The predictors of users' satisfaction in an anonymous environment: the role of the negative true self

Behaviour & Information Technology ISSN: 0144-929X (Print) 1362-3001 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tbit20 The predictors of users’ satisfaction in an anonymous environment: the role of the negative true self Chuan Hu, Sameer Kumar, Jiao Huang & Kurunathan Ratnavelu To cite this article: Chuan Hu, Sameer Kumar, Jiao Huang & Kurunathan Ratnavelu (2019): The predictors of users’ satisfaction in an anonymous environment: the role of the negative true self, Behaviour & Information Technology, DOI: 10.1080/0144929X.2019.1597165 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2019.1597165 Published online: 25 Mar 2019. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 43 View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tbit20 BEHAVIOUR & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2019.1597165 The predictors of users’ satisfaction in an anonymous environment: the role of the negative true self Chuan Hua, Sameer Kumarb, Jiao Huangb and Kurunathan Ratnaveluc a Institute of Graduate Studies, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; bAsia-Europe Institute, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; cInstitute of Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY The anonymity of cyberspace enables people to express themselves more freely than in the physical world. Thus, when interacting with others online, some people choose to reconstruct a virtual identity that is partly or even totally different from their physical identity. Using the advanced self-discrepancy theory and the framework of psychological well-being, the current study theoretically modelled the expression of three domains of the self (the ought self, the ideal self and the negative true self) that affects the fulfilment of autonomy and self-acceptance, further influencing people’s overall satisfaction in an anonymous online environment. The data (n = 837) were collected from QQ, an anonymous social networking platform from China. The results suggested that virtual identity reconstruction in the online world was significantly associated with the fulfilment of autonomy and self-acceptance. Additionally, autonomy and selfacceptance played important roles in shaping user satisfaction. Received 26 July 2018 Accepted 14 March 2019 1. Introduction With the development of the Internet, the manner in which people present themselves has changed. The anonymity online provides people with a unique opportunity to express themselves and interact with others. On the Internet, people are free from the constraints of their physical body and physical reality (Hayles 1993). Online identity is a fluid and polymorphous entity that allows people to represent themselves as freely as they wish in the cyberspace (Robins 1995). An individual can also reconstruct his or her identity online to better express himself or herself. Online identity reconstruction refers to the phenomenon in which people build an online identity that is partly or even completely different from their physical identity in the offline world (Hu, Zhao, and Huang 2015). By hiding the corporal body behind the screen, an individual can conceal, fabricate or even fake personal information when presenting himself or herself in the anonymous online environment. People may reconstruct their identity in different online platforms, such as online forums or online games (Bessière, Fleming Seay, and Kiesler 2007; Yurchisin, Watchravesringkan, and Mccabe 2005). The phenomenon of identity reconstruction is more salient in the context of social networking platforms, where identities are the key elements of people’s interactions. CONTACT Sameer Kumar sameer@um.edu.my © 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group KEYWORDS User satisfaction; identity reconstruction; selfacceptance; autonomy; anonymity Social networking platforms enable people to keep in touch with existing friends, make new friends, follow the news, or pass time in their daily lives (Hew 2011). In recent years, social networking has become an extremely popular ‘social force’ (Posey et al. 2010). Numerous users are connected to different social networking platforms. Despite the popularity, social networking platforms are losing users. For example, Twitter’s monthly user base in the U.S. decreased from 69 million to 68 million by the end of the second quarter compared with the previous quarter in 2018 (Zantal-Wiener 2018). Various new social networking platforms have emerged, and people have many different choices when they are not satisfied with the social networking platform that they are using. Hence, it is a significant challenge for all social networking service providers to retain users. Prior studies suggested that satisfaction has a significant influence on people’s continuance intention in social networking platform use (Chang and Zhu 2012; Zhao and Lu 2012). Therefore, improving user satisfaction can help retain users and benefit the development and sustainability of social networking platforms. Existing studies have identified various factors that influence online user satisfaction, such as system and information quality (Dong, Cheng, and Wu 2014), perceived control (Zhao and Lu 2012), perceived usefulness and perceived privacy risk (Lin, Featherman, and Sarker Asia-Europe Institute, University of Malaya, Lembah Pantai, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia 2 C. HU ET AL. 2017), and perceived bridging social capital and flow experience among others (Chang and Zhu 2012). However, little attention has been paid to explore the role of online identity reconstruction in user satisfaction online. It has been found that online identity reconstruction can fulfil users’ various needs, thereby making them more motivated on social networking platforms (Hu, Zhao, and Huang 2015). However, the prior study was limited by its qualitative design (Hu, Zhao, and Huang 2015). There is a lack of research on quantitatively measuring how people are motivated by a reconstructed identity. As an important standard for evaluating people’s feelings (Ryff and Keyes 1995), psychological well-being was adopted in the current study to explore how online identity reconstruction improves people’s psychological experience. Previous research also suggested that the positive feedback and social support that people receive on social networking platforms are associated with greater well-being (Nabi, Prestin, and So 2013; Valkenburg, Peter, and Schouten 2006). It is likely that users will be more satisfied when they are motivated and psychologically comfortable. The current study aims to contribute to the literature by building a research model that investigates the associations between the expression of different domains of the self (relating to identify reconstruction) and people’s psychological well-being, and further examines how these factors are related to individuals’ overall satisfaction in an anonymous online environment. By investigating user satisfaction from the perspectives of online identity reconstruction and psychological well-being, this study will help practitioners better understand users’ needs to improve their satisfaction and retain users. 