Contrastive Analysis

This study was carried out to investigate the usage of English reported speech by Albanian students. More specifically, it looks closely to the frequency of occurrence of reported speech and its types, in written and spoken language, the most common mistakes committed by Albanian students when using reported speech, and differences/similarities once compared with the Albanian reported speech.
The study found out that the reported speech is used quite frequently in written and spoken language. Indirect speech is the most frequent type of speech used in both written and spoken language, followed by the direct speech.  As far as the reporting verbs are concerned, except those which are commonly used such as “say” and “tell”, students also tend to use some other ones  such as “be like” and “go” . The reporting verbs “be like” and “go” are usually encountered in the spoken language, even though they may be also encountered in the written. One of the significant aspects of the reported speech concerns the tense shift.  Tense combinations were thoroughly investigated, and the results indicated that the combinations used more frequently by the students are: Past→Past in the written language, and Past→Present in the spoken language. 
In conclusion, textbook description of RS is somehow superficial and ignores many aspects of it. However, students’ written and spoken texts lead us to believe that media and technology influences their process of acquiring and using RS.

Based on the assumption that false friends are neither limited to genetically related languages nor  to single words, this point of view is presented, detailed and applied to two unrelated genetically  languages: Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) and English. Needless to say, the use of multi-words  was completely used instead of single words in order to prove the proposed claim.

Abstract
Contrastive Analysis was used extensively in the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) in the 1960s and early 1970s, as a method of explaining why some features of the second language are more difficult to acquire than others. As English is a popular second language in Iranian society, it has always been targeted by researchers to be analyzed in contrast with Persian language. The aim of this paper was to investigate whether Iranian students had any difficulty using English double object constructions. To do the study, a translation test was administered inclusive of 18 sentences containing verbs with double object arguments. Thereupon, 20 EFL B.A. students and 20 EFL A.A. students were randomly chosen and were asked to translate the Persian sentences into English. The percentage of errors on each verb category as well as the errors on preposition use was calculated. As a result the plausible reasons behind the probable causes of errors were given and the source of errors, whether interlingual or intralingual was accounted. It is also inferred from the result that a great majority of Iranian students had difficulty using these constructions. It was also known that a large number of errors were due to interference or interlingual errors.
Keywords: Double Object Construction, Avoidance Error, Interlingual Error, Intralingual Error

El presente trabajo de fin de máster tiene como objetivo identificar cuáles son los principales obstáculos en la pronunciación española a los que se enfrentan los estudiantes japoneses cuya segunda lengua extranjera es el inglés y establecer una metodología adaptada a ellos que pueda resolver esas dificultades. Para ello, el trabajo se ha dividido en dos secciones: el marco teórico y el estudio de caso. En la primera sección se han realizado una descripción y un análisis contrastivo de los sistemas fonológicos del japonés, el inglés americano y el español. Además, a través de una serie de lecturas se ha recogido información acerca de los principales errores fonológicos que otros profesores de español han encontrado en sus alumnos japoneses. Después de la parte teórica, se ha llevado a cabo la parte empírica en la que participó un exalumno de la Universidad de Rikkyo y que se dividió en tres fases: a) se examinaron las principales dificultades del participante después, b) se intentó corregir algunos de esos problemas mediante una metodología adaptada al alumno y c) se analizaron los resultados finales comparándolos con los de la primera fase. Finalmente, se exponen las conclusiones que se han extraído tras la realización del estudio.
[ENG]
The purpose of the present Master’s Dissertation is to identify which are the main obstacles in the Spanish pronunciation Japanese students whose second foreign language is English confront and to stablish a methodology adapted to them which can solve those difficulties. To achieve that, the project has been divided into two sections: the theoretical framework and the case study. In the first section we have carried out a description and a contrastive analysis of the Japanese, the English and the Spanish phonological systems. In addition, through a series of readings we have collected information about the main phonological mistakes Spanish teachers have found in their Japanese students. After the theoretical part, we conducted the empirical part in which a Rikkyo University alumni participated and which was divided into three phases: a) we examined the main difficulties of our participant b) we tried correcting some of those problems through a methodology adapted to him and b) we analysed the final results comparing them to those obtained during the first phase. Finally, we present the conclusions we deduced after the realization of the study.

