Chalcolithic Metallurgy

The notion of the change caused by smelting and melting technology during the 5th and 4th Millennium in the
Levant is not well understood. Chronological errors and socio-economic misconceptions have been shrouding a clear
view on the sequence of events and their interregional consequences. Surprisingly complex metallurgy started already in
the middle of the 5th Millennium BC and caused changes in social distinction, exchange systems and ideology. Other
technologies were not directly affected, but on the contrary, lithic technique and ceramic styles show great elaboration.
In a comparative approach the archaeological record of the Levant is compared to that of Southeastern Europe, and
several structural similarities are discussed. It is argued, that the chronological parallelism is an argument against an
autochthonous technical evaluation of the Balkan Peninsula, and that the social systems of both areas must have had
similarities, which made the new cast metal artefacts very attractive.

This paper discusses the Neolithic beginnings of metal-using and metal-working in the central Mediterranean region. In particular, a basic yet surprisingly long-standing question is addressed: when did metallurgy appear in this region? In the middle Neolithic, as Lawrence Barfield controversially proposed, or in the late Neolithic, as most scholars seem now keen to believe? And if the latter proves true, when exactly can we date its inception considering that the Italian late Neolithic lasted for about 700 years? The first section of the paper will examine whether some of the most archaic copper axes from this region can be dated to the middle Neolithic (c.5000-4500 cal. BC). The second section will discuss whether large copper implements including axes circulated south of the Alps in the late/final Neolithic (c.4500-3600 cal. BC), and if these were made locally or were all imported from neighbouring regions where extractive technology was already practised in this time period. The final section will briefly present Copper Age developments of the metallurgical practices established in Neolithic along with concluding remarks concerning the social and technological transformation, which occurred in the Central Mediterranean region in the 4th millennium BC.

The article’s aim is to foster an interdisciplinary debate regarding the direction that archaeometallurgical studies in the central Mediterranean region, from the late Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age (c4500-1650 BC), ought to take in the next decade. It is argued that early metallurgical studies in the area have followed an idiosyncratic course due to the sway held on the discipline by Idealism, an influential philosophical movement that greatly hindered the development of science-based archaeology until the late 20th century. The last fifteen years, however, have witnessed an unprecedented if rather tumultuous expansion of metallurgical research, and important advances have been made in the chronology and chaîne opératoire of early metal technology and artefacts. Yet it is the author’s contention that, in order to reap full benefits from the recent disciplinary growth, an explicit research agenda must be set. Above all, it is argued that the new agenda must be grounded in the cross-disciplinary examination of the materiality of metalwork, hitherto poorly explored in this region.

The site of Belovode came to fame within the archaeological community with the discovery of the world’s earliest metallurgy, demonstrated by several pieces of copper slag dated at c5000 BC (Radivojević et al 2010). Extensive compositional, microstructural and provenance analyses conducted on a portion of recorded archaeometallurgical materials showed thus far the consistent technological principle in smelting technology during c400 years of the site’s occupation. This paper provides a detailed analytical account of 12 further samples from Belovode indicating copper mineral use and archaeometallurgical activities. Particular emphasis is set on production debris from the ‘metallurgical’ Trench 3, although other significant metallurgical contexts are also addressed. The overall aim is to investigate technological relationship among the specimens studied here and those previously published by Radivojević et al (2010). The technological association is expected to provide more coherent image on the archaeometallurgical activities in this part of Eurasia.at the dawn of metallurgy.