2. Theoretical foundations 2.1. Advanced self-discrepancy theory in an anonymous environment In the traditional self-discrepancy theory, Higgins (1987) proposed three domains of the self (the actual self, the ideal self and the ought self) and self-guides. The actual self represents the characteristics that a person actually presents to others; the ideal self represents a person’s hopes, wishes and aspirations; and the ought self represents a person’s responsibilities, duties and obligations (Higgins 1987). Whereas the actual self reflects an individual’s identity that he or she presents to others, the ideal self and ought self constitute an individual’s selfguides, which are the significant standards of that individual’s behaviour (Higgins, Strauman, and Klein 1986; Wylie 1979). Based on the traditional self-discrepancy theory, Hu et al. (2017) proposed the advanced self-discrepancy theory which incorporated true self as the fourth domain of the self, suggesting that true self is also an important component of a person’s identity and self-guides in an anonymous environment (Hu et al. 2017; Rogers 1951). The true self refers to an individual’s intrinsic personality traits, ideas, beliefs and consciousness (Harter 2002). It is suggested that people’s self-guides and identity in an anonymous online environment are not the same as they are in the physical world (Hu, Zhao, and Huang 2015). The anonymous online world is a more open and freer place for people to express their true self, even if it conflicts with social norms and expectations in the physical world. People experience fewer negative outcomes when they express their true self in an anonymous online environment than in the physical world (Bargh, McKenna, and Fitzsimons 2002). The anonymous environment on the Internet enables people to behave according to their true self; they have less fear of disapproval from others than they do in the physical world (Hu et al. 2017). After incorporating true self into the traditional selfdiscrepancy theory, an individual’s self-guides consist of three domains of the self (the ideal self, the ought self and the true self), including both the fulfilled and unfulfilled parts. And an individual’s actual self is the part of the three domains of the self that are already fulfilled; it reflects an individual’s identity that he or she presents to others. However, it is difficult for an individual to fully match his or her identity with self-guides. In other words, different types of discrepancies (unfulfilled part of the three domains of the self) may exist between the actual self (identity) and self-guides. These discrepancies will lead to various psychological discomforts (Higgins 1987), and greater discrepancies will induce more severe psychological discomfort (Bizman, Yinon, and Krotman 2001). In contrast, greater congruency between the actual self and self-guides increases an individual’s satisfaction and motivation (Hu, Zhao, and Huang 2015). To alleviate self-discrepancy, individuals tend to align their identity with selfguides (Higgins 1987). In addition, Hu et al. (2017) suggested that the true self has two dimensions: i) the positive true self, which refers to the positive aspects of the true self that are in line with social norms and social expectations in the physical world, and ii) the negative true self, which refers to the negative aspects of the true self that conflict with social norms and expectations. It is found that the positive true self overlapped with the ought self and the ideal self when people reconstructed their identity and selfguides in both the online and offline worlds because BEHAVIOUR & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY the intrinsic positive personality traits, ideas, beliefs and consciousness that are consistent with social norms and social expectations (the positive true self) usually overlap with the duties, responsibilities, wishes and hopes (the ought self and the ideal self) (Hu et al. 2017). For example, for people who take good care of their parents, it is difficult to distinguish whether they are motivated by their intrinsic love for their parents or the duties of sons or daughters. The negative true self, which is usually hidden in the real world, is discharged in an anonymous environment due to the release from social norms and laws online (Hu et al. 2017). The expression of the ought self will decrease due to the fewer restraints and responsibilities experienced online, and the expression of the ideal self will increase because the wishes that are difficult to fulfil in the physical world may be gratified with a reconstructed identity in the online world (Hu, Zhao, and Huang 2015). In this case, people may choose to present less of the ought self, more of the negative true self and more of the ideal self when reconstructing their online identity, thus allowing themselves to reduce their selfdiscrepancy and thereby they may become more satisfied and motivated on social networking platforms. 