Effects of Sports Participation and Sports-specific Self-esteem on Academic Performance: A Research Design Shane J. Ralston Pennsylvania State University Hazleton sjr21@psu.edu Word count: 2,095 Working Draft: comments welcome. Please do not cite or quote without permission. Abstract Poor academic performance among students at U.S. colleges and universities has become a matter of increasing concern. Research shows that SAT scores have declined in recent decades and high school students are increasingly coming to college unprepared. This phenomenon is troubling because of the much larger crisis looming in American society. If college-educated citizens lack the basic skills and requisite competencies that would enable them to contribute to the success of U.S. companies, then it is likely that American dominance in the global marketplace will soon decline. As a result of this skills crisis, more and more jobs held by Americans in American companies are being exported to better educated foreign workers in foreign countries, such as Dell Computers’ removal of customer support representative positions to India. This study aims to determine why the academic achievement of American college and university students is currently in such a poor state. Past research has explored many possible explanations for the academic underperformance of college and university students. Some researchers have connected poor academic performance with specific types of student behavior, such as delinquency, failure to work hard, and lack of self-control. Others have linked lower academic achievement with particular student attributes, such as minority racial status, a sense of alienation from the academic community, inability to form strong support networks and anti-social personality characteristics. One possible explanation that has received too little attention from researchers is that more time spent participating in intramural and intercollegiate athletics coupled with the consequent rise in sports-specific self-esteem causes student-athletes to perform poorly in their studies. Key Terms: college sports, academic performance, self-esteem. 1 Effects of Sports Participation and Sports-specific Self-esteem on Academic Performance: A Research Design I. Statement of the Problem Poor academic performance among students at U.S. colleges and universities has become a matter of increasing concern. Research shows that SAT scores have declined in recent decades and high school students are increasingly coming to college unprepared.1 This phenomenon is troubling because of the much larger crisis looming in American society. If college-educated citizens lack the basic skills and requisite competencies that would enable them to contribute to the success of U.S. companies, then it is likely that American dominance in the global marketplace will soon decline. As a result of this skills crisis, more and more jobs held by Americans in American companies are being exported to better educated foreign workers in foreign countries, such as Dell Computers’ removal of customer support representative positions to India.2 This study aims to determine why the academic achievement of American college and university students is currently in such a poor state. Past research has explored many possible explanations for the academic underperformance of college and university students. Some researchers have connected poor academic performance with specific types of student behavior, such as delinquency, failure to 1 See A. Astin, “Undergraduate Achievement and Institutional ‘Excellence’,” Science, vol. 161 (April 1968):661-8. Also, see H. Walberg, B. Strykowski, E. Rovai, and S. Hung, “Exceptional Performance,” Review of Educational Research, vol. 54 (Spring 1984): 87-112. 2 In March 2005 Dell Computers had 55, 200 employees, 30, 600 or 55% of which are overseas. Most of their customer support centers were relocated to India in 2004. See S. Pruitt, “Dell’s Workforce Moves Abroad,” PC World (Tuesday, April 13 2004), p. 1, available at <www.pcworld.com/article/id,115648page,1/article,html?tk=cx041304a>. See also G. J. Koprowski, “Dell Sends Most New Jobs Overseas,” www.Technews.com (April 14 2004), available at <www.crmbuyer.com/story/33421.html>. Also, see A. Howard, “College Experiences and Managerial Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology Monograph, vol. 71 (1986): 530-2. 2 work hard, and lack of self-control.3 Others have linked lower academic achievement with particular student attributes, such as minority racial status, a sense of alienation from the academic community, inability to form strong support networks and anti-social personality characteristics.4 One possible explanation that has received too little attention from researchers is that more time spent participating in intramural and intercollegiate athletics coupled with the consequent rise in sports-specific self-esteem causes student-athletes to perform poorly in their studies. A review of the literature on the relationship between athletic participation and academic performance reveals mixed findings. Some studies demonstrate that participation in college athletics depresses academic achievement. For instance, Adler and Adler confirm that the relationship between athletic participation and academic performance among college athletes is a negative one. Instead of going to college with the plan of performing exceptionally in sports and poorly in academics, most student-athletes begin college hopeful and idealistic about their academic potential and then become disillusioned after they experience repeated academic failures. 