The study titled “The Transitional Period between the Eneolithic and the Bronze Age in Bulgaria” sets to offer a synopsis on the problem of the Transitional period between the Eneolithic and the Bronze Age in Bulgaria. Its primary objective is to expose the processes which triggered the transformations of the settlement model occurring during the Transitional period, which later became distinctive of the Early Bronze Age. Those changes consider chiefly the adoption of a new type of topography (landscape preferences), the emergence of single-layer settlements, of new residential architecture, of new settlement plans. The study attempts to uncover the connection between the settlement model of the Transitional Period and the one characteristic of the Early Bronze Age. It also examines a number of aspects of the material culture, identifying phenomena typical of the period under consideration. To accomplish its goals, the paper compares the settlement models characteristic of the Late Eneolithic with those of the Early Bronze Age and seeks to identify the process of the transformation of these in the Transitional period. The paper also presents certain connections and parallels to the rest of the Balkan Peninsula and to the territories north-east of the Danube River.
The first chapter offers a brief overview of the history of research on the Transitional period, summarizing the most important opinions on the subject. It was made possible by the work already accomplished by a number of scholars, who had studied in depth this highly contentious period. Several key theories circulate in the contemporary debate, each with its strong and weak points. The chapter offers a review of the discussions and the polemics on the nature of the Transitional period, as well as on its definition and periodisation.
According to the first theory, which launched the period’s definition, the end of the Eneolithic was brought by a large scale invasion of cultural groups inhabiting the region north of the Black Sea. It was accompanied by devastating for the indigenous population conflicts and “military” confrontations. According to this theory, the so-called Steppe invasion was preceded by substantial climate changes, and the settling of the carriers of the new cultural traditions led to a fundamental change in the archaeological face of the entire Balkan Peninsula.
On the other hand, according to the proponents of another theory there were no collisions or “military” confrontations between the local Balkan societies and the migrants. This group of scholars adopt the view that the transformations had occurred as a consequence of extensive contacts and gradual, peaceful introduction of new population. According to some of the supporters of this theory, climate change was also the cause for the switch from one kind of economy to another – from agriculture to stock breeding, undertaken by the indigenous population, with the latter economy becoming emblematic of the Transitional Period. According to them, with the destruction of a large portion of the cultivated fields forced that same populace to seek new means of subsistence, based on nomadic way of living.
According to a third theory, the Transitional Period, is not a discrete phase in its own right. There is an extended hiatus (cesura), and according to the proponents of this school of thought, the fall of the Late Eneolithic society was caused by the specifics of the population’s religious beliefs, which drove it to abandon voluntarily its residences and vacate these territories.
In the presentation of the archaeological characteristic and the settlement model, I had adopted the first thesis, but with certain reservations regarding the scale of the invasion and conflict. I believe, that at this stage of the research, it is most adequate to classify the period into Post-Eneolithic and Proto-Bronze. Presently, such internal periodization offers the best explanation for the processes which led to the transformation of the cultural traditions on Bulgarian territory.
Following a review of the absolute chronology of the period, the paper examines in detail the settlements and the settlement system of the Transitional period, with focus on the best known sites from the period, such as: Hotnitsa-Vodopada, Telish-Redutite, Rebarkovo-Dzhugera, Galatin-Chukata, Bezhanovo-Banunya, Sadovets-Ezeroto, Mezdra-Kaleto, Devetaki Cave, Borovan-Ezeroto, Trapezitsa, Varhari, etc. A comparison between the data from these settlements and the data from the Late Eneolithic and the Bronze Age, offer a clear picture of the transitional nature of the processes which led to the emergence of the Early Bronze societies and the establishment of their distinctive settlement structures. This part of the paper describes the principle characteristics of the topography and the stratigraphy and offers a comparison to those of the Late Eneolithic and the Early Bronze Age. Attention is given to the sites with structures