2.2. Psychological well-being Psychological well-being has been defined as the optimal status of an individual’s psychological functioning and experience (Ryff and Keyes 1995). Ryff (1989) developed an integrated theoretical framework and a series of instruments to assess multiple facets of psychological well-being. Six dimensions of psychological well-being were measured in Ryff’s framework: (1) self-acceptance, which refers to a positive attitude towards the self, accepting good and bad qualities; (2) positive relations with others, which refers to warm and trusting personal relationships with others; (3) autonomy, which refers to a sense of freedom and self-determination; (4) environmental mastery, which refers to the ability to manage the environment, making use of opportunities or creating suitable contexts for personal needs; (5) purpose in life, which refers to a sense of directedness, having goals and objectives in life; (6) personal growth, which refers to the development and improvement in self (Ryff 1989). The framework and scales of psychological well-being have been widely used by researchers who are interested in human behaviour. However, whether the dimensions of psychological well-being are sufficiently distinct has been debated. Whereas some research confirmed that the six dimensions of psychological well-being were unique and there were no significant correlations 3 (Cheng and Chan 2005; Lindfors, Berntsson, and Lundberg 2006), other studies have argued that there was substantial overlap between the dimensions. Conceptual overlap and high latent variable correlations have been found among self-acceptance, purpose in life, environmental mastery and personal growth (Clarke et al. 2001; Kafka and Kozma 2002; Springer and Hauser 2006). In the current study, people’s psychological well-being in the online world was measured in terms of autonomy and self-acceptance. These two dimensions were adopted because they are distinct from each other (Cheng and Chan 2005; Springer and Hauser 2006), while substantial overlaps have been found among the omitted dimensions. For example, previous research found significant correlations among self-acceptance and other dimensions (e.g. purpose in life, environmental mastery and personal growth correlated with self) (Clarke et al. 2001; Kafka and Kozma 2002; Springer and Hauser 2006). In addition, autonomy and self-acceptance are strongly related to the behaviour of online identity reconstruction (Hu, Zhao, and Huang 2015; Ryff 1989; Springer and Hauser 2006). Given that people can reconstruct their identity online based on their ideas (Hu, Zhao, and Huang 2015), the reconstructed virtual identity may be more acceptable to them. Thus, identity reconstruction is likely to influence people’s self-acceptance. At the same time, with a reconstructed identity, individuals can behave with relative few restraints, which make it easier for them to act according to their own thoughts. Therefore, online identity reconstruction is likely to be associated with the fulfilment of autonomy. Autonomy is a basic innate psychological need and is essential for personal well-being (Ryan and Deci 2000b). A person is autonomous when he or she enacts behaviours willingly and fully endorses the values expressed by those behaviours (Chirkov et al. 2003). Therefore, people feel autonomous to the greatest extent when acting according to their interests and desires (as with their true self), (Deci and Ryan 1985, 2000). In contrast, people may feel a lack of autonomy when they are forced to do something in a manner with which they do not identify or to follow social norms that they do not accept. As Higgins (1987) suggested, people compare their current state (i.e. identity) to certain standards (i.e. self-guides) and regulate their behaviour to reduce the discrepancy between the two. Some behaviours are autonomous, initiated by internal ideas and beliefs (as with the ideal self and the true self), whereas other behaviours are controlled, initiated by external pressure and forces (as with the ought self). In the online world, they are motivated to express less of the ought self to stay away from duties, responsibilities and obligations, 4 C. HU ET AL. and express more of their true self and their ideal self to behave in the way they want (Hu et al. 2017). The reconstructed virtual identity fulfils people’s needs to escape from the physical constraints (i.e. the ought self in the real world) and express more of the true self and the ideal self, therefore people are likely to feel more autonomous. Significant differences have been found between people who feel autonomous and those who feel that their actions are controlled. When autonomous, people exhibit greater interest, excitement, and confidence in their activities (Ryan and Deci 2000b). Autonomy is positively associated with people’s performance and persistence in an activity (Deci and Ryan 1991). The fulfilment of autonomy can also lead to a higher level of self-esteem (Deci and Ryan 1995), vitality (Nix et al. 1999), and general well-being (Ryan, Deci, and Grolnick 1995). Self-acceptance involves the recognition of various parts of oneself, including both the good and bad sides (Ryff 1989). It helps individuals to evaluate all their efficient and inefficient aspects appropriately (Shepard 1979). People with a high level of self-acceptance usually have a positive attitude towards themselves (Ryff 1989). In addition to the general acceptance of both the positive and negative aspects of the self, self-acceptance also examines whether people are satisfied and happy with themselves (Shepard 1979). Therefore, highly selfaccepting individuals are aware of both their positive and negative sides. They accept all these aspects as part of their personality and are satisfied with themselves to the greatest extent. In contrast, people who fail to achieve self-acceptance feel inefficient and dislike their own characteristics. Additionally, an individual’s self-acceptance level was found to affect his or her life satisfaction (Choy and Moneta 2002). 3. Research model and hypotheses The traditional self-discrepancy theory proposes that people are motivated to reduce psychological discomfort by narrowing the discrepancy between their identity and their self-guides (Higgins 1987). Self-discrepancy is found to decrease when people reconstruct their identity by presenting less of the ought self, more of the ideal self and/or more of the negative true self on social networking platforms (Hu et al. 2017). Since the positive true self overlaps with the ought self and the ideal self, the expression of the three distinct domains of the self (i.e. the ought self, the ideal self and the negative true self) were incorporated into the research model to investigate the associations between online identity reconstruction, autonomy and self-acceptance in an anonymous environment. This study also attempted to examine whether the fulfilment of autonomy and self-acceptance are associated with individuals’ satisfaction with the social networking platform. The research model is illustrated in Figure 1. 