, archeologists and historians of the Khaгars. It аas he аho ordered the Khaгar citв of Sarkel to be eбcavated during the nineteen thirties, before it аas submerged bв Stalin‫צ‬s artiicial reservoir. It аas he аho аrote that the Khaгars аere the irst аho 30 brought agriculture to the steppe (the nowadays southern Russian steppe). He quotes tаo аords from an ancient Russ encrвption: “ ку – ikubana” аhich originates, according to him, in the Hebreа аord “ – kavana” and “ я ‫ ס‬litorea”, аhich originates in the аord “ – leater”. Additionallв, Professor Artamonov brings evidence to the fact that there had been Holв Scripture translations from Hebreа to Russian and not as it is commonlв accepted to believe noаadaвs, a version according to which all Russian religious scripturewas translated from Greek. A recent studв bв Dr. Y. Kurganov, an eбpert of Russian literature, had been published in Russian, where he states that the origin of several Russian proverbs, аhich are still аidespread todaв, is the Talmud. Traces of the Hebrew language in Russian Words in the ancient Russian, from “The Tale of Bygone Years” by friar Nestor and other ancient Russian manuscripts Many words in both ancient and modern Russian remind of the Hebreа language, via similar sounds and meanings. The following words or expression will be marked in the folloаing manner: from left to right, irst аill be the Russian eбpression emboldened in Russian, second the phonetic transcription, third, also in bold, аill be a Hebreа аord or eбpression that resemble 31 the Russian word in phonetic transcription. The translation will be to the right and below the entry of the above Russian word. е о – se bo. In Hebreа ze bo – – that is in him. у – byahu. bahu – žš – in him. к – aki. ki – ¢¤ – like, as. ете е – yeter“O”3je. yeter ze – Ÿ±³¢ – all the rest or more than that. олот – Polota. pellet – ¡¥­. In Russian this is the name of a certain river, аhich connects аith a greater river. In Hebreа pelet means output. е – ashye. asher – ±²™ – which/that is. ɭɦɵɤɚɯɭɠɺɧɵ – umhi + kakhu + jonhi – ve anu + lakakhnu + nashim. And we + took + women. Here, tаo Hebreа аords “u-ʥ” (that means ‫ ס‬and) and “lakakhat – ³ °¥” (means – to take) are combined аith the Russian – mhi – we”, as it is placed betаeen pronoun “ them. “у”(u / and) + “ ” (mhi / we) +“к у” (kahu / took) + “ е ” (jhonhi / wives). е – resha. hersha –²± – decided. о – bo. bo – žš – inside him / it. 3 Marking a letter (XO) grantsita soft and short sound, such as the sound that the letter ‘L’ has in the word ‘Tel Aviv’ as opposed to ‘Malcodet’.The letter ‘ ’ in Russian is the one that supplies this effect. 32 Many verbs in ancient Russian manuscripts end аith the sufiб “ у – khu”: “по ек у”, “у к у”, “ те у”. This sufiб means “him or on him” just like the Hebreа sufiб “hu – ❔: , , – hikahu, ansuhu, harguhu – hit him, raped him, killed him. ко – yako. vekho – ¤ž – like. – az O. az – Ÿ™ – then. т – kharatiya. kharat – ³±¤ – to make a pact. е – biser. besora – ±ž²š – tidings. Beads. Cото л – sotonail. Satan hael – ¥™¨¡² – satan the God. ку – kumir. komer – ±§ž¤ – pastor. In Hebreа is an object komer is one that works for gods. Ку of a workship. е у – perun. This is the name of a primary god in Russian mythologв. I tie this аord to the Hebreа verb “±­ – para” and “noun – piryon – ¨ž¢±­” as in the eбample of the biblical order to multiplв “pru urbu”. “у – un” is a common sufiб in Russian for a number of nouns, based on a certain verb. For instance: о о у – govorun ‫ ס‬blabbermouth from “ о о – govoril – talked”. л 33 к ку – skakun – a horse. From “ к к т – skakat O – to gallop”. Bв the аaв, this Russian sufiб “у – oun” is a parallel of a similar sounding sufiб in Hebreа “oun– ʯ˒” in аords such as “tikkoun – ¨ž°¢³”, “zimmoun – ¨ž§¢Ÿ” and “khitoun – ¨ž³¢ ” аhich eбists in Hebreа since the daвs of Talmud. Maвbe this sufiб аas moved to Russian from these аords. This sufiб can be linked to the meaning of the Hebreа аord “on – ʯʥʠ” аhich means potencв and then Hebreа “ʬʹʸʴ ʯʥʠ – par shel on” (the bull of potency) or “ʸʴ ʯʥʠ – par on” аill be Russian “ е у – Perun – the god of may be fertility”. Little is known today about the attributes of Russian God “ е у ” but аe should point out that the god of fertility was a major god in the Egyptian pantheon and fertility gods and goddesses were appreciated in other cultures as well. The dominant explanation nowadays in Russian etвmologв links this name аith the аord “пе о – pero – feather” in Russian . This eбplanation does not seem to be very well substantiated. It is interesting to point out the names of the members of the Russian delegation of the Kievan prince Igor to the court of the Bвгantine Emperor. The delegation signed a peace treaty between Kiev and Bвгantium. Based on the notes of Nestor, among the members of the delegation аere the names “ к , купе ду , о ол – Sfirka (Hebreа sefer – ‫– ספר‬ book), merchant Adun (similar to the аord “adon ‫ס‬ ” meaning “master” in Hebreа), Gomol (from 34 Hebreа “gomel – – retaliate”) the Hebreа origin of these names is obvious. In one of the stories about Olga, the аife of the Kievan king Igor, it saвs: “ е екл к л е Ол ”. The meaning of this sentence is that Olga talked and chattered so much that she silenced the person she was talking to. The аord “пе екл к л ” or its base “кл к л ” maв be related to the аord “кл к т » klikat O– to call by name” in contemporarв Russian, as аell as the аord “к л к т »kalyakat O – to chatter”. Furthermore, it is possible that “кл к т ” is connected to the Russian аord “ л ол» glagol”. There is also the verb “ л ол т » glagolit o” ‫ ס‬an old form for “to talk” in ancient Russian . In these ancient аords that represent the essence of speaking in Slavic, there is a sвllable that repeats itself, аhich is pronounced as “kl,kl” or “gl,gl”. If the “k” became a “g” then аe can make a link betаeen аords that deine speech in ancient Russian to the Hebreа roots of “¥ž°¥¤” (kol kol). The verb “кл к л – klikal – talked” аith “¥ž°¥¤” (kol kol). The аord “колокол – kolokol” means “a bell” аhich is similar to the Hebreа ( “¥ž° ž¥ž¤” ‫ ס‬kolo kol – аhich means in Hebreа “it is all sound”). “ ло е е – Slovene” is the name that deines the ethnic origins of the Slavs. In his famous book “The е е Tale of Bвgone Years” Nestor аrites “ ут ло е е”. In English it аould mean “ – 35 nartsi are the Slavs”. Who are these “Nartsi”? In Nestor‫צ‬s time, theв аere probablв verв familiar to everyone. This word is the merging of two Russian аords. “ – na” is a preiб that implies an inten– rtsi – siication of a certain act. The other, “ ¢¯±” means “talk!” in modern Hebreа and as аell in ancient Russian. It has the meaning of “speech”. Speech is the sounding of words. A word in Russian is “ ло о – slovo”. That is аhв “nartsi” are people аho speak a lot ‫ “ ס‬ло е е” in Russian . These had been written words from ancient Russian manuscripts, for аhich there is no use at all in contemporarв Russian . Theв can be deined as forgotten words. Let us check whether the situation is similar in the modern language used by contemporary Russian speakers. Traces of the Hebrew Language in Spoken and Written Russian We аill irst address terms that have to do аith religion and ceremony. к » skiniya. “shekhina – ©¢¤²” the Hebreа аord for “divine presence”). The place аhere the divine spirit resides. And there is also “ к ет – skiniya zaveta – Testament”, аhich is the place where the Tablets of the Law reside. This is the connection betаeen the Russian “ к ” and the Hebreа “shekhina – ©¢¤²”. 36 кел – keliya. “kliya – ™¢¥¤” the Hebreа аord for “imprisonment”. The residence of a monk and also a place of coninement for a prisoner. к д ло»kadilo. “kad lo – ž¥œ¤” in Hebreа “an urn for him/it”). Jug of oil for the lighting of a candlewick in church. It is interesting to note that this noun created a Russian verb. In Russian “к д т ” means to create smoke by way of a candle or oil lamp. к ду к – kadushka. “kad, kadosh – ²žœ° œ¤ – respectively ‘urn’ and ‘holy‫ צ‬in Hebreа”. A small bowl: according to the Vasmer’s etymological dictionarв of the Russian language, the аord‫צ‬s origin is from the Hebreа “kad – œ¤”. This small boаl is often used in Russian churches as oil lamps for consecration. о – monah. “munkha al yedey” means in Hebreа “guided by – a monk”. A monk can be seen as a person guided by God. по к – pominki. “po minkha –  ©§­ – here, an offering” in Hebreа. In Russian this is a memorial day for the deceased. Recalling the name of the deceased in a public ceremony is related in Jewish tradition to an offering. Vasmer’s etymological dicт ”. In contionarв interprets this аord as “po+ т – pomnit o” means “to temporarв Russian “по remember”. It might be that he is right and this is about mentioning the name of the deceased. ко  » ikona. “hikhon! – “¨ž¤¢. Hebreа com37 mand for “at the ready!”. In Russian a holy paining, before which people stand at the ready and pray. ко »kon. “kavana, nakhon –¨ž¤©©žž¤” –respectivelв “intention” and “true/right” in Hebreа. The meaning of “ко ” is the basis and foundation of all that is. The eбpression “ ко у – nakonu” means to tell the absolute truth, like in the heavenlв court. “ ко – iskoni – from the beginning of time”. Obviouslв, this is a shared linguistic basis betаeen the Hebreа language (in such аords as hikhon – being ready, mekhonen – founder, nakhon – correct, kivun – direction, kavanah – intention) and Slavic languages. Where did it come from? It seems like it came from more ancient times, аhen there was contact between the speakers of the different languages or the languages preceding them. о о – sobor. “tsover – ±šž¯” in Hebreа this means “accumulating”. This is a main church and also a convention of clergymen. о – sbor. “tsvira – ±¢š¯” in Hebreа this means “accumulation”. This аord means “convention, accumulation”. – amin o. In Hebreа amen – ¨§™. о ‫ ס‬bo bes shytov. “lavo – ™žš¥” in Hebreа this means “to come / arrive”. Came without shields. In Russian, “a shield is ‫ס‬ ”. 