attesting to sedentary way of life. Several types of dwellings are defined: dugouts (sunken), half-sunken (or partially sunken dwellings), rectangular buildings constructed on ground level, and apsidal buildings constructed on ground level. Dugouts and half-sunken buildings had of course been utilized as dwellings back in the Neolithic period but are atypical in the Eneolithic settlement model. It is established that changes affecting the rectangular buildings constructed on ground level are accompanied by changes in construction techniques and design specifics. In the Transitional period was introduced use of transient, wattle and daub construction. The adobe disappears. Apsidal plan buildings appear, a trend which evolves into the Early Bronze Age. I refer to a number of parallels for each type of dwelling, indicating the source for their appearance on Bulgarian territory and their spread to the western parts of the Balkan Peninsula. An argument corroborating the proposed continuity between the settlement model of the Transitional Period and that of the Early Bronze Age is also the established fact, that on a number of sites, the deposits associated with this period are superseded by an Early Bronze Age deposit. An example of this stratigraphy offer: Vaksevo-Studena Voda, Bezhanovo-Banunya, Sadovets-Kaleto, Sadovets-Ezeroto, Lepitsa, Devetaki Cave, etc. In certain instances, the Bronze Age site does not stratigraphically supersede the previous period but is found in its immediate proximity. The similarity in terms of topography offers yet another support for the proposed conclusions.
In this study I had attempted a synopsis analysis of the pottery production – one of the principal indicators of a readily traceable change. I established that the pottery assemblage from the Transitional Period is distinguished from the one of the earlier age for the simplified forms, by the production methods, and by the application of organic temper and ground shell from aquatic molluscs. The examined pottery assemblages clearly demonstrate the appearance of new elements such as: Scheibenhenkel, ribbon handles raised high above the rim, rounded bases, etc.), forms (milk jugs, huge variety of cups, S-profiled vessels). New types of incised decoration also appear: inscribed in notched ribbons hatched panes, notched rims, cord ornament, etc. Despite the evolution of these new elements, in terms of technology and quality, the Transitional Period pottery assemblage is a backward step, compared to the production techniques, the typological diversity, and the ornamentation, known from the Late phases of the Eneolithic Age.
The review of the Transitional Period did not omit an analysis of metallurgical developments. In this sphere, the principal, transitional phenomenon is the introduction of the arsenic (As) laced copper. It was precisely the invention of this typical of the Transitional Period new technology which made possible the production of finer, while also possessing greater tensile strength tools. The addition of arsenic to the copper alloy is the first step towards the invention of bronze metallurgy, which gave the name to the subsequent age. During the Transitional Period appear also the first metal cutting and thrusting weapons – knives and daggers. The large number of daggers dated to this period indicates proliferation of a new metal production and ascribes the region of modern day Bulgaria to the emerging Circum-Pontic metallurgical province. The transitional nature of the metallurgical production could also be traced in other typical of the age tools – the axes, the adzes, and the combo tools.
Finally, the paper regards one of the most interesting aspects of the prehistoric culture as a whole – the spiritual culture of the Transitional Period. Spiritual life is among the most robust elements of all communities, and thus any observed change is an important indicator of the introduction of new population groups. In this chapter I examine the diagnostic changes in anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines, burial rites, personal ornaments, and jewellery. In this section I present abundant comparanda of similar finds from the territory of the Tripolye-Cucuteni, and from the lands to the east of it. The appearance of male anthropomorphic representations, the stone zoomorphic sceptres, the previously unknown inhumation in an extended position with legs contracted at the knees, the use of ochre blankets, etc., are further arguments in favour of the transitional nature of the period under scrutiny.
I hope this work had succeeded to provide the missing pieces for the Transitional period and to answer at least some of the posited questions. In the words of Zygmunt Bauman, “Reality is as thin as the paper on which it is printed”. Thus, I implore the reader to see in this paper but a humble contribution to the study of the Transitional Period in Bulgaria, which I hope future researchers would enrich.