3.1. Autonomy It has been posited that people are driven by two types of motivations in daily life: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation (Ryan and Deci 2002). Individuals’ behaviours change based on the extent to which they are autonomous or controlled (deCharms 1968). Autonomous behaviours are mostly intrinsically motivated; that is, they are performed on the basis of an individual’s volition, personal importance and inner interests (deCharms 1968). People conduct autonomous behaviours according to their spontaneous ideas, feelings and consciousness (as with the true self and the ideal self in self-guides) rather than for separable consequences (deCharms 1968; Ryan and Deci 2000a). In contrast, controlled behaviours are mostly extrinsically motivated and performed to meet requirements and restraints. Controlled behaviours are conducted when people are pressured by interpersonal or intrapsychic requirements (as with the ought self in self-guides) (Ryan 1982). For example, studying hard is an autonomous behaviour when a student is intrinsically motivated to learn and tries to prepare himself or herself for the future; however, it is a controlled behaviour if a student does not like learning and only tries to meet graduation requirements. Autonomy, which is defined as an individual’s need to perform according to his or her own volition and ideas, is a significant innate psychological need (Ryan and Deci 2002). Researchers have suggested that once the need for autonomy is fulfilled, individuals will regard their behaviour as an expression of their sense of the self (Ryan and Deci 2002). In the online world (such as on social networking platforms), the anonymity of the Internet frees people from their interpersonal or intrapsychic requirements to the greatest extent. The ought self then diminishes because people perceive fewer responsibilities and duties online. By reconstructing a virtual identity, people can express less of the ought self and feel less restrained by social norms and laws (Hu, Zhao, and Huang 2015), thus making them feel less controlled and more autonomous. Therefore, the expression of less of the ought self is likely to fulfil people’s need for autonomy. Additionally, people can reconstruct an identity that includes the characteristics that they ideally wish to possess (Hu, Zhao, and Huang 2015), thus, the expression of the ideal self subsequently increases in the online BEHAVIOUR & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 5 Figure 1. Research model. environment. Moreover, due to the increased sense of disconnectedness from the real-life contexts (Selwyn 2008), people can express their true self (especially their negative true self) freely with fewer concerns about the negative judgements from others in the online world (McKenna, Green, and Gleason 2002). Given that the ideal self and the negative true self reflect one’s hopes, aspirations and intrinsic thoughts (Higgins 1987), expressing more of the ideal self and the negative true self is likely to make people feel they are behaving in accordance with their own ideas and fulfil people’s need for autonomy. In addition, the true self is an important part of one’s identity and that individuals are highly motivated to express it in social interactions (Baumeister 1998; Gollwitzer 1986), the ability to express more of the negative true self online is likely to make people feel more autonomous. Therefore, the following hypotheses were proposed. H1: The expression of the ought self is negatively associated with an individual’s fulfilment of autonomy. H2: The expression of the ideal self is positively associated with an individual’s fulfilment of autonomy. H3: The expression of the negative true self is positively associated with an individual’s fulfilment of autonomy. 3.2. Self-acceptance The level of self-acceptance is the most frequently used standard for evaluating people’s psychological wellbeing (Ryff 1989). It is the main characteristic of selfactualisation and maturity, which are crucial to an individual’s mental health (Ryff 1989). Previous research found that freedom was an important predictor of selfacceptance (Arıcak, Dündar, and Saldaña 2015). In the physical world, people are likely to follow the expectations of others mindlessly to win approval and avoid negative judgements, which may lead to a low level of self-acceptance (Carson and Langer 2006). However, in the online world, people may be less worried about negative judgements. The anonymous online environment makes people feel less pressured by social responsibilities and social norms (Hu, Zhao, and Huang 2015). They can thus express less of the ought self and don’t have to behave in the way others think they should behave (Suler 2004). With decreased ought self, people may be less concerned about the evaluations of others and follow their honest feelings (Carson and Langer 2006), which may lead to a higher level of selfacceptance. Therefore, people are likely to have a higher level of self-acceptance when they express less of the ought self. Moreover, people can reconstruct a virtual identity that involves more aspects of the ideal self to fulfil their own hopes and aspirations that are difficult to accomplish in the physical world (Hu, Zhao, and Huang 2015). With more of the ideal self, the reconstructed identity may become more desirable and acceptable. It is found that people who presented themselves positively experienced greater happiness (Jang, Bucy, and Cho 2018). The positive feedback people receive is likely to make them feel that their ideal self is accepted not only by themselves but also by others. Therefore, people are likely to have a higher level of self-acceptance when they express more of the ideal self. In addition, individuals can behave in accordance with their true self using a reconstructed virtual identity. They can express their real thoughts and ideas (especially the negative ones) with less fear of disapproval (Hu et al. 2017). The ability and willingness to disclose one’s true self (especially its negative