38 т ек – safat reka. “sefat hanahar – ³­² ʸ©”, Hebreа eбpression for “river bank”). The common interpretation of this in Russian linguistics is that this is a river called “Safat”. In Russian, river is “ ек – reka”. Obviouslв, the correct meaning is the addition of a Hebreа аord in order to create a construct state, made of the nouns “safat” in Hebreа and the Russian “ ек ” to form the “river bank”. We will add to all that the fact that among the customs of Russian Christianitв, as compared to Greek Christianitв, and this form of Christianitв came to the Slavs from Bвгantium, there is a tradition of donating a tenth of the income to the needs of the community. The possible origin of this tradition could be located in the Jeаish tradition of the ma‫צ‬aser (tithe), аhich аas probablв customarв among the Khaгars, аho accepted Judaism, and in this аaв аent on the Slavs and so remained in Russian Christianity. In the common Russian, there is an eбpression that survived “ т т – athi bathi”. This аas mainlв used аith its rhвme “ т т , л олд т ”. This is a refrain from a marching song “there march the soldiers”. It seems the origin of “athi bathi” is the Hebreа “atta batta – ³™š³™ – you came”. The Russian name of Khaгaria, as it is shoаn in Nestor‫צ‬s Tale, is “ л – Khevalissiya”. Common interpretation of this name links it to Turkic аords. In mв opinion, it is much more itting to see in this name the Hebreа аords “khevel yossef” 39 (Joseph’s region), the region of the Khaгar king from the 10th centurв, аho corresponded аith Hasdai ibn Shaprut of Spain or “khevel Isa” named after the Khaгar king mentioned in the Muslim sources. Could it be that the name Isa comes from Joseph, the Khaгar king? Words in the Hebrew Language and the 3UH¿[HVLQWKH5XVVLDQ/DQJXDJH In the Russian language, as in English, there are preiбes that connect аith the beginning of a basic аord, providing this or that meaning (such as the English “un”, “pre” or “re”). The beаildering thing is that some of those Russian words have the character of separate аords, аhich have similar meanings and sounds in the Hebreа language and the Russian word can be seen as the working of a construct state betаeen the Hebreа and Russian аords. The аord “по – po” means in Hebreа “­ – here”. In Russian, it connects аith Slavic verbs or nouns, to create the meaning of executing an action. In several cases, the Hebreа meaning of the preiб is clearlв “here, in this place”. по лу т – poslushato – po+‘ To hear a little (here). – to hear’ по у т »porugat o – po+‘ – to rebuke’ подел т – podelit o – po+‘ To share (here). – to share’ To rebuke a little (here). 40 подут – poduto – po+‘ ‫ ס‬to bloа’ To blow a little (here). по о ето т – posovetovato – po+‘ consult’ To consult (here). поте т – poteryat o– po+‘ To lose (here). я – to – to lose’ по еле е – poselenie – po+‘ Here (is a) settlement. по е е – settlement’ е – poberej’e – po+‘ – beach’ Here (is a) beach. по о у – porovnu – po+‘ – equallв‫צ‬ To divide (here) equally. по док – poryadok – po+‘ я – row’ order (arranging rows here). *** The Hebreа аord “п – pri – ¢±­” in the Hebreа meaning of “the fruit that actions bear – ²«§¢±­”, is added to Slavic verbs, giving them the coloring and meaning of the execution and completion of an action. п д т – pridat o – pri+‘ – to give’ To impart (the result of giving). п д ое – pridanoye – pri+‘ A dowry. п т »priyti – pri+‘ – what is given’ – to go’ To come (the result of going). 41 п од»prihod – pri+‘х – move’ His (mв, her) arrival, arriving at a place is the result (fruit) of “halikha”. Hebreа for “walking – од ”. п од – priroda – pri+‘ ‫ ס‬birth’ Nature (everвthing that is born). Nature is the result of birth. п од – prigodnhiy – pri+‘ Fit, able. п о т – prirost – pri+‘ ‫ ס‬groаth’ Growth, an addition to siгe. – it’ п т е е – prityajenie – pri+‘ я Gravity. ‫ ס‬effort, pull’ п ток – pritok – pri+‘ ‫ ס‬loа’ A sub-river that enters the main loа (a result of the loа). п де е – privideniye – pri+‘ An apparition. п е к – primerka – pri+‘ Trying on a garment. п л – a vision’ – measurement’ – prilichnhiy – pri+‘ – personal’ Worthy. п – prisyaga – pri+‘ я ‫ ס‬lag’  $QRDWKWRWKHÀDJ In mв opinion, there аas a “t” sound in this аord that had been dropped, and is not pronounced noаadaвs. In his etвmological dictionarв, Vasmer 42 ties the аord “п ” to the ancient Russian аord “ т  – syagato” аhich translates to get (“to get” in Hebreа is “lehasig – ›¢²¥”). The Hebreа origin of the аord is possible in this interpretation as well. т ” in contemporarв Russian reThe аord “ mains through another form: “по т – posyagat o”. It means “to demand oаnership of something that is not вours”; in Hebreа this is eбactlв аhat “to get – lehasig” means. *** The Hebreа аord “™© – na” and the Russian preiб “ – na” have a joint meaning of an encouragement in executing an action. This meaning is also noted in Vasmer’s etymological dictionary. Adding the “ – na” preiб in Russian alloаs in manв cases grants the meaning an action being executed multiple aspects. Could it be that an action with multiple aspects, аhich needs encouragement, gets it from the Hebreа “™© – na”? – na – ʠʰ. “Please” in Hebreа т о т – nastroit o – na+‘ To build a lot. ‫ ס‬to build’ е т – namyerit o – na+‘ To measure a lot. ‫ ס‬to measure‫צ‬ т – nabit o – na+‘ ‫ ס‬to beat‫צ‬ To beat someone to a pulp and also to nail something vigorously. 43 те ет – natyeryet o – na+‘ ‫ ס‬to rub‫צ‬ To grate something or to rub it a lot. дел т – nadelat o – na+‘ To do a lot. ‫ ס‬to do‫צ‬ *** The origins of the Hebreа аords “­ – po”, “¢±­ – pri” and “™© – na” are from surrounding languages in the Middle Eastern vicinity. Even-Shoshan dictionarв mentions “­ – po” as an Ugaritic-Phoenician аord. “¢±­ – pri” might Ugaritic Aramaic and about the use of this аord as “the result of actions”, Even Shoshan brings an eбample from Jeremiah “the fruit of вour doing”. “ – na” is a Sвrian аord. Russian etвmological dictionaries do not suficientlв eбplain these аords and preiбes “ ”, “по” or “п ” in the Slavic languages. *** Manв Russian аords have the preiб “кол – kol”. The origin of this preiб seems to me in the Hebreа аords “kol – ¥¤ ” (Hebreа for “everything” or “kol – ¥ž°– sound”). коло ок – kolobok – kulo+‘ – side’ “Коло ок” is a ball from Russian folklore, аhich rolls from place to place and from anв direction, the only thing visible is his side ( ок). This ball‫צ‬s role is to roll everваhere, alloаing the storвteller to tell its 44 audience about various places, customs and events in folklore. колдо т – koldovat o. kol – ¥ž° ¥ž¤ Hebreа аords for “everything” or “voice/sound” + ‘ ‫ס‬ to give’. To do sorcery. Possiblв, acts of sorcerв аere connected аith making “sounds – kolot – ³ž¥ž°”, and giving the sorcerers “everything – kol – ¥ž¤” they desired. кол у – kolochuga – kol+‘ ‫צ‬ The аord “ у ”, Turkic in its origion, eбists in noаadaвs Russian in аords such as ‘ ‫ס‬a kind of cast iron‫צ‬. “ыол у ” is a chainmail tunic that was used by Russian warriors in ancient times. “ыол у ” means everything is у кол – kolchan – kol+‘ – a large vat’ колп к – kolpak – kol+‘ ‫צ‬ The word ‘ ’ had been conserved in modern Russian as the basis of words that have to do with packing and sealing. ‘ ‫ ס‬to pack‫צ‬, ‘ я– oakum‫צ‬. “Kолп к” is a three edged cap, аith one end pointing upwards.Worn typically by desert people in Central Asia. There is no apparent identiication betаeen Russian and Hebreа, onlв using the word kol and similarity in the way words are combined to construct new ones. коло е т – kolovyert o – kulo+‘ ‫ ס‬turned‫צ‬ Whirling without end, it is all “kulo – ž¥ž¤ in Hebreа” аhirls. 45 коле ко – kolyechko – kulei+‘ ‫ ס‬a round hole‫צ‬ O is a round hole. “ – kol – ¥ž¤” is “everв small ring” for аomen finger. Ringlet. колду – koldun – kol+‘ ‫צ‬ The аord “ – dun” does not eбist in Russian, but in modern Hebreа there is “¨«œ¢» yad’ an”, аhich means “scholar”, from “yeda – knowledge”, аhich could also be “¨â«œ¢ – yad’un”. This аaв, “колду ” can be “kolyad’un”, (kol – from Hebrew ¥ž¤), a man, аho knoаs everвthing, a sorcerer in modern Russian. Hence, the verb “ – dunut o”, аhich means “to bloа a small amount of air”, could have formed from the actions of these sorcerers, аhen theв bleа onto a candle lame. кул – kul o, кулёк – kulyok – kol+yok (ёк) “Ёк” is a sufiб that signiies reduction in siгe. “Kул ” is a sack made of cloth and in its reduced version, a bag, in аhich small items and things are put that scatter. Kul has the similar phonetics as Hebreа “kol – ¥ž¤ – all” in English. кол – kolbasa. “kol basar – ” Hebreа аords for “every meat – sausage”. According to Vasmer‫צ‬s dictionarв, this аord is known to exist since the 17th century. Vasmer considers the version of the Hebreа origin “kol basar” but prefers the Turkic origin. 46 Words in Russian that Possibly Originate from Hebrew о – izgoy. The preiб “ ” in English means from. “ о ” in Hebreа is “¢ž› – goy, gentile”. The meaning of the word о in Russian is to be an outlaw, persecuted by society. Maybe because there is one of the gentiles. о т – nosit o. This word may be originates from the Hebreа verb “nosse – ™²ž© – carries” from “laset – ³™²¥ ‫ ס‬to carrв” The Russian “ о – nosha” is the Hebreа “masa – ™²§ ‫ ס‬burden”. It is knoаn that the Russian letter “ ” originates in the Hebreа letter “²” and possiblв this dualitв4 of “sh” and “s” inluenced the Russian letter to have a similar distinction betаeen “ ‫ ס‬s” sound and “ ” (“sh” sound) in аords that have similar content and basic root. ед т – vedat o. In mв opinion, its origin is in “«œ¢ž – vayada” from the verb “«œ¢¥ – leyadea ‫ ס‬to make knoа”. Vayada means knoа in ancient Hebreа. The meaning of the Russian word is to know. 4 In Hebreа, the letter “²” might be added a dot above and slightly to the left or slightly to the right. Depending on this, the sound of the letter changes from “s” to “sh”. 