English abstract: Since the discovery in 1860 of La Pastora, one of the most beautiful and outstanding megalithic constructions of Iberia, the Copper Age and Bronze Age site of Valencina de la Concepción – Castilleja de Guzmán has provided an unceasing series of archaeological finds of the utmost significance. Today, a hundred and fifty years after the earliest discoveries, this volume offers an up-to-date and comprehensive review of the research carried out at this site, which underlines, first and foremost, its importance as a scientific and cultural resource. Among the contributions to this volume the reader will find some of the keys to the human occupation of the lower Guadalquivir basin 5000 years ago, the process of social aggregation that gave way to the formation of the city of Seville itself. In addition, this book reflects some of the current discussions that dominate today’s scientific agenda on Iberian Copper Age (c. 3200-2200 cal BC), a period of fascinating social and cultural dynamism that laid the basis for the consolidation of social ranking, long-distance contact and exchange, as well as metallurgy and productive specialization.

Spanish abstract: Desde que en 1860 se produjera el descubrimiento de La Pastora, una de las construcciones megalíticas más bellas y singulares de España, el yacimiento de la Edad del Cobre y de la Edad del Bronce de Valencina de la Concepción – Castilleja de Guzmán no ha cesado de deparar hallazgos arqueológicos de la mayor significación. Hoy, 150 años después de los primeros descubrimientos, este volumen ofrece una puesta al día de las investigaciones que están revelando la extraordinaria importancia de este yacimiento como recurso científico y patrimonial. Entre las colaboraciones de esta obra el lector encontrará algunas de las claves de la ocupación de la desembocadura del río Guadalquivir hace 5000 años: el proceso de agregación humana que representa el origen de la misma ciudad de Sevilla. Igualmente, en las páginas de este libro encuentra reflejo el debate que en la actualidad preside el estudio de la Edad del Cobre (c. 3200-2200 antes de nuestra era), un periodo de apasionante dinamismo social y cultural en el que se consolidaron las bases de la jerarquización social, las relaciones comerciales a larga distancia, la metalurgia y la especialización productiva.

The study of early metallurgy has many aspects and
has, accordingly, taken many forms and foci (Rehren
and Pernicka 2008 and literature therein). Some
scholars have documented the morpho-typological
evolution of artefact types and some have explored the
role of metals in creating social hierarchies, in storing
and displaying wealth, or the more transcendent role
of metals in a variety of rituals. Other researchers are
fascinated by the skills and technical achievements
of the metalworkers and their intangible heritage
as expressed in intricate castings, ingenious
manufacturing methods and elaborate surface
decorations. Yet others study the transformation of
rocks and ores to metal as documented in the slags
and furnace fragments or try to trace the geological
origins of metal objects, as a proxy for the movement
of people, materials, and ideas. The investigation
of ancient mining extends well beyond the field of
archaeometallurgy, with mines for flint, pigments,
precious stones and salt all pre-dating metal smelting,
and quarrying for building stone exceeding metal
mining both in scale and value generation (e.g. Schauer
et al. 2020). This range of interests inevitably implies the
application of a multitude of methods, borrowed from a
host of mother disciplines, adjusted and refined to form
the interdisciplinary field of archaeometallurgy. It also
makes any holistic project both a daunting prospect
and an exercise in interdisciplinary diplomacy.

Graves and settlements of the 5th millennium BC in North Caucasus attest to a material culture that was related to contemporaneous archaeological complexes in the northern and western Black Sea region. Yet it was replaced, suddenly as it seems, around the middle of the 4th millennium BC by a “high culture” whose origin is still quite unclear. This archaeological culture named after the great Maikop kurgan showed innovations in all areas which have no local archetypes and which cannot be assigned to the tradition of the Balkan-Anatolian Copper Age. The favoured theory of Russian researchers is a migration from the south originating in the Syro-Anatolian area, which is often mentioned in connection with the so- called “Uruk expansion”. However, serious doubts have arisen about a connection between Maikop and the Syro-Anatolian region. The foreign objects in the North Caucasus reveal no connection to the upper reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris or to the floodplains of Mesopotamia, but rather seem to have ties to the Iranian plateau and to South Central Asia. Recent excavations in the Southwest Caspian Sea region are enabling a new perspective about the interactions between the “Orient” and Continental Europe. On the one hand, it is becoming gradually apparent that a gigantic area of interaction evolved already in the early 4th millennium BC which extended far beyond Mesopotamia; on the other hand, these findings relativise the traditional importance given to Mesopotamia.

The main purpose of this study is to question about Bell Beakers metal artifacts in Western Europe, and more particularly in France. After an inventory of Bell Beakers metal finds and metallurgical evidences in France, we come to the conclusion that the Beakers people used and maybe produced specifics types of artifacts, some of them in direct relation with ornamented ceramic, others in troubles find contexts.

A remarkable number of metallic objects are under direct influence of Iberian models, underlining probable trades between different areas of Bell Beakers cultures, France being at the crossroad of theses exchanges.

According to the small number of metallurgical areas in France, it was very difficult to retrace the level of metallurgical knowledge of Bell Beakers societies and the possible impact on metallurgical processes. But a marked diversity in the pattern of impurities could suggest a deliberate strategy, maintaining a network of relations with diverse metal-producing groups.

Considering the fact that metallurgy takes a large part in the definition of cultural changes, and economics processes during all the third millennium B. C., we think that metal must be seen as a clue to understand the wide spread of Bell Beaker culture in Western Europe.

Keywords: Bell Beaker, metal, metallurgy, copper, gold, France.