aspects) to others are the important factors in self-acceptance (Carson and Langer 2006). The connectivity of the Internet also helps individuals find like-minded partners online (Bargh, 6 C. HU ET AL. McKenna, and Fitzsimons 2002). Their negative true self is more likely to be understood and supported by the like-minded people online (Hu et al. 2017). It has been suggested that the expression of hidden aspects of the self improves self-acceptance (McKenna and Bargh 1998). Therefore, people are likely to have a higher level of self-acceptance when they express more of the negative true self. Thus, the following hypotheses were proposed: H4: The expression of the ought self is negatively associated with an individual’s online self-acceptance level. H5: The expression of the ideal self is positively associated with an individual’s online self-acceptance level. H6: The expression of the negative true self is positively associated with an individual’s online self-acceptance level. 3.3. Satisfaction It is suggested that satisfaction is significantly associated with people’s continuance intention in using IT services (Ong and Lin 2016). For example, users tend to use a social network platform continuously if they perceive the platform as satisfactory (Chang and Zhu 2012; Zhao and Lu 2012). Previous research indicated that people tend to feel happy and experience more positive emotions online when their psychological needs are fulfilled (Ryff and Keyes 1995; Shen, Liu, and Wang 2013). As a significant standard to evaluate whether people are happy or not, psychological well-being was widely used to explore people’s feeling in different fields (Ryff 1989). With a reconstructed identity in an anonymous online environment, people are more likely to be autonomous and accept their virtual identity to a greater extent. The fulfilment of autonomy and increased self-acceptance will lead to a higher level of psychological well-being and positive psychological experiences (Ryff 1989). These positive experiences may lead to users’ overall satisfaction in the online world. Therefore, the following hypotheses were proposed: H7: The fulfilment of autonomy is positively associated with an individual’s satisfaction online. H8: The level of self-acceptance is positively associated with an individual’s satisfaction online. 4. Methodology 4.1. Research site The research site of this study was QQ, which is the dominant social networking platform in China. QQ had more than 800 million active monthly users by the end of 2016 (Tencent 2016). As with Facebook and other social networking platforms, QQ enables users to update their status, share photos and write comments on others’ postings. However, QQ users seldom disclose personal information in their profiles (unlike most Facebook users). In addition to keeping in touch with existing friends, QQ users can make new friends with strangers by joining different QQ communities based on their own interests. QQ communities are groups that are created and administered by individual users. People can join QQ communities and communicate with those who share the same interests. Interest-based QQ communities can be very large; some have more than one thousand members. The members of QQ communities are gathered based on mutual interests, and most of them are strangers to each other. Therefore, interestbased QQ communities provide people with an anonymous environment to freely communicate with other like-minded people. To protect themselves, some community members may choose to hide their personal information and reconstruct their online identity when they interact with others in QQ communities. 4.2. Measures All the variables in this study were measured using multi-item scales (see Appendix). With regards to the expression of three domains of the self, different people have different senses of the self. For example, when it comes to the ought self, people with different genders, ages, or educational backgrounds may have different understandings of the obligations, duties, and responsibilities. To the best of our knowledge, it is impossible to measure every single person’s sense of the self with the same and precise indicators (e.g. the expression of particular personality traits). Therefore, we explored people’s feelings about online identity reconstruction by comparing their perceptions and behaviours between the online and offline worlds based on the definitions of three domains of the self. The current study measured people’s expression of the self on the basis of a widely accepted notion that the online environment is more open and freer for self-expression than the physical world (Hu et al. 2017). The items for the expression of the ideal self were adapted from Michikyan, Dennis, and Subrahmanyam (2015). The scales included items such as ‘The free and open environment in the online world makes it easier to fulfil my wishes and hopes’. The negative true self was measured with the items adapted from Rosenfeld (1979) and McKenna, Buffardi, and Seidman (2005). The scales included items such as ‘Compared BEHAVIOUR & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY to the real world, I can be more open and freer in disclosing negative mind and beliefs in the online world’. The items measuring the ought self were adapted based on the items of a similar construct (i.e. online disinhibition) according to the definitions (Denollet 2005; Udris 2014), such as ‘There is no need to worry about others’ evaluation when doing anything in the online world’. The scales for online satisfaction were adapted from items developed and rigorously validated by McKinney, Yoon, and Zahedi (2002) and Wixom and Todd (2005), such as ‘Overall, my interactions within the cyberspace are very satisfying’. Self-acceptance was assessed by the items adapted from Ryff and Keyes (1995) and Springer and Hauser (2006). The scales included items such as ‘In general, I feel confident and happy about the identity that I present in the online world’ and ‘I like most parts of the identity that I express online, including the negative parts’. The measurement of autonomy was adapted from Van den Broeck et al. (2010) and Ryff and Keyes (1995), such as ‘I feel free to express myself online’. All items were measured using seven-point Likerttype scales, ranging from ‘strongly disagree (1)’ to ‘strongly agree (7)’. Two pilot studies were conducted to improve the validity of the scales, involving seventysix and fifty-five respondents, respectively. Based on the results and feedback of the respondents in pilot studies, some of the survey items were slightly modified to better measure the constructs. The convergent and discriminant validity of the items were then refined. The reliability of the final scales used in the study was satisfactory (Cronbach’s alpha greater than 0.80). Since QQ is a social networking platform operated in China, QQ users are mostly Chinese. The questionnaire used in this study was translated from English to Chinese by one researcher and double-checked by another two bilingual researchers. 