5 Likewise, Blann concludes that “participation in intercollegiate athletics at a high level of competition may detrimentally affect students’ ability to formulate mature educational 3 See E. Maquin and R. Loeber, “Academic Performance and Delinquency,” Crime and Justice, vol. 20 (1996): 145264. On how the failure to work hard causes underperformance, see W. Rau and A. Durna, “The Academic Ethic and College Grades: Does Hard Work Help Students ‘Make the Grade’?” Sociology of Education, vol. 73, no. 1 (January 2000):19-38. On the connection between students’ lack of self-control and lowered academic achievement, see C. E. Ross and B. A. Broh, “The Roles of Self-esteem and the Sense of Personal Control in the Academic Achievement Process,” Sociology of Education, vol. 73, no. 4 (October 2000): 270-84. 4 See R. P. Brown and M. N. Lee, “Stigma Consciousness and the Race Gap in College Academic Achievement,” Self and Identity, vol. 4, no. 2 (April-June 2005): 149-57. On alienation, see K. E. Voelkl, “Identification with School,” American Journal of Education, vol. 105, no. 3 (May 1997):294-318. On the inability to form strong support networks, see A. Townsend, “It Takes a Network of Support; Collective Efforts Help Ensure Local Graduates Succeed in College,” Plain Dealer (June 27, 2006): A1. On anti-social personality characteristics, see Edward Kifer, “Relationships between Academic Achievement and Personality Characteristics: A QuasiLongitudinal Study,” American Educational Research Journal, vol. 12, no. 2 (Spring 1975):191-210. 5 See P. Adler and P. A. Adler, “From Idealism to Pragmatic Detachment: The Academic Performance of College Athletes,” Sociology of Education, vol. 58, no. 4 (October 1985): 241-250. 3 and career plans.”6 Also, Maloney and McCormick found that classroom achievements by college athletes are significantly less impressive than the achievement of their non-athletic peers.7 However, other studies show that participation in college sports either has no relationship with academic achievement or, contrary to the first set of studies, actually promotes academic success. For example, Hanks and Eckland find that there is no support for the conclusion that there is a negative relationship between participation in college athletics and academic performance. Instead, they show that there is no relevant relationship between the two variables: “Athletics appear neither to depress nor to especially enhance the academic performance of its participants.”8 In addition, Otto and Alwin found that athletic participation has a positive relationship with educational goal creation and achievement. To explain the positive relationship, they suggest that athletic participation may socialize students to develop (i) a work ethic that carries over to the classroom and (ii) valuable social skills that raise their self-esteem.9 Finally, Spreitzer and Pugh infer from the findings of their study “that sports involvement is not necessarily detrimental to academic pursuits.” Contrary to the view that sports participation and educational goal-setting and achievement are negatively related, sports participation can positively impact a student’s self-image and status within a community, motivating that person to attend college and perform exceptionally in her studies in order to further elevate that self-image and community status.10 6 See F. W. Blann, “Intercollegiate Athletic Competition and Students’ Educational and Career Plans,” Journal of College Student Personnel, vol. 26, no. 2 (March 1985): 115-118, 118. 7 M. T. Maloney and R. E. McCormick, “An Examination of the Role That Intercollegiate Athletic Participation Plays in Academic Achievement: Athletes’ Feats in the Classroom,” The Journal of Human Resources, vol. 28, no. 3 (Summer 1993): 555-570. 8 M. P. Hanks and B. K. Eckland, “Athletics and Social Participation in the Educational Attainment Process,” Sociology of Education, vol. 49, no. 4 (October 1976): 271-294, 292. 9 Otto, L.B. and D.F. Alwin, “Athletics, Aspirations, and Attainments,” Sociology of Education, vol. 50, no. 2 (April 1977): 102-113. 10 See E. Spreitzer and M. Pugh, “Interscholastic Athletics and Educational Expectations,” Sociology of Education, vol. 46, no. 2 (Spring 1973): 171-182, 181. 