47 ед – ved o. The origin of the аord “ ед ” is, in mв opinion, the Hebreа аords “¢™œžž – vadai – certain or certainly” and “™œžž¥ – levade ‫ ס‬to ascertain”. It means in Russian “certainly”. Vasmer’s etymological dictionary links the words “ ед , ед т ” to an Indian origin, аhich means “to see”. If so, it is possible that the Hebreа “™œžž¥ – levade” is linked to the Indian language also. ед – ved oma. “§«œ¢ž» veyad’a ma – and she kneа the point” Interstinglв, this eбplanation resembles the eбplanation given to the sorcerer ‫“ ס‬колду ” is “kol yad’un – ‫ ס‬a man аho knoаs everвthing”. In both cases, the source of the magic poаer is in knoаledge. In modern Russian “ ед ” is a bad witch. ед ед – medved o. “ ё ‫ ס‬honeв” + “vayeda – know in Hebreа”. In Russian “ ед ед ” means bear. This word can be seen as compounded of tаo аords: “ ё ‫ ס‬honeв” and аord “vayeda”. It is common knoаledge that bears like honeв. “ ед ед ” is bear in English. He is one who knows what is honey ( ё ) and аhere to ind it. In ancient Russia, bears аere trained. There are testimonies to the custom of displaying them on holidays and in fairs. Could it be that trained be. 48 ars were also used to search for honey and beehives in the forest? е т – vershit o. “³¢²™±š ²™±š – barosh, bereshit” Hebreа for “irst”, “in the beginning”. If аe remember that аhen in ancient Hebreа the letter “ž” (аhich has the sound ‘v‫ )צ‬comes before the letter “Þ” (аhich has the sound ‘b‫ )צ‬in the аord “³¢²™±šž – uvereshit” the “b” sound turns into “v” and аe get the аord “vershit” and not “bershit”. Today this means to do great deeds, like аhen God created the earth in the beginning, “to lead”. п т – pinat o. “©¢­ – pinah” is Hebreа for “corner”. Todaв this means in Russian to kick someone. In the past, this also meant to push someone into the corner. ут – shut . “³ž¡²¡ž² – sho’te, shtut”, in Hebreа these mean, respectivelв “fool, folly”. In English ут means “clown”or “droll”. ут т – shutit o. “leshatot b’e‫ ”כ‬is “to fool someone” in Hebreа. ут т is to droll in English. The link betаeen the Russian “ ут” and the Hebreа “ – shote – fool” or the Aramai “™¡² – shata” had alreadв been displaвed bв several etвmologists, аho presupposed a linking phase in the German аord “Schaute”. Vasmer doubts this connection, since the German аord is relativelв neа, while the Slavic word is pretty ancient. I do not see a reason why the German middle phase should not be considered and also vice versa. Why not assume 49 that the German “Schaute” began in the Hebreа “¡ž²»shote” but аent through the Slavic “ ут”? Agricultural Terms We shall examine what agricultural terms in Russian are linked to Hebreа. дк – gryadka. “œ±› – gar’ed” is Hebreа for “scratch”. “ дк ” is a bed raised out of nearby earth. It is often used for groаing vegetables, аhile the watering between the beds. In Russia these kinds of raised beds can be seen everywhere. ко – korm. “¦±¤ – kerem” is Hebreа for “vineyard”. “ко ” is fodder and it could be that “¦±¤” is the origin of verb “ко т – kormit o – to feed”. “ т ” is a verв characteristic sufiб for manв ininitive verb forms in Russian . – niva. “š¢©¥ – lehaniv” is Hebreа verb for “to produce”. In Russian, “ ” is the name for grain crops, before theв are harvested, once there are shoots above ground and before harvest. е о – jernova. “¨±ž› – goren” is Hebreа for “thrashing loor”. The Russian root “ е ” its the meaning of “¨±ž›”. “ е о ” are heavв аheels used to grind grain. Possiblв, theв аere located in the thrashing ield and hence their Russian name. о ё – ovyos. “ª¢š™ – avissa” Hebreа for “fattening of animals”. “о ё ” is “oats”. In Russia, 50 it is especially useful to feed horses and after turning it into lour, it also edible for humans. т – jat o. “³› – gat”, Hebreа for “wine or olive press”. Possiblв, the verb “ т ”, that means “to press” in Russian, comes from noun “gat” in аhich olives аere crushed and pressed, in order to make oil. Olives do not grow in central Russia but they were common and still are in Crimea and the northern Caucasus. ле – hlev. “š¢¥ – khaliva”, Hebreа for “milking”. “ ле ” is a “cowshed”, аhere milking is done. From this action probably comes the Russian name. ле т – hlebat o. “š¥ š¢¥ – khaliva, khalav”, respectivelв these are Hebreа for “milking” and “milk”. This means “to gulp”. Perhaps “to gulp milk”. е – semya. “§¢²¦¢²¥ – lasim, sima”, respectivelв, in Hebreа these means “to place” and “placing”. “ е ” is a “seed” meant “to put – lasim” in the ground, for agricultural purposes. The actiong of “sima ‫ ס‬placing” maв have given the name to “ е ”. е о – zerno. “«ž±Ÿ¥«±Ÿ – zera, lizroa”, respectivelв, these mean in Hebreа “seed” and “to sow”. It is possible that ž©«±Ÿ – zaranu – we have sown” led to “ е о – a grain”. According to archeological indings, the Khaгars brought agriculture to the southern Russian steppe. 51 уто – hutor. “±³ž¤§ – mekhutar”, in Hebreа this means “beleaguered”. “ уто ” is “a small farm”. Possiblв, the residence on the farm аere surrounded (mekhutarim) bв a moat and so ‫ ס‬уто . л пот – lapot o. “³ž­¥ – lafut”, in Hebreа means “clasped”. This is bast shoe, a tвpe of sandal аith wooden soles and strips made of the bark of a birch tree, аhich “clasped – lafut” in Hebreа the foot of the farmer, in ancient Russia. лоп т – lopata. In English means “shovel”. “лоп т ” can be linked to the same origin as л пот based on “lafut”. In his etвmological dictionarв, Fasmer identiies the origin of the аord “лоп т ” аith the ancient German аord “laffa ‫ ס‬palm”. Whв to prefer German source to direct Hebreа borroаing? к у – krug. “£ž±¤ – karukh”, in Hebreа means “tied”. “к у ” means “a circle” maвbe it comes from “karukh”. Technical Terms т л – fitil o. “¥¢³­ – ptil”, in Hebreа means “wick”. If translated to Hebreа “ ” is eбactlв ptil. Vasmer’s dictionary relies on a Greek origin. But “ptil, lehitpatel ‫ ס‬to tаist” ancient Hebreа аords аhich, according to Even Shoshan are assumed to originate from Accadian and Aramaic. ко л – khobhila. “¥žš¤ – kevula”, in Hebreа is a feminine form of the adjective “bound”. “ко л ” 52 is “a mare”, it is usuall to bound her legs so that it could not escape. ко т – kovat o. “¡š – havat”, in Hebreа means “(he) beat”. “ко т ” is beating hot iron аith a hammer, to forge. This word is very important for drawing conclusions about the development of the crafting of iron among Slavic tribes. See the published аorks of O. N. Trubachвov, in аhich he eбplains the importance of the word to technological terminology in the Russian language. According to him, this is an original Slavic word. т т – hvatit o. “hav Dt – ¡š ” meaning similar to the previous аord. “ т т ” is also “¡žš ¥ – lahbot ‫ ס‬to beat”, although the main meaning in this аord is similar to “ т т – hvatat o – to grab”. пл – plaha. “ ¥­¥ – lefale’akh”, in Hebreа means “to halve”. “пл ” is the scaffold where prisoners condemned to die were beheaded. поло – polosa. “ª¥­¥ – lefales”, in Hebreа means “to level”. “ оло ” is a lane and also a road leveled in a forest. Possiblв, this came to be used for other purposes, such as for the purpose of a гone betаeen tаo parallel lines, in geometrв, the connection being the tаo, parallel sides of the road in “поло ”. п от – prosthinya. “۞±­¥ – lifros”, in Hebreа ” in Russian means a means “to spread”. “ о т 53 bed sheet and even todaв, “аe spread ‫ ס‬porsim – ¦¢Û±ž­ in Hebreа” bed sheets. к – krhisha. “²±° – keresh”, in Hebreа means “plank”. “к ” means a roof, аhich аas probably made of planks “krashim – ¦¢²±°”. ко то – korhito. “³±¤ – kharat”, in Hebreа means “(he) chopped”. Even tаo hundred вear ago, in Russia, there аas a chopped off log, аhich аas halved and crafted it into a bowl or trough, in аhich clothes were washed. The log was chopped in the forest. This аas called “ко то”. к о т – kroit o. “±ž°§ž™¢ž±° – karui or mekure”, in Hebreа means “with a roof”. “к о т ” and other words in Russian that are built from this word describe WKH URR¿QJ of a house, using аood. Therefore “¢ž±° – karui” seems to be the origin of these words. к т – karat o. “³¢±¤³±¤ – kharat, khrita”, in Hebreа means respectivelв “(he) chopped / amputated” and “chopping / amputation”. Possiblв, a аaв of punishment was connected with beheading or amputation of limbs. “K т ” means “to punish ruthlessly”. ко отк – korotkiy. “³ž±¤ » karut”, in Hebreа means “amputated”. This Russian аord means short. Things that were amputated or chopped be54 come shorter. Bв the аaв, about a short story is described as “к тк – kratkiy”. д ут – sadanut o. “¨œª » sadan”, in Hebreа means “anvil”. The meaning of this аord is “to hit as hard as possible, as one аould hit an anvil – sadan аith a hammer”. е ето – resheto. “³²± – reshet”, in Hebreа means “net”. “ е ето” is eбactlв “net – reshet” in Hebreа and there is no other acceptable eбplanation of this Russian word. по – sapog. “›ž­ª – sfog” in Hebrew means “sponge”. “C по ” is “a boot”. The process of manufacturing boots from leather includes preparing the leather by absorption of water repellant, to withstand wetness. May be this technology gave the Russian name for boots. п у – parus. “۞±­ – parus” in Hebrew means “stretched”. A stretched sail could have given the sail the Russian name “п у ”. It is possible that the Hebrew word also originates from a Greek аord, as certain etymologists of the Russian language suggest for this аord “п у ”. ко о ло – koromhislo. “kora – ±ž°” in Hebreа . “Ко о ло” is compoundmeans beam + ed out of tаo аords. “ ” is a wooden beam – kora in Hebreа, аhich is placed on the shoulder for carrвing аater buckets. The second аord “ means limbs” in ancient Russian . Other possibilitв is using of greek аord “asilla” аhich means eб55 actly ко о ло in Russian together аith Hebreа “kora”. Phonema “m” that connects Hebreа and Greek bases could be taken from Hebreа prefiб §» me – off. у т – burit o. “±žš – bor” in Hebreа means “hole”. “ у т ” means to drill “a hole – bor – ±žš” in the ground. Vasmer’s etymological dictionary links this аord to the German аord “bohr” аhich has the same meaning but also mentions without explaining that in the Turkic, Kaгakh and Tatar languages аords related to drilling resemble “bor”. These languages had no direct contact with German. Could it be that the term reached them from the Hebreа “pit – bor”? о ет – moneta. “¥°²§³©§ – Mnat mishkal” in Hebreа means “аeight portion”. “ о ет ” means “coin”. Probablв a certain portion of аeight used the Khaгars as a coin. The аord of “аeight ‫ ס‬mishkal” disappeared and “mnat ‫ ס‬portion” became “ о ет ”. к п – kirpich. “kir – ±¢°” in Hebreа means “wall + ‫ ס‬oven”. “К п ” is “brick burnt in the oven”. Looks like the addition of the Hebreа аord “±¢° – kir” to the Russian аord “пе – pech – oven”. Together theв are “ȒȐȘȗȐȟ”. – graviв. “šž±› , ¢š±› – garbei adama, ligrov” in Hebreа translates as “earth socks, to put a sock on”. “ ” in Russian is a construction material made out small stones “gravel”. 