Comparative European Politics

Herein, we rigorously develop novel 3-dimensional algebraic models called Genetic Hotels of the Standard Genetic Code (SGC). We start by considering the primeval RNA genetic code which consists of the 16 codons of type RNY (purine-any base-pyrimidine). Using simple algebraic operations, we show how the RNA code could have evolved toward the current SGC via two different intermediate evolutionary stages called Extended RNA code type I and II. By rotations or translations of the subset RNY, we arrive at the SGC via the former (type I) or via the latter (type II), respectively. Biologically, the Extended RNA code type I, consists of all codons of the type RNY plus codons obtained by considering the RNA code but in the second (NYR type) and third (YRN type) reading frames. The Extended RNA code type II, comprises all codons of the type RNY plus codons that arise from transversions of the RNA code in the first (YNY type) and third (RNR) nucleotide bases. Since the dimensions of remarkable subsets of the Genetic Hotels are not necessarily integer numbers, we also introduce the concept of algebraic fractal dimension. A general decoding function which maps each codon to its corresponding amino acid or the stop signals is also derived. The Phenotypic Hotel of amino acids is also illustrated. The proposed evolutionary paths are discussed in terms of the existing theories of the evolution of the SGC. The adoption of 3-dimensional models of the Genetic and Phenotypic Hotels will facilitate the understanding of the biological properties of the SGC.

Greece was the first European Monetary Union (EMU) country to sign
a Memorandum of Economic and Financial Policies (MEFP) with the European
Commission (EC) and the European Central Bank (ECB) in order to secure financial
assistance and prevent a total collapse of its economy following the severe
international economic crisis. The MEFP (2010) and the more detailed Memorandum
of Understanding on Specific Economic Policy Conditionality (SEPC)
(2010) offered elaborate steps of structural reforms that have affected all public
services in Greece. The lack of major results and the stickiness of the ‘Greek
problem’ have made Greece a unique case study for evaluating both the recipe
of the international lenders and the domestic capacity for reform. A historical
institutionalist approach and the concept of ‘policy paradigm’ are combined here in
order to evaluate what the conditions for a major administrative reform in time of
crisis are. The article focuses on the specific attempt to reform public administration
during the Papandreou government in order to analyse the importance of both time
and type of change in the success of a major reform programme.