4 The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between participation in college athletics, sports-specific self-esteem and academic achievement. An additional study is needed because currently a gap exists in the literature with respect to how athletic participation influences sports-specific self-esteem and, in a path-dependent fashion, causes poor academic performance. Most studies that comment on self-esteem hypothesize a positive, not a negative, relationship between sports participation and academic performance.11 Overall, the problem of academic underperformance not only portends an impending skills crisis or “brain drain” in American society, it also threatens to undermine the values and missions of higher education institutions. Accommodating these institutions’ sometimes conflicting commitments to the athletic achievement and academic excellence of their students, Tobin argues, is a first step in defusing the threat: “One of the most difficult challenges that higher education faces is preserving the contributions that athletics makes without losing sight of the fact that colleges and universities are primarily academic institutions.”12 II. Research Hypotheses H1: As the hours that college students participate in sports increase, the degree to which college students report that their self-image is dependent on their involvement in sports increases. Rationale: When student-athletes invest more time in training for and playing in either intercollegiate or intramural college sports, they become more proficient and competitive. Because they invest more time in sports participation compared to the time spent on other activities, they derive a greater sense of self-worth from the sports activity. 11 See, for instance, Otto and Alwin, “Athletics, Aspirations, and Attainments,” as well as Spreitzer and Pugh, “Interscholastic Athletics and Educational Expectations.” 12 See E. M. Tobin, “Athletics in Division III Institutions: Trends and Concerns,” Phi Kappa Phi Forum, vol. 85, no. 3 (Fall 2005): 24-7. 5 H2: As the degree to which college students report that their self-image is dependent on their involvement in sports increases, their academic performance decreases. Rationale: The increased self-esteem that student-athletes derive from participating in college athletics leads them to prioritize sports achievement over academic achievement. As a consequence, their academic performance suffers. H3: As the hours that college students participate in sports increase, their academic performance decreases. Rationale: One possibility is that the relationship is path-dependent, so that as more time is invested in sports participation, sports-specific self-esteem also increases. Because self-esteem or self-image is dependent on participation in sports, students will prioritize athletic over academic achievement. So, student-athletes who accept this prioritization perform poorly in their courses and, consequently, their grades on exams drop. Another possibility is that self-esteem is irrelevant. Instead, student-athletes’ greater investment of time in sports detracts from the time they have to spend on their studies, thereby lowering their academic achievement. In this case, path-dependence is absent. 6 Figure 1: Diagram of the Hypothesized Causal Paths Concept: Sports Participation Concept: Sports-specific Self-esteem Concept: Academic Performance IV: Hours per Week Spent Participating in Sports D/IV: Degree to which Selfimage is Sportsdependent DV: Grade on First Exam 1- Less than 1 hour 2- 1-5 hours 3- 6-10 hours 4- 11-15 hours 5- 16-20 hours 6- More than 20 + 4- Very dependent 3- Somewhat dependent 2- Not dependent 1- No participation in sports -- 1- A: 90-100 2- B: 80-89. 3- C: 70-79. 4- D: 60-69. 5- Less than 60 As indicated in Figure 1, participation in sports serves as an independent variable in H1 and H3 and is operationally defined in terms of hours spent participating in sports. For purposes of H2, sports-specific self-esteem is operationalized in terms of the level of self-image which depends on their involvement in sports, as reported by students in response to a survey question. For purposes of H2 and H3, academic performance serves as the dependent variable and is operationally defined by the grade that the student received on his or her last exam. 7 III. Methodology Research and Sample Populations For this study, the research population consists of all undergraduate students at the University of Montana during the fall semester 2006. In order to generalize about this population, approximately 100 undergraduate students will be sampled from an introductory Political Science, PSC 130 International Relations, on November 3, 2006. Due to limitations of money and time, a simple random sample or stratified random sample cannot be conducted to ensure that the sample is adequately representative of the larger population. Data Collection Data will be collected by distributing a questionnaire to students, which they will complete and return to the researcher. The questionnaire has three questions on it (see Appendix A: Survey Questions). The questionnaire will be explained to the students as a study conducted by graduate students in PSC 502 Research Methods with no particular purpose except to serve as practice exercise in statistical analysis. Respondents