56 Military and Administrative Terms т – bit o. “¡¢«š – b’eita” in Hebreа means “a kick”. “To kick ‫ ס‬give a beating” is eбactlв “ т ”. There is also the аord “ т – bita – ¡¢«š ¢¥¤ – kli beita in Hebreа”. This is “a bat” used in a children’s game. л – palitsa. “®¥­ – palats” means “to shock” and “to punch” in ancient Hebreа. “ л ” is a аeapon, a mace аith a metal head, аhich was used in battle to crack skulls and bones. Hence, the origin of this Russian weapon might have been in the Khaгar kingdom and the Hebreа three letter root . .‫( פ‬p.l.ts) аhich means to punch through a аall. уп – trup. ”¬ž±¡ – taruf” in Hebreа means “devoured”. A corpse in Russian is “T уп”. Possiblв because it аas frequentlв devoured bв animals. ! – ura! “±ž« – ura” in Hebreа means “awaken!”.Whoever is sleeping, especiallв during an attack, is аoken up bв shouting: ura! Although there is a Turkic аord “ura – hit!” and Vasmer prefers the origin from medieval German “hurren ‫ ס‬to move quicklв”. Have Russian s learned from Germans their famous battleshout? д, О д – grad, ograda. “ œ±›¥ – legared, girud” in Hebreа means “to scrape together fencing”. According to historical sources, the аall acting as a fence around the Khaгar capitol, Atil, 57 аas a mound of earth of medium height, аhich аas “scraped ‫ ס‬garud” from nearbв soil. This could be the possible origin of the аord “о д – ograda” аhich in Hebreа means “gader – – fence” and hence the аord “ д – grad” or “ о од – gorod” аhich mean “citв” in Russian . у , д у к – drugi in an older version. “¦¢¤ž±œ – derukhim” ‫ ס‬in Hebreа means “alert”. “д у ” аere soldiers in ancien Russian military units and in mв opinion, theв аere alert and readв for battle, and this is hoа theв got their name. – hrabrhiy. “š± – kherev” in Hebreа ” means “brave”. If one means “sword”. “ has a sword in his hand he is brave. – prashya. “²¢±­²ž±­¥ – liprosh, prisha” in Hebreа mean “to spread, spreading”. A kind of weapon: leather or cloth strips are used to sling a stone, аhich quits a great distance-sling in English. Interestinglв, this tool is the same sling used by David against Goliath. In Russia this is a well-known and used ancient Russian weapon. Where did they come by it? Коп е – kop’yo. “¬¤ – kaf” in ancient Hebreа means “palm”. A lance. According to Vasmer’s etymological dictionarв origin of аord “коп е” is linked to the аord “ ‫ ס‬to dig”. This is linked, in mв opinion, to the Hebreа аord “kaf”. 58 Geographical Terms К – krhim. “¦±¤ – kerhem” in Hebreа means “vineyard”. The Crimean Peninsula, in the Black Sea, is noted for its vineвards. The Khaгars ruled this place during medieval times for a long period. The border аith Bвгantium ran through the peninsula. Possiblв, the Hebreа “kehrem” created Russian “ – food” and “К ” the name of the peninsula. у – prusiya. “¢ªž± ­ » po rusiya” in Hebreа means “here Russia”. According to the vieа of several historians, before it аas the German part of Prussia, the region named Prussia had been populated by Slavic people. This is supported by the Slavic traces in the names of villages and rivers in the region. For eбample, Visla is considered a Slavic name. The Norman Russ could reach this place, as they had other Slavic regions more to the east. The Khaгars could have named the place аhere the Russ may to be found – po rusiya. Although it is possible that the German region bears a name that carries a Jeаish component, given to it bв Hebreа speakers. ол е – polyane. “¦¢©¥™ ­” ‫“ ס‬po + alanim” in Hebreа means “here Alans”. The name “ ол е” was written by Nestor for the Slavic tribe that settled in Kiev. Etymology of Vasmer links it to the name “поле – polye – ¿HOG” based on the eбplanation given bв Nestor in “A Tale of Bвgone Years”. The origin of “поле” is unclear. I suggest to reverse the eбplanation and see “поле – ¿HOG” as an eбpression 59 of the agricultural аork of the Alan tribe, situated in Kiev. Hence, “пол – poh alanim” and the Alan‫צ‬s agricultural аork is, in mв opinion, аhat gave birth to eбpression “поле”. о – sofiya. “¬žª – sof” in Hebreа means “end”. The name of the Bulgarian capitol, situated on the Danube, аhich is аhere the Khaгar control could have ended. Maвbe, as a result, from the end of their control Sophia was born. К от – krasota. “ª±¤ – keres” in Hebreа means “paunch”. In ancient Russian songs, a beautiful -де – krasa devitsa” girl аas called “к i.e. “beautiful women”. Possiblв, a аoman аith a paunch was considered especially beautiful and this is the origin of the deinition of beautв itself in Russian . “krasa” is preciselв accepted in Hebreа shortening of “keres la ‫ ס‬she has a paunch”. ол – golohiy. “¢ž¥› – galui” in Hebreа means “exposed”. “ ол ” in Russian means “naked” or “nude” and there is the link to Hebreа “eбposed ‫ ס‬galui”. ло – barahlo. “ž¥ ¤±š – brakha lo” in ло” is an Hebreа means “a blessing to him”. “ assembly of personal belongings and clothes that a man is blessed with in his life. К о – krov o. “¨š±ž° š±° – krav, korban” in Hebreа respectivelв mean “battle” and “sacriice”. “К о ” means “blood”. Possiblв, the blood of the victims that аere “sacriiced”. 60 К о к – kromka. “¦ž±° – krum” in Hebreа means “crust”. “К о к ” is the edge of the iceberg, a thin and fragile layer of solid material on top of liquid. This is why it probably originates in krum, аhich is similar to it. л д , л дк – glad o, gladkiy. “œ¢¥›¥ – lehaglid” in Hebreа means “to heal – аounds”. Wounds that “heal – maglidim” in Hebreа are covered аith a smooth cover – a crust. Its smoothness is described in Russian bв the аord “ л дк ”. – prhisch. “²¢±­ ²±­ – hafrasha, prisha” in Hebreа means respectivelв “discharge” and “departure”. An accumulation of pus in the skin, caused bв the departure of the pus, is called “п ”. – parasha. “³ž²±­ – hafrashot” in Hebreа means “discharges”. A bucket for eбcrement discharges in a Russian prison is called “п ”. о у – proshu. “²±¢­ – persha” in Hebreа means “(she) interpreted”. Possiblв, people аho asked for the interpretations, took the Hebreа аord “persha” in the sense of the interpreting eбplanation and added the sufiб “у – u”. This is hoа the request or proposal аas conceived “п о у – I ask”. т – pita. “ ‫ – פ‬pita” in Hebreа. This аord was not preserved in the modern Russian language. There is, hoаever, the аord “п т е – pitaniye – nutrition”. Hoаever, in his etвmological dictionarв, Vasmer quotes the аord “п т ”, аhich, accord61 ing to his translation from ancient Russian, means “bread or bread cake”. He inds the аord‫צ‬s origin is Greek. There is also the verb “п т т – to feed, to nourish”. Vasmer points to an ancient Indian аord “pitush – nutrition” as its origin. Even Shoshan claims “pita” comes from an Aramaic origin “™³¢­ – pita – DÀDWEUHDGFDNH”. What is the connection between the ancient Indian and Aramaic? Was there was a common element or is this is a gift from one tongue to the other? Hoа did this аord get to the Slavic languages? I did not ind an eбplanation to these questions. Obviouslв, this is no mere resemblance but a pointing towards the ancient link between the languages. то к – pitomnik. “ ‫ – פ‬pitum” in Hebreа means “fattening”. то к is a place where animals are groаn (fattened). К е – kvashenhiy. “²žš¤ – kavush” in Hebreа means “pickled”. The meaning of the аord is preciselв as Hebreа “kavush – pickled”. о ток – prostokvasha “ о ток ” means “a milk that has gone sour” after it аas pickled. Literally. о – dvor. “±šœ – davar” in Hebreа means “a thing”. This means “a yard”, a place аhere all sorts of things are collected. К л тк – kalitka. “¡ž¥°¥ – liklot” in Hebreа 62 means “to receive”. A door facing the вard, аhich receives those coming in. Клет – klet o. From “ – liklot”. A structure, which receives and encloses a man or animals within it: “Crate”. у – pukh. “ ¢­ ¢­¥ ž­© ž­§ ¢­ – hefiakh, mafuakh, nafuakh, lehafiakh, piakh” in Hebreа mean, respectivelв “(he) gave, bellows, bloated, breath, soot”. “ у ” is a down – the soft feathers that ill duvets, аhich in Hebreа are called “s mikhot pukh”. – p’yan o. “¨¢¢ ­ – pe yain” in Hebreа means “wine mouth”. “ ” is how a drunk is often called. The construct “pe – PRXWK” of “yain – wine”, “pe yain” might have created this Russian word. ке – siker. “±ž¤¢² – shikor” in Hebreа means “drunkard” or “drunk”. “ ке ” is a strong alcoholic beverage. According to Vasmer, its origin is the Aramaic “shikra”, аhile passing through the Greek. I do not understand why the Greek middle phase is necessary for the explanation of this Russian word. олоп – holop. “¬¥ž – kholef” in Hebreа means “passes”. Essentiallв, “ олоп” is a slave in a Russian farm, аho until the 16th century had the right to change his master once a вear, on the feast daв of St. Yuri. 63 Afterаards, this right аas revoked. In mв opinion, this right to change (in Hebreа “hakhlafa”) masters serves as the origin of the Russian аord ‫ “ ס‬олоп”. окол – sokol. “¥°žª – sokel” in Hebreа means “(he) stones”. A bird of preв ‫ ס‬a falcon. Hunters аould train this bird to stone, to attack the victim bв falling from the sky. They would use it to locate and attack small animals. л пк – hlipkiy. “ ¬¢¥ – khalif”. “Х ” means “ÀLPV\” and “temporarв”, аhich in Hebreа is “bar khalof”. луп – halupa. “­ž¥ – khalufa ‫ ס‬in Hebreа alternative”. In Russian slang, this meansDÀLPV\ and temporary building. К лё – kalyonhiy. “¢ž¥° – kalui” in Hebreа means “roasted”. In Russian, there is the eбpression к ле е” аhich means “roasted nuts”. “ The action of “kliya – roasting” is extremely important when it comes to the technology of metal crafting. It was preserved in the Russian language in the form of the verb “ – kalito ‫ ס‬heating (metal)” in the ire. Hence, it is possible that Hebreа speakers brought the technology of processing and tempering of steel to the Slavic people. ɆɚɥɵɣɆɚɥɨɣ±maloy, malhiy. “ʩʥʬʮ – malui”. Someone аho underаent “circumcision ‫ ס‬bhrit milah – ¥¢§³¢±š”, one аho аas circumcised. A big boy. 64 л к – mal ochik. Translated from Russian, this means “boy”. What is the connection betаeen “boy” and “ л к”? Eбactlв circumcision. The circumcised boв ,аho had “a circumcision ‫ ס‬milah – ¥¢§” is “ л к”. л – milhiy. “¥¢§» mila” in Hebreа means “circumcision”. “ л ” in Russian means ”my darling” (addressed to a male). The origin of these three Russian аords is seen in the Jeаish “circumcision – milah” and the Hebreа language. к т – shikat o. “¡°² – sheket!” in Hebreа means “silence!”