4.3. Respondents To solicit participants, a questionnaire was sent to three different kinds of interest-based QQ communities (i.e. the community of online gamers, the community of car lovers and the community of travellers). For each kind of interest-based QQ communities, the top three most active communities (that included more than one thousand members) recommended by the QQ search function were selected in this study. Ultimately, 837 responses were collected. The sample consisted of 47.7% male and 52.3% female respondents. The respondents aged from under 20 years to over 60 years old and their educational backgrounds varied from high school or lower to doctorate degrees. 7 4.4. Common method bias When multiple-item measures are presented within the same survey, it is likely to produce common method bias (Kamakura 2010). If two or more constructs are presented to participants in a single survey, spurious correlations among the construct items may be produced. Because the response styles in the survey are the same, participants are also likely to respond in a desirable way. One of the frequently used techniques for estimating common method bias is Harman’s single factor test. It uses exploratory factor analysis which loads all the variables to a single factor with no rotation. If this single factor explains a significant amount of the variance (more than 50%), the data may be common method biased (Harman 1960). After conducting Harman’s single factor test, the single factor did not explain the majority of the variance, which means common method bias was not a concern in this study. 5. Results 5.1. Measurement model The internal consistency reliability of survey items was assessed using two important indicators, Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability, which reflect how well the items that are used to measure the same construct perform in terms of producing similar results. The generally accepted threshold for both Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability is 0.7 (Fornell and Larcker 1981; Nunnally 1978). Table 1 presents the reliability statistics. The values of Cronbach’s alpha ranged from 0.81 (for the expression of the negative true self) to 0.92 (for autonomy), and composite reliability values of each construct ranged from 0.89 (for the expression of the negative true self) to 0.94 (for autonomy). All of them exceeded the recommended standard, thus indicating satisfactory reliability for the measurement items. The convergent validity of the measurement model was assessed via composite reliability and the average variance extracted (AVE). Fornell and Larcker (1981) suggested that, in order to ensure convergent validity, composite reliability should be greater than 0.7 and the value of AVE should exceed 0.5. As shown in Table 1, all of the composite reliability values were greater than the acceptable level of 0.7. Meanwhile, the AVE values ranged from 0.72 (for the expression of the negative true self) to 0.80 (for the expression of the ideal self, autonomy and online satisfaction), so exceeding the suggested standard of 0.5. Therefore, the convergent validity of the measurement model was sufficient. 8 C. HU ET AL. Table 1. Reliability and validity statistics. Construct CA CR AVE EIS EOS ENTS Auto SelfA Satis EIS EOS ENTS Autonomy Self-acceptance Online satisfaction 0.88 0.85 0.81 0.92 0.90 0.88 0.92 0.91 0.89 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.80 0.78 0.72 0.80 0.76 0.80 0.90 0.39 0.32 0.43 0.67 0.63 0.88 0.30 0.38 0.52 0.42 0.85 0.43 0.40 0.37 0.90 0.43 0.40 0.87 0.78 0.90 Note: EIS = Expression of the ideal self; EOS = Expression of the ought self; ENTS = Expression of the negative true self; The diagonal elements (in bold) are the square root of AVEs, and off-diagonal elements are correlations. The discriminant validity, which reflects the extent to which the constructs are different from each other, was verified by looking at the square root of AVEs and the correlations among the latent variables (Chin 1998; Fornell and Larcker 1981). The diagonal of Table 1 presents the square root of AVE values for the constructs, while the elements in the corresponding rows and columns are the correlation coefficients of the constructs. The square root of AVE value for each construct was greater than the construct’s correlations with other constructs, demonstrating that the constructs in the measurement model were different from each other. Another criterion for convergent and discriminant validity is the factor loading of each indicator. The indicators measuring different constructs should be distinct and load higher on the construct that they are measuring (Barclay, Higgins, and Thompson 1995; Chin 1998). The factor loadings and cross-loadings for the measurement items are presented in Table 2. All the indicators achieved higher loading on the construct of interest than on other constructs. Therefore, the results indicate that the internal consistency reliability, convergent validity and discriminant validity of the measurement model were adequate. Table 2. Factor loadings and cross-loadings. Construct EIS Items EIS EOS ENTS Auto SelfA Satis Ideal1 0.89 0.35 0.26 0.40 0.59 0.56 Ideal2 0.92 0.36 0.29 0.37 0.61 0.56 Ideal3 0.87 0.35 0.30 0.38 0.60 0.58 EOS Ought1 0.35 0.88 0.24 0.31 0.48 0.39 Ought2 0.36 0.86 0.29 0.34 0.43 0.35 Ought3 0.33 0.89 0.28 0.36 0.47 0.38 ENTS NegT1 0.31 0.27 0.87 0.38 0.35 0.34 NegT2 0.32 0.29 0.88 0.40 0.40 0.35 NegT3 0.15 0.20 0.79 0.30 0.23 0.23 Autonomy Auto1 0.39 0.32 0.34 0.88 0.38 0.35 Auto2 0.36 0.34 0.34 0.91 0.34 0.30 Auto3 0.44 0.34 0.43 0.89 0.45 0.42 Auto4 0.34 0.37 0.42 0.90 0.38 0.35 Self-acceptance SelfA1 0.59 