This chapter reviews the pre-existing evidence and
interpretations for early mineral use and metallurgy in
the Balkans from the earliest use of copper minerals at
c. 6200 BC (Late Mesolithic-Early Neolithic) to c. 3700
BC (end of the Chalcolithic). It presents the empirical
and intellectual foundations upon which the data,
analyses and interpretations of The Rise of Metallurgy
in Eurasia project builds. The early metallurgy in this
region encompasses the production, distribution and
consumption of copper, gold, bronze, lead and silver, all
being either pure metals or a natural alloy (tin bronze)1.
The chapter initially defines the geographical and
temporal scope under consideration before evaluating
the archaeological and metallurgical evidence in
relation to: mineral exploitation; mining; smelting,
metals and metal artefacts; and metal circulation.
Following each of these sub-sections is a summary of
how The Rise of Metallurgy in Eurasia project oughtto
contribute to this aspect of metallurgical activity,
setting this in relation to the project’s six research
questions as presented in Chapter 2. The chapter
concludes by highlighting the dominant interpretative
narratives relating to early metallurgy, metallurgists
and societies in the Balkans that The Rise of Metallurgy
in Eurasia project will evaluate, against all the available
and relevant archaeological and metallurgical data.

Thanks to a pluri-disciplinary approach using archaeogenetics, archaeology and linguistics, this paper proposes the Ishkhanasar Mountain and Aghitu to be the place of the mythic flood at the origin of the Noah’s history. It also proposes the hypothesis according to which the flood was followed by a Yersinia Pestis outbreak leading to the development of a new cultural entity focused on medicine.

The site of Belovode (44°18’42.34”N, 21°24’27.09”E)
is located near the village of Veliko Laole, c. 140 km
southeast of Belgrade (MAP) and lies on a windy
plateau with the eponymous spring running through
the settlement. The location is typical for a Vinča
culture settlement: a large rolling plateau of ellipsoidal
shape at an altitude of c. 200 m, suitable for agricultural
activities as well as cattle breeding in the dense forests
and pastures (Šljivar et al. 2006: 251–252). The nearby
Mlava River runs deep into the volcanic mountain
range called Homolje, which lies within a zone of
primary copper mining and metallurgy (Krajnović and
Janković 1995).
The site has been excavated since 1993 by the National
Museum of Belgrade and the Museum in Požarevac
(Šljivar and Jacanović 1996a, 1996b, 1997a; Jacanović
and Šljivar 2003; Šljivar et al. 2006; Šljivar 2006). Given
that the publication record for Belovode has been
mainly limited to attempts to interpret and explain
archaeometallurgical activities, a more detailed
account of the history of research at the site will be the
focus of this chapter.
In 2010, the site of Belovode received wide international
recognition following a study of five copper slag pieces,
identified as the earliest in the world (Radivojević et
al. 2010a). Further analyses of archaeometallurgical
materials excavated up to 2009 (Radivojević 2012,
2013; Radivojević and Kuzmanović Cvetković 2014)
led, in 2012, to the establishment of one of the largest
ever international collaborative projects focusing on
Eurasian archaeometallurgy.

Metal production evidence yielded during the
excavation campaigns 2012 and 2013 in Belovode shows
similar characteristic to the samples from the site
studied and published previously (Radivojević 2012,
2013, 2015; Radivojević and Kuzmanović Cvetković
2014; Radivojević and Rehren 2016; Radivojević et al.
2010a). These are predominantly malachite mineral
and ore samples, most likely roughly beneficiated (no
samples larger than 2–3 cm in length, see Appendix
B_Ch11), and very importantly, without any significant
spatial pattern in the excavated area of Trench 18 or
its extension (T18ext henceforth). These minerals were
discovered in all areas, whether in living or economic
spaces, inside the dwellings and other features, and
across the excavation spits, which is why they have also
been found by previous excavation campaigns.

This paper presents a general overview of the current state of the art of archaeological research at the Valencina de la Concepción Copper Age site. The main aim is to put the contributions presented in this volume within a general perspective, with special reference to ongoing debates and promising avenues of research. First, a review is made of the research history of this site, assessing the general conditions of the currently available empirical evidence. Second, a series of topics are discussed, including the spatial organisation of the settlement, its chronology, subsistence economy, metallurgy, exchange and social complexity.