. “ к т ” is “to demand silence”. And in Russia, it is done like in Israeli sвnagogues, bв sounding “shh!”. – sivhiy. “š¢²¥«š – ba’al sivah” in Hebreа means “grey-haired. “ ” is the name of the “grey – sivah” hair color. едо – sedoy. “œ¢ª – sid” in Hebreа means “lime”. “ едо ” is the name of the “white – sid” hair color. К – krhisa. “¦ª±¤ ª±¤ – keres, kirsem” in Hebreа means, respectivelв “paunch” and “nibbled”. “К ” is a rat, аhich has “a paunch ‫ ס‬keres in Hebreа” and аhich also “nibbles ‫ ס‬mekarsemet in Hebreа”. К – karas o. “ª±¤ – keres – paunch”. “К ” is a ish that has a big paunch, commonlв found in lakes in Russia. 65 л де е – mladenets. “œ¥ž§ – molad” in Hebreа means “was birthed”. Baby. олод – moloditsa. “œ¢¥ž§ – molida” in Hebreа means “she births”. Both of these аords origin, the irst meaning “baby” and the second meaning “young woman” stems, in mв opinion, from the Hebreа term for birth “œ¢¥ – leidah”, as the babв might have been called mulad and the person who births it ‫“ ס‬moloditsa”. Ко – koshmar. “±§ž ²° – kasha umar” in Hebreа means “dificult and bitter”. This translates from Russian as “Nightmare”. е – rech. “™¯± – hartsaa” in modern Hebreа means “lecture”. “ е ” in Russian means “speech”. In ancient Russian, there are аords such as “ ек” and “ ”. “ ” can be connected to ancient Hebreа “rtse – – wish”. Maв be an eбpression of a аish аas in origion of Russian аord for “speech ‫ס‬ ”. Ⱦɨɛɪɨ – dobro. “¦¢±šœ»dvarim” in Hebreа means “things”. “ о о” is valuable “things”. – gam. “§ž – homeh” in Hebreа means “crowd-ed”. “ ” in Russian means “noisy”. о о – gomon. “¨ž§ – hamon” in Hebreа means “a crowd”. Both “ ” and “ о о ” describe a noisв, croаded background, the commotion of big crowd. Change of phoneme “H” to “G” occurs in Russian for foreign languages borrowings as for example Hamburger in Russian аill be Gamburger. 66 од – rodhi. “œ±¢ – yarad” in Hebreа means “went down”. In Russian this аord means “birth”. Seems it has to do with the water or the baby’s coming down. Ɋɨɞɧɨɣ – rodnoy, ɪɨɞɢɦɵɣ – rodimhiy. од + “™§¢™ – ima in Hebreа means mother”. “ од о ” means “closely related”. The meanings of these аords, аhich are closelв connected, are respectivelв “the closest, most beloved person” and “mama‫צ‬s loved child”. од – rodina. “ од ” in Russian means “Homeland” for those аho аere born in it, which means that they crawled down the belly of mother-Russia. од – urod. A man аho аas born phвsicallв laаed, freak. These last four words are based on the same origin, аhich is related to birth. The process of birth includes a phase when the water breaks and when the situation is dire, вou saв “žœ±¢  – hamaim yardu”, аhich means in Hebreа “the аater broke”. Maвbe this is hoа the Russian “ ‫ ס‬birth” аas conceived. Interestinglв, the аord “ од к – rodnik” аhich means “a source of water” is closelв connected аith the loа of аater, especiallв the loа doаnаards, although it has nothing to do аith birth. This group of аords, аhich in mв opinion, is linked to the Hebreа аord “ – yarad” аhich means “went down” is characteriгed bв Vasmer in its connection аith its Indo-European origin, аhich de67 scribes groаth ‫“ ס‬eordh”. While he maв be right, the inluence of Hebreа remains in the combination of “ од+ – ima – од ” and also in “ од к – water source” аhich is not connected to growth but to water going down. у – hmurhiy. “±ž§ – khamur” in ” is preciselв Hebreа means “severe”. “ у “khamur – severe”. у к , у – suma, sumka. “§¢²¦¢²¥ – lasim, sima” in Hebreа mean, respectivelв “to put” and “putting”. “ у к ” is a cloth bag or a basket, in аhich вou “put ‫¦ ס‬¢§² – samim in Hebreа” objects or groceries. So “ у к ”. ко ут – prikornut o. “¨±° – keren” in Hebreа means “corner”. This аord translates as “to nap”. It is a result of the combination of tаo Hebreа аords: ”¢±­ – pri”, аhich in Hebreа means “fruit, result” and “¨±° – keren”. To climb into the corner and fall asleep. е – greshnhiy. “²ž±› ²±ž›§ – megorash, garush” in Hebreа mean, respectivelв “banned” ” in Russian means and “divorced”. “ е “sinner”. – tsar o. “±² – sar” in Hebreа means “minister”. There are some who would link the Russian word “ ” to the Latin origin in the name “Caeser”. Hoаever, sar had alаaвs been a аord in Hebreа for a person of rank and power and there might 68 have been ministers (sarim) in Khaгaria. “ Russian means “king”. ” in о о – posokh. “ ª­ – piseakh” in Hebreа means “cripple”. “ о о ” in Russian is a “walking stick” that helps people to balance themselves, аhile аalking. In the Russian culture, a “по о ” аas used bв the blind, the cripple and shepherds. Эт – eta. “ ³™ – et ha…” in Hebreа means “the”. In Russian “ т ” is eбactlв the female form of “³™”. Этот – etot In Russian “ тот” is eбactlв the male form of “³™”. то, то – chto, shto ² – sh’e in Hebreа means “that” or “of” plus to аhich in Russian means “that”. “ то” in Russian means “that” and also “what” and probably originates in the different uses of the conjunction “²” and its addition to the Russian аord “то – to”. Shty’ava ‫“ ס‬¢¢³² – shetiya” in Hebreа means “drinking”. This is a аord from the Cгech language that translates as “juice” or “drinking”. It аas not preserved in Russian . – braga. “¤±š – brakha” in Hebreа means ” in “blessing” and also “congratulation”. “ Russian is the name of an intoxicating drink that people drank before the invention of vodka. It was probablв drunk in the time of the Khaгars, аith the addition of a proper congratulation as a toast. 69 Interestinglв, the Hebreа letter “¤ – kh” turned in Russian into a “ – g”. A similar thing happens аith the Hebreа аord “£±œ – road” аhich in Russian turns into “ – doroga”. о о од – khorovod. “±ž – Horah”. In Russian в д" is a Russian folk dance very similar to “ the Israeli dance Horah. When did people start dancing the Horah and the “ о о од"? We will probably never know. л – plashmya. “²¥­³¥ – lehitpalesh” in Hebreа means “to wallow”. In ancient Russian, “ – mya” means “me”. “ л – plasch” means to fall, at least in the sense of “to аalloа”. Todaв “пл ” means to fall lat on the ground (to wallow). Combining these tаo аords, the Hebreа command “! ‫ – פ‬plasch!” and the Russian “ ” describes a situation, аhich in modern Hebreа can be described as “lying down”. Russian Names The most common Russian name is “ – ivan”. One of this name irst mentions in аriting appears in Nestor‫צ‬s “A Tale of Bвgone Years” as the name of a soldier and a commander in the army of one of the Russ kings in the 12th century – Sviatopolk. Only it is not just “ ” but “ ”. That is Ivan the Khazar. This testiies to Ivan possiblв being a common Khaгar name, and even if it does not, clearlв, in the 12th centurв, Russian s аere not ashamed of being related to Khaгar families. 70 In Russian fairв tales, “ Я – baba yaga” is an evil forest witch. Todaв, this has become a name for an old, rude and usuallв cruel аoman. In olden times, аhen manв Turks lived in Russ, the name “baba” signiied a source of poаer, respect and dominance (for eбample, Ali Baba). Among Russian fairвtales, there is a storв, in аhich the protagonist Dobrynya Nikitich kills Baba Gorenka. о е к – baba gorenka” аas probablв “ a man аith a thrashing loor, a igure of inluence and respect in those days. This is why our judgment about the аord ”baba” seems correct. “Я ” is the divine name “žž¢ – Yahve” as the letter “ – h” turns into “ – g” as seen in the transformation of the аords “ о – gora (“± – har” in Hebreа means “mountain”) and “ – gomon – ¨ž§ – hamon” in Hebreа means “croаd” It is best to speak of the transformation of “h” into the sound “g” spoken bв Slavic speakers. Back to “baba yaga” ‫ ס‬аe do not knoа hoа God almighty and the explicit name became the source of power for evil among the Russian s. It is possible that the inluences came from Christianitв or from the Norman tribes‫ צ‬conquests in the daвs of idol worship. “ о к т – Dobrhinya Nikitich”, one of the mythic heroes of Russian folklore also has Hebreа roots to his name. “ – davar or daber” аhich in Hebreа mean either “thing” or “speak” is the source for “Dobrhinya” and the source of the 71 second name “Nikita” is the Hebreа аord “³ž°©¥ – lenakot” аhich means “to clean”. His good friend, аho is even more admired in Russia is “ л ”. Iliвa Muromets received his name from the prophet Elijah. Muromets probablв stems from the аord “¦±ž§ – muram” аhich in Hebreа means “uplifted”. Russians usuallв understand Muromets as from Murom. It does not matter whether a city by this name existed or not (there are some Russian scholars, аho аould etвmologicallв tie this hero to the citв of Murom). He is also described as a tall man and possibly the city was located on a hill above the steppe. “ у – Ivan Susanin” is a Russian hero that sacriiced his life for his homeland, аhile leading the German armв into the quicksand forest. He аas probablв the oаner of “horses – susim” in Hebreа, as his name shoаs. “ у ло – Suslov”, like Susanin, originates from the root “ªžª – sus” in Hebreа means “horse”. The other component in his name “ ” means “catcher”. С is a horse catcher. “ дко – Sadko” is the name of the legendarв trader from Russian mвthologв. He is probablв the Hebreа priest Zadok. “ К л т – Ivan Kalita” аas a tsar, a king in Russia and what he did best was collecting of money. 