0.49 0.36 0.39 0.87 0.65 SelfA2 0.57 0.51 0.39 0.42 0.87 0.66 SelfA3 0.59 0.40 0.31 0.36 0.88 0.70 SelfA4 0.59 0.42 0.33 0.35 0.88 0.73 Online satisfaction Satis1 0.55 0.35 0.29 0.34 0.70 0.89 Satis2 0.58 0.40 0.37 0.36 0.72 0.90 Stais3 0.57 0.38 0.34 0.38 0.68 0.90 Note: EIS = Expression of the ideal self; EOS = Expression of the ought self; ENTS = Expression of the negative true self. 5.2. Structural model Figure 2 presents the results of structural model tests, including standardised path coefficients, path significances and the variance explained (R 2) by each path. The R 2 value was used to evaluate the explanatory power of the structural model. The R 2 for online satisfaction reached 0.62, the R 2 for autonomy was 0.31, and the R 2 for self-acceptance was 0.55, suggesting that the explanatory power of the research model was acceptable. The standardised path coefficients and path significances indicated the results of testing the hypotheses. The results revealed that the relationship between the expression of the ought self and an individual’s fulfilment of autonomy was significant and positive (β = 0.29, p < 0.001). Given that the expression of the ought self was measured using reversed items, the positive path coefficient indicated that H1 was supported. At the same time, the expression of the ideal self (β = 0.26, p < 0.001) and the negative true self (β = 0.19, p < 0.001) had significant positive relationships with an individual’s fulfilment of autonomy, i.e. H2 and H3 were supported. In addition, a significant positive relationship was found between the expression of the ought self and an individual’s online self-acceptance (β = 0.15, p < 0.001), i.e. H4 was supported. The expression of the ideal self (β = 0.51, p < 0.001) and the negative true self (β = 0.27, p < 0.001) had significant positive relationships with an individual’s online self-acceptance, i.e. H5 and H6 were supported. Furthermore, H7 and H8 were also supported, which indicated that the fulfilment of autonomy (β = 0.07, p < 0.01) and the online self-acceptance (β = 0.75, p < 0.001) were both positively associated with an individual’s satisfaction online. Therefore, all the relationships proposed in the research model were supported in this study. 6. Discussion By adopting the advanced self-discrepancy theory (Hu et al. 2017), the current study investigated how online identity reconstruction affects individuals’ psychological well-being (including the fulfilment of autonomy and BEHAVIOUR & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 9 Figure 2. Structural model. **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. self-acceptance), thereby influencing people’s overall satisfaction in the anonymous online environment. The results revealed that the expression of the ought self online was negatively related to an individual’s fulfilment of autonomy and self-acceptance. The anonymous online environment frees people from the general duties and responsibilities of the physical world (Hu, Zhao, and Huang 2015). In this case, an individual can choose to present less of the ought self because he or she does not have to worry about the expectations and evaluations of others with a reconstructed identity in the online world (Hu et al. 2017). Hence, this individual will be less pressured and his or her sense of self-acceptance increases and becomes more autonomous. This finding was in line with previous research which found that people might feel like they are being controlled when they were pressured to do something (Deci and Ryan 1985) and that the use of Facebook satisfied people’s intrinsic needs for autonomy (Reinecke, Vorderer, and Knop 2014). Moreover, behaving in a manner that is intended to meet others’ expectations diminishes the feeling of self-acceptance (Carson and Langer 2006). Additionally, the results also suggested that the expression of the ideal self online was positively associated with an individual’s fulfilment of autonomy and self-acceptance. On the Internet, individuals are able to reconstruct their identity based on their ideal self (Yurchisin, Watchravesringkan, and Mccabe 2005), so presenting the characteristics that they desire to possess. The anonymous online world hence provides people with a unique environment better to fulfil their wishes, hopes and aspirations with a reconstructed virtual identity (Hu, Zhao, and Huang 2015). With a more desirable identity, people tend to be more autonomous and accept themselves to a greater extent in the anonymous environment. This finding was consistent with prior studies suggesting that people feel autonomous when their behaviours are initiated by their own desires (Deci and Ryan 1985, 2000), and the use of social networking platforms has a positive influence on self-acceptance (Jung, Pawlowski, and Kim 2017). Moreover, the current study found a positive relationship between the expression of the negative true self and an individual’s fulfilment of autonomy and self-acceptance. In order to leave a good impression on others in the physical world, most people will choose to hide the negative personality traits, ideas, beliefs and consciousness that conflict with general social norms and expectations (Carson and Langer 2006). The anonymity of the Internet frees people from the negative outcomes of expressing their negative true self (Hu et al. 2017). People can behave in a manner that they intrinsically prefer in the online world with fewer concerns for disapproval from others (Suler 2004). The opportunity to express the negative true self also contributes to an individual’s self-acceptance, as self-acceptance refers to the acceptance of not only the positive sides of the self but also the negative sides (Ceyhan and Ceyhan 2011). Therefore, people become more autonomous and self-accepting when they can express more of their negative true self online. The finding was consistent with previous research which suggested that the expression of true self on Facebook (especially aspects of the hidden self) is positively related to acceptance-seeking (Seidman 2014), and individuals using a true self-presentation strategy tend to perceive a higher level of happiness on Facebook (Jang, Bucy, and Cho 2018). Furthermore, this study found that both the level of self-acceptance and the fulfilment of autonomy were positively associated with the satisfaction of users online. 