SUMMARY: Lecture 4 examines the Chalcolithic period in Anatolia, including trends, with more focus on Southeast Anatolia. This lecture is designed mainly as an educational resource for college students (i.e., normally posted only on my institution's course website), the public (e.g., people auditing my course), and interested colleagues from other disciplines (to whom I provide copies privately).  I am posting it here, both as a broader access, educational tool, and especially to promote the study of this region and its past societies.  For further knowledge about this region and period, I refer interested parties to the textbooks and other sources from which the materials were extracted (see syllabus), and/or the bibliographies in these works and my online resource guides (see other files in my academia folders).  The lecture summarizes the pertinent materials in the course textbook(s), adding in other data, and furnishing numerous images to clarify information encountered within the textbook(s).  Some generic imagery (usually indicated as such) is posted to aid in transmitting various concepts visually, and/or when a specific image remains not located (temporarily).  I update and revise such lectures each time, with such elective courses normally being taught once every two years.  I try to cover the most current, mainstream views, and usually place summary notes at the end of each lecture alongside some of the key sources used for compiling the ppt.  Over time, each lecture is improved, errors rectified, and additional data placed within the lecture.  These ppt. lectures take many hours to compile, but they have proved useful to many of my more serious students and I hope they can be of benefit to others as well.  My apologies for any errors I may have made, and my liberal usage of educational imagery from professional sources and vetted internet sources. REVISED: Jan. 2024: More images, new slides and text, and selected sources,

This article is of the earliest metal daggers, which in some cases are hardly distinguishable from knives, is compiled in the area between southern Bulgaria (Rohdope mountains), the western Ukraine and Upper Austria (Mondsee). They can be dated to the so called transitional phase between the Eneolithic and the Early Bronze Age according to current Bulgarian terminology. The oldest examples can be placed in the earlier part of the 4th millennium B. C. and are associated with the Bodrogkeresztur Culture. An analysis of the formal aspects of these daggers allows them to be divided into 12 types (with variants), which only partially show genetic connections. The distributions of the individual dagger types do not necessarily correspond to the areas occupied by archaeological cultures defined by pottery. Groupings based on spectral analysis result two main geographic concentrations. Daggers made with arsenic alloys are found in the western Pontic area where as west Carpathian and central Danubian examples show no arsenic inclusions. Interestingly, some Bodrogkeresztur type daggers in Transylvania are made with arsenic alloys, others are not (Arıuşd, Mereşti and Mastacän). Therefore we assume that the daggers first spread from west to east and later dispersed in the opposite direction. The earliest dagger horizon dealt with here, is seen as being a fundamental part of the deep seated changes which lead to the formation of the Early Bronze Age after Aegean terminology.

This study seeks to discuss the origins and early spread of metal technology in the central Mediterranean region. Neolithic and Copper Age evidence of metal-working and metal-using is first reviewed. It is claimed in particular that copper tools were first used, and probably also made, south of the Alps in the late Neolithic, and that complex polymetallic metallurgy developed in the early Copper Age after a short-lived intensification phase in the final Neolithic. In the second section, current models explaining the emergence of metallurgy in this region are then discussed, and a new proposal is put forward. This claims that metal technology, coming from eastern Europe, was imported into the whole of the eastcentral alpine region in the third quarter of the fifth millennium BC. Thence, it would have swiftly spread throughout northern Italy, central Italy, and Sardinia, and would have reached Corsica, southern Italy, and Sicily somewhat later. Finally, it is argued that the Copper Age metalworking communities dwelling in the western part of the central Mediterranean, and especially those located in west-central Italy, would have played a key role in transmitting knowledge of extractive metallurgy further west in the late fourth millennium BC.