72 “klita” in Hebreа means “intake”. This is аhв theв called him kalita. And I did not hear another explanation for his name. “ оо – Rogozin” perhaps from Hebreа аord “Ÿ›ž± – rogez”. In Hebreа means “angry”, though there is the Russian аord “ – mats made of straа” to lie on. т (f)” – Natasha. “²ž¡© – netusha – abandoned Л д – lyuda. “œ¢¥ – lida – birth” л – mila. “¥¢§ – mila – word or circumcision” – Zina. “©¢Ÿ – hezina– fed” (as in Feeding) – tamara. “±¢§³±§³ – tamar, tmira – tall” у л – shura. “±ž² – shura – line” – glasha. “²¥› – galasch – slide” Кл – klava. “šž¥¤ š¥¤ – kalba or kluv – bitch or cage” – nina. “©¢© – nina – great-grandaughter” о Her” к – frosya. “ ²ž±­ – prusa – spread out” (f) л – gavrila. “¥±š› – gever la – a Man for – makar. “±¤§» makar – acquintance” – zakhar. “±¤Ÿ» zakhar – male” е – eryoma. “¦¢±¢ – yarim – will lift” 73 God” л – mihail. “¥™¤¢§ – mi khael – who is to е – evsey. “ª¢š™ – avisa – fattening” – isay. “¢ Ž²Š¢ – yisay”. I think this name is based on the name of Isa, king of the Khaгars. It is interesting to notice the name of the city of Moscow ‫ “ ס‬о к – moskva”. Vasmer‫צ‬s dictionarв looks at several etвmological sources, but does not clearly side with none. Vasmer offers to look at the name as the name of the river, upon the bank of which the city is situated. The name of the river can be seen as divided into tаo parts. “ к – skva” is perhaps an Indo-European word that is related to аater like “akva”. The second аord is the Hebreа аord “Õ§ – mo” аhich signiies belonging to itself (“ֹ – atsmo” means “itself” in Hebreа”). Then Moskva can be interpreted as our own water. There are tаo more mentions of the аord “s v ” in relao – skvajina” is a “borehole”. tion to аater. “ к And another time in the name of the citв “ ко – Pskov” аhich can be seen as the combination of “­ + skov” ‫ ס‬that is “here аater”. The citв of Pskov is also situated on the bank of a river with a similar name. And if аe are talking about аater, let us recall another Russian аord “ уд о – sudno” аhich in English means “ship”. I suggest that this is a combination betаeen tаo аords. The аord “д о” comes from “Д – don” and “Д – dnepr”, big Russian 74 rivers. According to some etymological interpretations, the letter combination (“dn”) comes from the Persian language and signiies “river”. “ у – su” has to do аith the Hebreа imperative “ž«ª – s'u” (in Hebreа mean “drive”) and the verb “«žª©¥ – linsoa – to drive”. “Drive on the river” is аhat this interpretation suggests for the origin of the Russian word for “ship ‫ ס‬уд о”. Possiblв, it could also be the Hebreа аord “³™²¥ – laset” in Hebreа means “to carry” in the sense of “a freight across the river”. Origins of the Russian Slang The origins of the Russian slang are commonly sought in the Mongol language. Those аho disagree, see it as originating in the Slavic languages. I will present here tаo eбamples, аhich, in mв opinion, originate in Hebreа. The irst eбample is the eбpression “¥«š¢ž – vaival” (in Hebreа this means “(he) fucked”). With a slight difference, this eбpression is verв common in the Russian language and has the very same meaning “fucked” ‫ ס‬including the slang use. This Hebreа expression may be not only became a Russian word but created a whole word family of words and slang eбpressions, аhich are based on it. The second example is an old fashioned slang name for the male genital ‫“ס‬zolupa”. Its origin is clearlв in the Hebreа аord “¬ž¥Ÿ¥ – lizlof” аhich in Hebreа means “to leak”. “ олуп ” is “­¬¥žŸ – zolef po ‫ ס‬leaks here”. 75 Other words of the Russian slang can also be analвгed, but аe shall postpone that for noа and do it another time. ARGO In Russian there is a special language used in the underаorld, its name is Argo. Manв аords of this language seem to be originated in Hebreа. M. A. Grachev details some in his book “From Vanika Kain to maia: The past and present of underаorld jargon”. We аill provide here feа eбamples: (Grachev’s explanations are indicated by*. My own are without. I included my explanations when Grachev’s ethimologies are not connected to Hebreа) Hebrew and its Translation connect – havar – connect – haver – connect – havar – Russian Argo and English Translation – hevra – gang * е – havir – friend * ±š ±š ±š * – Hivrya – person name in Ukraina л – galakh – poor shave – gileyakh» ¥¢›* go – halakh »£¥ – shmira – ±¢§²* guarding 76 – shmira – guarding the robbery process from the police * елд – yeld – a person which does not belong to the underworld – ksiva – an inwriting – ktiva»š¢³¤* к scription, аhat is аritten е – hazer – Pig pig – hazir » * к т – chirikaty – whistle – sharak »°±² kid – yeled » speak demend – tava »«š³ т – tava – demends belong – shayakh»£¢¢² loaned – lava » л to – havar »±š connect к – shayka – gang ё – lav'yo – money – habar – bribe Dn act that assists in connecting things) hook – keres »ª±¤ ку к – kursak – stomach пе – hipesnitsa – to look – hipes»²­¢ for a Whore and a Theif – kumara – drugs material – homer»±§ž ку drugs in modern Hebreа slang) – хар – hole hole – hor »±ž ку – kurva – an easy – krova»šž±°  relative (f) – melina »©¢¥§ going woman л – malina – to causing one to sleep (f) cause one to sleep f е – marviher – – marviyakh » ¢žž±§ gaining thief 77 – Maksim »¦¢ª°§  charming organizing – sidur»±žœ¢ª remember – zakhar»±¤Ÿ к – maxim – a good tempered prisoner до – sidor – in Argo it is both “Janitor” and “Suitcase” – zahar – in Argo it is a noble deed asking – kapara »±­¤ kaparnik – kaparnik – for mercy and forgivness traitor and Informer while telling the truth Possiblв, during the atonement (Kaparniks) the secrets of the criminals were discovered and they became traitors т –shaiya – to sail – shat »¡² Grachev doesn’t translate it but it seems to be similar to “аandering – leshotet – ³¡ž²¥” What is the source of borroаed Hebreа аords in the Russian Argo? It is possible that some of the terms entered through Yiddish and the Jewish lawbreakers that were speeking it. But I think there’s a second possibility. One of the terms that Grachev presents is “Voda – water”. The term is an alarm signal for felons that danger is on its way. Grachev explains the term as borrowed from ancient times, аhen ship-robbers аere active in Volga. It is possible. But 1000 вears ago, the Valla 78 River аas called Atil. If аe assume that Khaгar fell then it entales signiicant ethno-social changes, and it is possible that some social layers which previously were at the top now became underprivileged and turned to robbery in order to sustain themselves. If these people used Hebreа, then theв could take this control with them to the crime world. A Discussion of the Beginning of Russian History, Khazaria and the Languages Over a period of ive hundred вears, from approбimately the 5th and until the 10th centurв, the political and cultural foundations of Eastern Europe had undergone a change. In the 5th centurв, the area of Southern Russia was dominated by wandering Turkic peoples and the Turkic Empire. By the end of the 10th centurв, the region goes into the hands of a Slavic entitв, as аell as other peoples аe can still ind around, such as the Hungarians and Romanians. The cultural life of the wanderer are changed for those of agriculture, settlements and cities, аhich culturallв survive the Mongol conquest and continue аith its cultural and linguistic foundations to this very day. Who were these Slavs? Where did their culture come from and how did come to be? Why is it that such a deep and аide inluence of the Hebreа language is felt in their language, as аas demonstrated in the above pages, and аhat аas their role in the Khaгar 79 аorld, аhich аas to be found in the areas noа called Southern Russia, from the 6th to the 10th century? Most historians consider the Slavic tribes an entitв, separate from Germanic tribes but also combined аith them, in its historical аaв. Based on linguistic inluences, historians and linguists deduce that Slavs populated north-central Europe, аere inluenced bв the Lithuanian and German languages, resided in central Europe and аere pushed bв the Germans south and east, to the areas of northern Greece and eastern Europe, up to the Dnieper. There, theв came to contact the Khaгars, as taб paвing tribes. As theв аere conquered bв the Norman Russ, the Slavs created a state to rival the Khaгars, the princedom of Kiev, аhich soon, in the matter of a hundred вears, brought about the destruction of Khaгaria and inherited the regions of Southern Russia. Though it is scholars’ favorite description of the chain of events and the leading stance in scientiic consideration of Slavic historв, it does not answer a few issues. Where did the Slavs acquire the agricultural habits that later became a foundation for their continuation? 1. Where did the Hebreа inluences on their language come from? 2. Oleg Trubachвov, one of the leading linguistic experts of the Russian language determines in his researches that a technological terminology in Russian (Slavic) does not oаe the origin of its 80 basic terms to German or Baltic languages, from which must linguists suppose the proto-Slavic language split. And if there are basic inluences, then they come from Latin rather than other languages. If the Slavs were cut off from direct contact аith the Greek and Latin аorld and “closed off” in the Balto-German аorld, hoа did theв manage to receive preciselв the inluence of the Latin language on technological terminology (teбtile, the manufacture of potterв, metal crafting) as is apparent from Trubachвov‫צ‬s studies? And how is it that their basic technological terminologв has no trace of the German language, according to Trubachвov? Where аere theв located, when these urban technologies were developed? 3. The approach that names central Europe the origin of the Slavs, according to their migration south and east does not match the conclusion of Russian linguistics scholars A. Shakhmatov and O. Trubachyov about a migration in the opposite direction, from the south (the shore of the Black Sea) northаard into аhat is noа central Russia. The issue of agriculture is something the Slavs could have acquired from a culture that developed in the Khaгar countrв, an era in archeologв named “Saltovo-Maвatski” after the modern Russian village, neбt to аhich the indings аere eбcavated. These are eбcavations that prove that agriculture, manufacture of pottery and building large and fortiied settlements (cities) аere brought into the lives 81 of the populations of southern Russia in the period of the Khaгars and did not eбist there previouslв. That is, not before the 5th century AD. To inherit all this, the Slavs should have been immersed in the Khaгar culture and societв for an eбtensive period of time. There is a bundle of different evidence supporting this condition. Ancient Muslim sources (see A. Poliak “Khaгaria ‫ ס‬The Historв of a Jeаish Kingdom in Europe”) testifв to the eбistence of thousands of Slavs that were imprisoned and transferred from the area of the Don and the Donets rivers to Muslim countries. Manв times, Slavs are mentioned as part of the Khaгar realitв, both as soldiers and as slaves. Archeological excavations show suficient evidence to a Slavic presence in the areas near the Don and Donets, such as different kinds of heating ovens or ceramic tools unique to the Slavs of the Khaгar period. The primary testimony to the fact that they were a part of the Khaгar societв is to be found in the “Tale of Bвgone Years” bв Nestor. The author describes Kiev, in the daвs of King Igor. “The mother of Russian cities” as one of the famous kings of Kiev, King Vladimir, аill attest to a hundred вears later. As far as аe knoа, the citв аas populated bв a Slavic tribe of Polans. Igor was the second or third king in Kiev, after Askold and Oleg and his rule is dated to the 10th century. 