10 C. HU ET AL. Previous research has suggested that individuals’ selfacceptance level and the feeling of autonomy are two significant standards for the evaluation of people’s psychological well-being (Ryff 1989). As mentioned above, online identity reconstruction was positively associated with an individual’s fulfilment of autonomy and selfacceptance. Identity reconstruction makes people feel autonomous and provides more feelings of freedom when interacting with others. People are happy and satisfied with the characteristics that they present through their reconstructed virtual identity, which results in a greater extent of self-acceptance. People with a higher level of self-acceptance tend to evaluate themselves positively (Ryff 1989). The positive experience they obtain through their reconstructed virtual identity leads to their overall satisfaction online. This finding was in line with an existing study which found a positive relationship between satisfaction and well-being (Chiu et al. 2013). 7. Contributions, limitations and future research This study contributes to both the literature and practice in the following aspects. First, from the perspectives of identity reconstruction and psychological well-being, this study proposes a research model to investigate the manner in which online identity reconstruction influences people’s satisfaction in an anonymous environment by affecting the fulfilment of individuals’ need for autonomy and self-acceptance. In addition, this is the first time that the advanced self-discrepancy theory (Hu et al. 2017) is adopted to explore users’ satisfaction towards an anonymous online environment. The findings of this study validate that the advanced selfdiscrepancy theory is suitable to explore identity reconstruction in the anonymous online environment (Hu et al. 2017). Moreover, this study has introduced some new constructs (such as the ought self, the ideal self and the negative true self) into the research on psychological well-being. The research model proposed in this study suggests that online identity reconstruction is associated with an individual’s psychological well-being. The findings of this study also have some implications for practice. According to the relationship between virtual identity reconstruction and an individual’s psychological well-being found in this study, the service providers can try to develop more functions over which users have control and can disclose the various aspects of the self in the way they desire. For example, designing more customised features in profiles and cover pages may promote the expression of the ideal self. Moreover, the results also suggested that psychological well-being can enhance user satisfaction. Therefore, it is important for service providers to develop some features to improve users’ autonomy and selfacceptance. For example, designing a ‘memory feed’ feature that summarises what was happening on the same day last year may enhance the self-acceptance of users. By comparing the past and present, users can thus see their shortcomings in the past and the improvements they have made up to now, thereby, increasing their self-acceptance level. Additionally, the practitioners can update terms and conditions to give users more freedom when interacting with others to increase their autonomy. Even though the current study makes significant contributions to both the literature and practice, it should be evaluated with some limitations. This study was a crosssectional study. The research data were collected during a certain period, preventing the study from investigating whether people’s autonomy, self-acceptance or satisfaction change over time. Hence, longitudinal studies could be conducted in the future to explore whether these dependent variables develop and change over time. Being that the respondents in this study were Chinese QQ members, the cultural background should be taken into consideration when generalising the research findings. Therefore, future research might be conducted on other social networking platforms or in other cultures to replicate this study. Given that this is the first time that online identity reconstruction is measured by the expression of three domains of the self, the indicators were mainly adapted from existing literature based on the definitions of the self. Future studies could further validate these indicators or develop some new measurements from other perspectives to assess the expression of the three domains of the self and online identity reconstruction. Acknowledgement This work was supported by the University of Malaya under Grant UM.C/625/1/HIR/ MOHE/SC/13/3 and Grant RP020D - 14AFR. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. 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Compared to the online world, I have to follow more ‘rules’ in the real world. The free and open environment in the online world makes it easier to fulfil my wishes and hopes. Wishes that are difficult to fulfil in the physical world may be satisfied in the online world. In the online world, people can beautify themselves when interacting with others. In the online world, the negative consequences of expressing shortcomings will be dismissed due to that world’s release from social norms and laws. Compared to the real world, I can be more open and freer in disclosing negative ideas and beliefs in the online world. The expression of negative personality traits (e.g. shortcomings) may conflict with social norms and expectations in the physical world. I feel free to express myself online. In the physical world, I sometimes feel pressured or controlled. Cyberspace allows me to do what I really want to do. In the physical world, I often feel like I have to follow others’ requirements I am satisfied with what I have experienced and obtained through my reconstructed virtual identity in cyberspace. In general, I feel confident and happy about the identity that I present in the online world. When comparing the identities that I present in the online world and the offline world, I feel better about my virtual identity in cyberspace. I like most parts of the identity that I express online, including the negative parts. All things considered, I am very satisfied with the world online. Overall, my interactions within cyberspace are very satisfying. Surfing the Internet made me content.