will be told that the questionnaire should be answered truthfully and that participation in the survey is voluntary and anonymous. Data Analysis Three correlational analyses will be conducted using Pearson’s r as the statistical coefficient of correlation. In the first analysis, H1 will be tested by correlating the responses to question 1 (how many hours per week are spent participating in college sports) with the responses to question 2 (how dependent is self image on involvement in college sports). In the second analysis, H2 will be tested by correlating the responses to question 2 to the responses to question 3 (the grade received on the first exam taken in the course). In the third and final 8 analysis, H3 will be tested by correlating the responses to question 1 to the responses to question 3. Overall, the objective is to conduct a path analysis. If the relationship between responses to questions 1 and 2 (H1) as well as 2 and 3 (H2) are statistically significant and stronger than the relationship between 1 and 3 (H3), then it can be concluded with some confidence that the relationship between the three variables is path-dependent. If not, then there is no evidence for path dependency. However, even if no evidence for path-dependency can be found, it is still possible that either the relationship between the responses to question 2 and question 3 (H2) or the relationship between the responses to question 1 and 3 (H3) will be statistically significant. Limitations There are multiple limitations to the research design that could potentially undermine the validity of the findings: (i) the inadequacy of a convenience sample, (ii) the shortcoming of too small of a sample size and (ii) the limited indicator of academic performance. First of all, as mentioned earlier, shortages of time and money make it too difficult to secure a random sample or stratified random sample. These sampling strategies would significantly increase the likelihood that the eventual sample would be representative of the larger population. Even though the convenience sample employed in this design is not random, there is nevertheless reason to believe that it will be representative of the population. Because the convenience sample is taken from a General Education course (PSC 130 International Relations), the sample is expected to contain student-respondents who have diverse majors and are at many stages in their college careers. Therefore, the inadequacy of the convenience sample would not be expected to threaten the validity of the research findings. Nonetheless, if the research were to be duplicated, obtaining a random or stratified random sample would be preferable. 9 Secondly, too small of a sample size is also a limitation that could undermine the validity of the results. Ideally, the sample size ought to number at least three-hundred-eighty-four surveys in order for the researcher to be 95% confident (plus or minus 5%) that the broader population would respond in the same way as the sample. Since the sample size is significantly less than three-hundred-eighty-four (approximately 100 respondents), the results of the sample cannot be generalized to the population with absolute confidence. So, if the study were to be duplicated, a sample size of at least three-hundred-eighty-four would be required to ensure the external validity of the relationship between the sample and the population. Lastly, this study employs one and only one grade on a single test as an indicator of academic performance. Typically, other studies rely on Grade Point Averages (GPAs), Scholastic Aptitude Tests (SATs) and other generally accepted indicators, whether alone or together in an index, in order to accurately measure academic performance. Unfortunately, since freshman students do not have Grade Point Averages as of yet, it was impossible to use GPA as an indicator of academic performance. Although performance on a single exam is a poor indicator of overall academic performance, it is the only one available. So, even if an independent variable can be correlated with the dependent variable of academic performance (particularly in the case of testing H2 and H3), the validity of this finding is still open to question. Therefore, in order to ensure the validity of the results, the study would need to be replicated with multiple indicators of the dependent variable (academic performance). 10 Appendix A: Survey Questions 1. How many hours per week do you spend participating in either intramural or intercollegiate sports including training/practicing for these sports? ___ less than one hour ___ 1-5 hours ___ 6-10 hours ___ 11-15 hours ___ 16-20 hours ___ more than 20 2. To what degree do you believe that your self image (self worth or self esteem) is dependent on your involvement in intramural or intercollegiate sports? ___ very dependent ___ somewhat dependent ___ not dependent ___ I do not participate in sports 3. What grade did you receive on the first exam you took in this course? ___ A: 90-100 ___ B: 80-89 ___ C: 70-79 ___ D: 60-69 ___ less than 60 11