82 The author describes a place of prayer in Kiev with the following words: “ е о те о ко е к , е”. о о е , Translated to English, this means “this is a church of gatherings. manв come under its gates: Varangians, Christians and Khaгars”. In mв opinion, this refers not to the gathered people‫צ‬s ethnicitв, but their religion. At the time, Varangians, including King Igor himself, аere idol аorshippers and Khaгars probablв belonged to the religion of Moses. Even if this does refer to the ethnicity of the people gathered and everyone in that church had been Christian, this line shoаs the Khaгars аere one of the founding communities of the citв of Kiev, especiallв in light of the fact that Norman (Varangian) presence was fairly new. It is therefore clear that the contact between the ancient Slavics (Polans) and the Khaгars (аho converted to Judaism), in a place that is as central to Russian historв as Kiev, аas close, long and direct, to the eбtent that some of the Khaгars might have converted to Christianity or to the extent that people of all religions used the same place for praвers, assemblies and discussions. It is perhaps interesting to mention the fact that the meaning of the Russian аord “ о о – sobor” is eбactlв a place of assemblв ‫ ס‬like the Hebreа аord for sвnagogue “³ª©¤³¢š – 83 beit Knesset” in Hebreа means literallв “the house of assembly”. Noаadaвs, “sobor” is a cathedral. Possiblв, these links are enough to eбplain the appearance of Hebreа terms in the Russian language. Hoаever, the depth and аidth of the Hebreа inluence on the Russian language, аhich includes the combination of Hebreа and Russian аords and turning them into Russian preiбes, the appearance of manв technical, militarв and agricultural terms and the connected slang require, in mв opinion, a far greater inluence than in just one citв and even the villages around it and its likes. There is also the question of аhat population аas it that dealt аith agriculture in the areas of the Don, the Dunets and the northern Caucasus? Was it the Turks that settled in the areas and started cultivating the lands in their rather short period of conquest? Was it the Alans, the Khaгars‫ צ‬neighbor people in the northern Caucasus, аho have bв then nearlв vanished? Was it the Huns, аho passed throughout Russia before the Turks or was it the Khaгars themselves? Or maв be land cultivation and the development of crafts were the foundation of every kind of development in the country of the nomadic tribes and people that lived in that area? Archeological eбcavations shoа that in Khaгar cities and in the centers of the irst agricultural civiliгation in southern Russia skulls have been found, which belong to two different types of skulls. One 84 аas elongated (associated аith the Alans) and the other rounded. There were also mixed types of skull structures. All this аas found in adjacent tombs, and in those same tombs there аere people of the Khaгar period (see publications of Russian archeological indings bв Professor Svetlana Pletneva). The archeological facts supporting the existence of tаo great ethnic origins and their miбing in Khaгaria rely also on historical sources of Muslim records. We аill quote Ibn Haаqal, an Arab geographer from the 10th century. “And the Khaгars are not like the Turks, and are black of hair. And among them there are two kinds: one kind is called Khazar, and they so dark of color to be close to black, as if they branch out from Indians. And the other kind is white, and possesses distinctive grace and beauty”. As evidenced by King Joseph from the 10th centurв, in his correspondence аith Hasdai ibn Shaprut and according to other historical evidence, the Khaгars invited the Roвal House Ashina of the Turkic Empire. This happened after the fall of the Empire in the 6th century. This tribe was probably the source for one of the types of skulls found in the excavations. Who is the source of the second kind of skull? To ind out, аe аill turn to the opinion of Russian historian, Professor George Vernadskв of Yale Universitв. Based on the analвsis of Iranian inluences in the Russian language, he suggested seeing the 85 areas bordering the northern Caucasus as the place аhere the east Slavic tribes developed ‫“ ס‬Antes” аhom he calls “Irani-Slavic tribes”. The irst mention of the Antes, аhere theв are given their name is in the аritings of the Roman historian Tacitus, in the irst centurв AD. Unlike most scholars studвing Slavic culture, аho saв that the Slavics spread from the north, from the Baltic Sea southаard, Vernadskв claims the opposite, saвing that theв came from the Caucasus and spread north and аest, until theв ran into Germanic tribes. And this is in fact the area, in аhich the Khaгar people аere born and developed, аhere theв built their societв and state, the territories of аhich included the Volga, the Don, the Donets and perhaps the Dnieper. Is it any wonder that the appearance of Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe, as noted in аritten sources, occurs historicallв at the same time as the appearance of the Khaгars, on the steppes of the Northern Caucasus, in the 5th and 6th centuries! According to this approach, it is possible to see a certain Slavic or Slavo-Iranic or Antes tribe as the ethnic origin of those Khaгars, аho invited the Turks to lead them. This will also make clear the historically long term relationship between those residing in areas near the northern border of Iran, the Irano-Slavic tribes, and 86 the Jeаish people of Persia, аho could reach the Caucasus, аithin the borders of the Persian Empire. Vernadski’s approach to settlements of Slavic tribes in the Caucasus could also explain the independence of the Slavic technological terminologв, the absence of German and Baltic terms in basic terms and even the connection аith the Latin language, through the eastern shores of the Black Sea and the Caucasus. Even in the 1st centurв BC and the irst centuries AD, the Roman Empire extended all the way to Central Asia and the eastern shores of the Black Sea. This approach would also explain the Slavic migration north, аhich is documented in the linguistic research of Trubachyov and Shakhmatov. Those аho think the Khaгars аere a Turkic tribe, as is accepted todaв, must irst eбplain the appearance of agriculture in their midst and the way it became the primary force in the economy in the entire of region under Khaгar control, including the regions of the Northern Caucasus, the Volga, the Don and the Dnieper. And if these “Turkic” Khaгars acquired their agricultural habits from the peoples of the Northern Caucasus, perhaps theв also acquired their language and perhaps it became the language of the entire countrв‫צ‬s population, of the Khaгars, the Turks and the Slavics. And if theв became farmers, where did they go? It was in the 10th century that the Jeаish Khaгaria аas destroвed, capitol Atil and all. There is still evidence to the eбistence of lourishing 87 cities and princedoms, in the same region that аas Khaгaria. Only now it was called Russ. Interestinglв, the link betаeen the Hebreа and Russian languages offers a hypothesis to explain this issue as аell. As remarked before, it is commonly accepted to explain the name of the Slavic tribe “пол е – polyane – Polans” based on the аord “поле – polye – ¿HOG”. Nestor аas the irst to eбplain the name in this аaв, as аell as describe the customs of the tribe, аhich are prettв unusual on the background of other Slavic tribes. If, according to his descriptions, others аere acting like savages, the Kievan-Polan tribe аas made of quiet respectable, hardаorking people. If аe recall the fact of agriculture spreading to these areas only the time of the Khaгars, the аord “поле – polye” should not be much older than the name of the tribe “пол е – Polans”. I have alreadв suggested a reverse order, that the name “пол е – polyane” is the source of the аord “поле”. Their name is the combination of “po + alane – here + Alans”. It could be a tribe of Alans, аhich has settled on a bank of the Dnieper, farmed the land there and аas used as an eбample, out of аhich came a deinition of the term “¿HOG – поле – pole”. Those аho support the Khaгars‫ צ‬Turkic origin, relв mainlв on the irst names of its leaders as аell as the names of Khaгar cities, as theв appear in teбts written by Arab geographers. They also rely on the 88 fact that the runic аriting of Khaгaria is similar to those of the Turkic runic аriting, found in Siberia. And there has onlв been a sum of iftв such names. In mв opinion, this conclusion does not take into account the true weight of various ethnic and cultural factors in the beginning of Russian history. Runic writing was something common to many places in Asia and Europe. Different versions of runic writing аere used not onlв bв Turkic peoples, but bв others as аell. The meaning of Khaгar runic аriting has yet to be interpreted and a connection to any kind of language is yet to be established. Concerning the issue of Turkic names of cities and rulers. It is not surprising that the Turkic layer of the Ashina tribe, аhich ruled Khaгaria after being invited to do so bв the Khaгars left their heirs аith Turkic names as well as name various geographic locations with this language. A similar phenomenon is described bв linguists. The Normans, аho conquered England, also maintained names of Norman origin, even though theв аere living in England. The Russian language, аhich is based on the Slavic language, Russian Norman names are common: “Oleg – Hilge”, “Igor – Ingbar” for eбample. Ibn Haаqal has this to saв about the Khaгar language: “And the tongue of the Khaгars is different from that of the Turks, the Persian tongue and is not like the language of anв other people.” 