Claros

The Iconography of Terracotta Figurines Carrying Barbitos among the Claros Finds The Claros sanctuary in the Ionia region was dedicated to Apollo Clarius and is one of the most important centers of prophecy in antiquity. Terracotta figurine groups carrying string instruments are among the outstanding votives discovered in the Claros excavations. The musical instruments carried by the figurines in question include the lyra, the kithara, and the barbitos. While similar examples of the figurines carrying the lyra and kithara have been discovered at centers other than Claros, figurines carrying the barbitos have only been encountered among the Claros finds. These figurines have been unearthed on the steps of the archaic altar dedicated to Apollo. Dated to the second half of 6 th century B.C., figurines carrying the barbitos are fewer in number compared to other groups and reflect a single style. From an iconographic perspective, the lyra and the kithara are associated with Apollo's identity as the god of music. This association is clearly portrayed not only through figurines, but in numerous vase paintings as well. Therefore, figurines with the lyra and kithara discovered at the archaic altar in Claros should be evaluated as votives offered to Apollo. However, in the iconography, Apollo is not depicted with a barbitos. A stringed instrument of the lyre family and associated with Lydian or Oriental elements, the barbitos is rarely seen in Attic black-figure vases in the last quarter of 6 th century B.C. Nonetheless, it emerges more frequently on red-figure vases and is often part of Dionysiac scenes. Undoubtedly, music was an important component of the cult of Dionysus as well. As an integral element of Dionysian rituals, trance/ecstasy/divine possession or enthousiasmos occurred not only with wine but through music and dance as well. In vase paintings the barbitos frequently appears in scenes related to the Anthesteria and Lenea festivals held in honor of Dionysus, as well as in scenes depicting a symposium (symposion) or komos. The association of the barbitos with cult and iconography of Dionysus is also evident in the Claros sanctuary. Archaeological finds such as a sundial dedicated to Dionysus (a context iconographically associated with the Anthesteria festivals), terracotta theatric figurines, and a marble mask prove that Dionysus was worshipped just as strongly as Apollo was at Claros. More importantly, epigraphic documents discovered in the sanctuary reveal that Colophonians celebrated the festivals of Dionysus and that the festival of Dionysia was just as important as the festival of Claira celebrated in honor of Apollo Clarius. Claros figurines carrying the barbitos must have the same iconography as the barbitos image in the vase paintings. Consequently, with their unique, distinct stylistic features, Claros figurines carrying the barbitos must be addressed as votives associated with the cult of Dionysus in the sanctuary.

Light environment in the understory of an Andean cloud forest: canopy structure and climatic seasonality. The light environment in the understory of cloud forests is highly heterogeneous and determined by species composition, canopy structure, site conditions, and seasonality. This study was carried out at San Eusebio cloud forest, Venezuela (2 300-2 500 masl). The impact of canopy structure variations on understory light availability was estimated in the dry (December-February) and rainy (March-November) seasons, in sites under continuous canopy cover and gaps of various sizes. Hemispherical photographs were taken to estimate the percentage of canopy openness, leaf area index, percentages of transmitted direct and diffuse light, and duration and frequency of sunflecks. A light index was calculated from the relative proportions of direct and diffuse light transmitted to the understory. For most variables, there were significant differences between seasons, as well as among different gap sizes and under closed canopy. The light index was low (0.25 to 26 of a maximum = 100), even for the largest gaps, indicating a highly shaded light environment, especially beneath closed canopy in the rainy season. Patterns and interactions among factors were analyzed (gaps vs. continuous canopy, gap sizes, location within the gaps, and seasonality) with a mixed effects repeated measures Anova design. Results showed that the amount of light reaching the understory is low in both gaps and closed canopy. However, small but significant differences in light availability existed for both seasonality and magnitude of the perturbations. These differences could contribute to explain the dynamics of tree species regeneration in this forest. The knowledge of the factors conditioning light availability in the understory where tree regeneration begins is crucial in cloud forests because of energetic limitations in this ecosystem, and might be essential for future restoration and conservation plans concerning the preservation of the diversity and integrity of these forests. Rev. Biol. Trop. 64 (4): 1699-1707. Epub 2016 December 01.