The site of Pločnik (43°12’35.72”N, 21°21’50.42”E) is
situated beneath the eponymous modern village, 19
km west of the town of Prokuplje in south Serbia and
300 km south of the capital, Belgrade. It is set at about
300 m above sea level on the left bank of the Toplica
river, whose shifting course presently erodes away the
estimated 3.60 m thick cultural layer of the site (Stalio
1960: 34; 1962: 21). The village is surrounded by good
quality agricultural land (Chapter 23, this volume)
and thermal springs, and has good communication
routes along the river Toplica. This is the major
watercourse in this part of Serbia, which springs from
Kopaonik, a mountain approximately 50 km away
from Pločnik, whose rich iron veins were exploited
in Roman and medieval times (Bogosavljević et al.
1988, 1989; Bogosavljević-Petrović and Tomović 1993;
Bogosavljević-Petrović 1995; Mrkobrad 1989; Mrkobrad
et al. 1989). More than 50 sites with archaeometallurgical
installations from both periods were recognised
around toponymic places like Suvo Rudište (in Serbian:
‘Dry Mine’) or Bakarnjača (in Serbian: ‘Copper-rich’),
indicating intensive metallurgical activities in the past.

Abstract.
The earliest gold and copper objects from Northeastern Iberian Peninsula are dated to the Late Neolithic (c. 3300 cal BC). Until now it was assumed that these communities were carrying out mine, smelting and melting metal activities. However, according to our research, first unequivocal confirmation of metal production is not dated until later, related to Bell Beaker (c. 2800 cal BC). It was carried out a study of these early metal objects by compositional, metallographic and typological analysis. Our findings suggest, first, the existence of close links with metallurgical centres from Western Switzerland and mainly southern France (Cabrières-Péret district, Hérault). From there final metal products would have distributed but not the knowledge or the techniques for their production. These would have been "captive", being North Eastern Iberia communities simple consumers with little or no understanding of the metallurgical process. Secondly, within the socio-economic field, these objects would have a very relative impact. Functional analysis indicate that both tools and ornaments were used repeatedly and continuously in daily life activities. However in no case came to be used exclusively in any sphere of social production. Finally, the funerary practices of this moment show that arrival of the metal did not involve substantial changes in existing community social relations. First signs of social asymmetries will not appear until the beginning of Bell Beaker.

Keywords: First Metallurgy, Copper, Gold, Late Neolithic, Northeastern Iberian Peninsula

shaped The Rise of Metallurgy in Eurasia project and
underpinned the research questions. Firstly, there are
competing views about whether metallurgy in Eurasia
had a single origin or arose in multiple places. There
are also different perspectives regarding the ways in
which pre-existing technical knowledge influenced and
inspired the emergence of this new technology. Further
discourse relates to the manner in which this early
metallurgy was organised across the chaîne opératoire of
metal production and use and developed across a range
of metals and alloys. Each of these three themes are
fundamental to early metallurgy across the world (see
papers in Roberts and Thornton 2014). These are areas
of investigation with a deep history of scholarship and
a wide range of competing explanatory models.
That these lines of enquiry can be re-evaluated in
the Balkans is due to the integrated theoretical and
methodological approach of The Rise of Metallurgy in
Eurasia project, which has extended the scientific
investigation beyond the ‘when’ and the ‘where’ of
early metallurgy to include explorations of ‘how’ and
‘why’.

A rare Chalcolithic rolled-gold bead-like ornament dated to c. 2400–2200 cal. BC was found in association with sherds of early Beaker ware in an Early Bronze Age Collared Urn burial dated
to c. 1545–1450 cal. BC. The grave was located at Pendleton, Lancashire. This paper reports on the AMS radiocarbon dates for the burial context along with X-ray composition analysis of the
gold ornament, which shows the object had a high platinum content consistent with alluvial, placer, deposits possibly originating in Brittany, France rather than the British Isles. This
unparalleled rolled-gold ornament is compared to the corpus of British and French rolled-gold ornaments and contemporary goldwork and a provenance, manufacture and biography of the find is explored. Both curation and fragmentation are considered in the context of a dated Beaker ware assemblage from the local domestic site of Lower Brockholes, Preston, as well as existing corpora of Beaker and Collared Urn ware from the region.

The results and experiences gained from the
multidisciplinary and holistic approaches underlying the
Rise of Metallurgy in Eurasia project provide an opportunity,
not only to reflect on programmes of further research in
the Balkans, but also on scholarship in early metallurgy
across the world. This chapter outlines what might be
usefully taken forward from this project, but also seeks
to highlight gaps in our understandings that could be
addressed. It is by no means a comprehensive agenda for
global early metallurgy studies but is instead intended
to stimulate further debate and discussions that lead to
new programmes of research.