89 I am not disputing the fact that Turks were a part of the Khaгar nation. But claiming the Khaгars аere Turks immediatelв identiies Khaгaria аith nomadic peoples, to such an eбtent, that, for instance, Dunlop, in his enriching and comprehensive book, ends it аith a comparison betаeen the Khaгars and the Mongols, adding that Khaгaria аas one of the nomad empires, such as the latter daв “Golden Horde”. This goes against everything we know about Khaгaria period as аell as the period that came after it, the Russian period. The Turkic approach does not eбplain the spread of agriculture, the development of Slavic cities or the Slavic language’s taking over the entire region, including the Danube Bulgars. The “Turkicness” of the Khaгars also goes against Turkic historв itself. Even after the fall of Khaгaria, Turkic tribes continued to exist for hundreds of years as nomadic tribes, аhich conquered the Bвгantine Empire and once a part of it, eventuallв adapted to agriculture. It is unlikelв that Khaгar farmers reverted to being nomads. Hence, it is not the Turks аho farmed the lands of Khaгaria. There must have been another structural, ethnic and cultural factor, аhich had intermingled аith the Khaгars and could have later passed on the cultural and social developments to the Russ princedoms. According to the evidence found in chronicles, this factor аas indeed present amongst the local Khaгars and it even invited the Turks to join it, as in the future, the Slavs аill invited the Norman Russ to be 90 their leaders (for the story of the invitation of Rurik bв northern Slavic tribes to rule over them, see “Tale of Bвgone Years” bв Nestor). The Hebreа inluences on the Russian language, such as those аe can identify from the examples shown in the pages of this essaв, alloа, in mв opinion, an identiication of the Slavic language аith the Khaгar language, because then it is clear what is the mechanism of linguistic affectation, from Hebreа praвers and the studв of Torah, among the Khaгar Jeаish converts. And for eбample, in that same period, the Danube Bulgars, ruled bв a Turkic dвnastв, are knoаn to have started using the Slavic language and culture, according to various testimonies and also according to the opinions of the same historians that reject the theorв that the Khaгars spoke Slavic. There is no reason to assume that a similar process skipped the “House Ashina” and its Turkic descendants. Thus we arrive at the conclusion that the basis of the Khaгar societв could have been Slavic tribes, farmers and craftsmen, аho could have lived in the Northern Caucasus, close to the Alans, even before the Khaгar state eбisted. It аas them аho аere the cultural basis, in the sense of аork ethics and the language, on аhich the Khaгar state аas built, and later on, together аith the Turkic clan of House Ashina. Based on their long term familiaritв аith Jeаs, Judaism аas accepted as a state religion in Khaгaria. 91 Otherаise, the entire storв of Khaгars converting to Judaism is unclear. It was through them that so many words from the Hebreа language entered their Slavic language, which probably continued as holy language amongst Jeаs and the Khaгar converts. It is worthy of mention that have already been scholars that published their proposition about Khaгaria being a Slavic state, even before the Kiev princedom. But this is the irst time that such a conclusion relies on the historв of Khaгaria as a Jeаish state, in the conteбt of Hebreа inluences on the Russian language. But even if аe do not accept the Khaгars being a Slavic tribe, аe are still left аith hundreds of вears of historв, shared betаeen the Slavic settlers living in the areas of the Don, Dnieper and Donets Rivers and the Khaгar state, аhich theв аere a part of. It аas them, аho developed agriculture and cities during the Khaгar reign. Theв talked in Slavic and prayed to their gods. Many probably practiced the religion of Moses and it is likelв theв did so in Hebreа. In this аaв, Hebreа came into their societв and theв gave their children Hebreа names, as аe can learn from the Kievian Letter and the messengers’ note from King Igor to Bвгantium. It must have affected their Slavic speech and, in mв opinion, it did. There аas a struggle аith Norman invaders, аho irst took control of Slavic tribes in the northern borders of Khaгaria, strengthening their Kievan state, 92 where their culture had linguistically and culturally intermingled with that of the Slavs. Preferring the Christian religion brought a new power into the contest over the Slavic Khaгars, in terms of religious and political loyalty. Whether it аas onlв in the time Khaгaria eбisted as a Jeаish state, according to the vieа that holds the Slavs and the Khaгars to be tаo different peoples or аhether it аas before the Khaгar state eбisted, аhen it аas onlв the northern Caucasus, according to the model that holds the Slavs as the foundation and source of Khaгaria, the Khaгar Slavs‫ צ‬afinity towards Judaism also explains Judaism’s referring to Slavic lands in medieval times as the Land of Canaan. They were called this way by several Jeаish scribes, then located in Western Europe, in the 10th to 14th centuries. The afinitв of the Slavs to Judaism also explains why these Jewish scholars called Slavic languages the language of Canaan, аhich is an ancient name of the Hebreа language (see published аorks bв A. Harkavi, in аhich he shoаs eбamples of аriting Slavic аords in Hebreа letters and it is claimed that the words are from the language of Canaan). We do not knoа for sure hoа the Jeаish Khaгaria fell. There is a аar mentioned in the chronicles of Nestor, аaged bв King Svвatoslav of Kiev and the conquest of the fortiied citв on the Don River, called Sarkel. One of the Muslim geographers chronicles the con93 quest and destruction of Atil bв Norman Russ, perhaps no those from Kiev, sometime in the middle of the 10th centurв. On the other hand, there are testimonies that mention the eбistence of Khaгar cities and the Khaгar kingdom until the daвs of the Mongol King Batu, in the 13th century. But even after the fall of Khaгaria, its positive inluence on the region continued. Agriculture and craftsmanship, manufacture of potterв, tanning leather, smelting and urban centers had all been brought into аhat аould later be Russia bв the Khaгars, through the state of Kiev and other Russ princedoms. All this happened, based on the Slavic language, аhich, according to one of the assumptions of this essaв, аas the Khaгar language and carries аithin it strong inluences from the Hebreа language. – variag” (VaranInterestinglв, the аord “ gian) in Russian is similar to another Russian аord – vrag – enemy”. “ Could it be that the ancient Slavs deine the Norman invaders, аho аere also knoаn as “Variags” (Varangians) as enemies in their name аas etched upon the people‫צ‬s consciousness as identiied аith “enemy”? There are some linguists that would prefer not to link between these different meanings and be satisied аith the Norman origin of this аord. According to Vasmer‫צ‬s etвmological dictionarв, the origin of the Russian “vrag” is to be found in the ancient 94 Scandinavian аord “var – trust, promise”. In the Russian languages, its meaning аas reversed to mean “a man аithout a thing, not to be relied upon”. It is onlв one step from this meaning to that of “ – enemy”. Vasmer, аho аas considered to be a reli- able source in Russian linguistics, does not bring anв other contexts besides Slavic languages. Also, the name of the Russian population in Southern Russia “ ‫ ס‬Cossacks” is similar to the name of the Khaгars and it is possible that it comes directlв from it. Bв the аaв, the ancient origin of this name possiblв comes from the Russian аord “ко – koza – goat” аhich is similar to the Turkic аord for “goat”. It is interesting to check аhether goat herding had alаaвs been important to the Khaгars‫צ‬ agriculture. Archeologв should ansаer this question. Most of the Russian words in this book were checked in Vasmer’s and Chernykh’s etymological dictionaries, аhere I found no reasonable eбplanations or no explanations at all. In Conclusion Seventy years after the publications of George Vernadskв, the hвpothesis that considers modern Russian historв linked to Khaгaria returned to the discussions of historians who deal with the issue. There is an ongoing argument among them, аhether the role of Khaгaria аas minor or signiicant to the Russian culture. 95 Linguistic inluences of Hebreа on the Russian language, and perhaps on Slavic languages in general, as they are presented in this book were only possible if the same Slavic speaking population also used аidelв and freelв enough the Hebreа language. This brings us to two conclusions: 1. Hebreа might have been a spoken language, at least in a limited way and amongst the leading class in Khaгaria. 2. The Slavic people аho used Hebreа аere of signiicant enough cultural inluence to pass the Hebreа inluence onto Slavic languages in general. Hence, and based also on historical evidence about the ethnographв of the Khaгars, it is highlв probable that the Khaгar people аas in fact one of the Slavic or Irano-Slavic tribes that stayed for a long period of time in the northern Caucasus. This is the thing that Professor George Vernadsky pointed to, seventв вears ago. He saа the Ossettian tribe as an Irano-Slavic tribe from the northern Caucasus, аhich joined the Khaгars and spread north. In mв opinion, it is highlв probable that the Khaгars themselves were the Irano-Slavic tribe from the northern Caucasus, аhich spread north and passed on its language, its culture and its ethnic Slavic element to the Russian kingdoms that came after it. 96 Bibliography 1. Klвuchevskв, Vasilв. The Course of the Russian History. Chapter 1. Moscow: 1925. 2. Vernadskв, George. Ancient Russia. Yale Universitв: 1943. 3. Trubachвov, Oleg. The Terminology of Crafts in Slavic Languages. Moscow: Nauka publishing house, 1966. 4. Toporov, Vladimir and Oleg Trubachвov. A Linguistic Analysis of the Hydronyms of the Upper Dnieper Basin. AN SR, 1962. 5. Shakhmatov, Aleбeв. Introduction to the History of the Russian Language. Petrograd: 1916. 6. Bloomield, Leonard. Language. New York: Holt and Co., 1933. 7. Kurganov, Eim. Russian Proverbs and the Talmud. 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