The purpose of the present article is the contrastive analysis of the semantic aspect of the lexemes דָםּ (dam), krew and blood, respectively in biblical Hebrew, Polish, and English. Apart from its fundamental meaning referring to the fluid which circulates in the blood vessels of humans and animals, in all of these three languages blood occurs in many other meanings and contexts of language use. The analysis of examples taken from the Hebrew Bible and from Polish and English
dictionaries demonstrates that some of these meanings are coincident for all the three languages, some are analogous only in Polish and English and some typical only to one of these languages.
Key words: blood, contrastive analysis, semantics, symbolism, Polish, English, biblical Hebrew

Interlanguage pragmatics concerns the inspection of interactions among people in society while they are aware of the effects that interaction imposes on them regarding culture, social values and individuals' peculiar interpretations. Of high value in social interaction, politeness is an essential constituent of interlanguage pragmatics. If considered as a skill required to cope with social environmental demands, Emotional Intelligence (EI) may play a part in modifying the interlanguage pragmatics and hence individuals' politeness in response to social interaction. This study investigates how emotional intelligence of L1-Persian EFL learners relates to politeness strategies utilized in requests. To this end, 150 male and female undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate students majored in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) were randomly selected. Instruments of the study included Emotional Intelligence Appraisal Test, Multiple-choice Discourse Completion Task (MDCT), and a politeness questionnaire based on Brown and Levinson's theory of politeness. The results of correlational and regression analyses indicated that EI cannot predict politeness , whereas educational level and pragmatic competence can predict the EFL learners' politeness appreciated in requests in different scenarios. Of interest, the higher the level of education, the more pragmatic ability and politeness thereof.

Розглянуто трактування понять еквівалентності в контрастивному аналізі в працях проф. Ю. О. Жлуктенка. Проведено паралелі і
порівняння його підходу з поглядами інших дослідників: Т. Кшешовскі, М. Галідей та ін.

The issues of equivalence in contrastive analysis as presented in the works of Professor Yuriy Zh-luktenko have been elucidated. His approach
to this problem is compared with its understanding by some other linguists, such as Krzeszowski and Halliday.

Since the early 2000s, a number of researchers have devoted themselves to the study of wine language and discourse, and especially the genre of wine tasting notes. They have analyzed various aspects of tasting notes: their rhetorical structure, their terminology, their use of metaphors, among others. What the vast majority of these studies have attempted to show is what features most tasting notes share; in other words, they have tried to identify what a typical tasting note is like. However, analysis of tasting notes corpora reveals a number of subtle differences not only from one language to another, but also within a given language. Therefore, in this paper we have attempted to identify and categorize these differences, using an English and Spanish comparable corpus, with each language corpus subdivided into three subcorpora, on the basis of the origin of the tasting notes. Differences in content categories, format and style, both in the subcorpora of each language and between the two languages, are analyzed and discussed.
Overall, the English subcorpora reveal greater variation than the Spanish ones, with some features figuring prominently in a given subcorpus and being almost invisible in another.

There is a general sense that the legal system in India is inefficient.  First, there is over-legislation and unnecessary State intervention, both in the form of statutes and administrative law (rules, regulations, procedures). This increases non-transparency and contributes to rent-seeking, which is not distributionally neutral, because the relatively poor tend to suffer more.  Second, over-legislation exists simultaneously with under-governance, because laws aren’t enforced and the dispute resolution system, including enforcement of contracts, isn’t credible.  Reforming legal institutions is not only a desirable end in itself, it also has the byproduct of adding to GDP growth.  While these points are unassailable, most empirical work on documenting inefficiencies of the Indian legal system is fraught with problems.  For a start, cross-country comparisons tend to be overly simplistic, ignoring the specifics of the legal regime and the context within which the country is situated.  In addition, legal indicators used, even when they are not cross-country, tend to be too macro and aggregate and are indiscriminately used. For instance, data collected for Hyderabad are applied to all of Andhra Pradesh.  This paper adopts a different approach.  It draws contrasts between Gurgaon and Faridabad, districts (and towns) not only located within the same State, but also districts with similar historical and geographical backgrounds.  This enables one to control for many variables that cause different trajectories of legal and economic development within and across countries.  The paper then seeks to explain the differential growth in these two geographical regions through differences in the legal land regimes.

Rad se bavi dvostrukim govorom u reklamama za pomoćna medicinska sredstva i kozmetičke proizvode na engleskom i srpskom jeziku. Analizirane su tvrdnje o superiornosti koje oglašivači koriste za manipulaciju. Cilj je da sе pokažu sličnosti i razlike u dvostrukom govoru u ova dva jezika i da se otkrije da li vrsta medija (časopis ili televizija) utiče na samu vrstu ili neke osobine manipulativnih tvrdnji. Korpus se sastoji od 144 reklame, po 72 novinske i po 72 televizijske na svakom od dva jеzika, aktuеlnih od juna do septembra 2015. Gеnеralno, zastupljenost određenih vrsta tvrdnji je u oba jezika u skladu sa očekivanjima: najučestalije su naučne ili statističke tvrdnje, prazne i nejasne tvrdnje, dok se irelevantne tvrdnje i retorička pitanja retko koriste. Mеđutim, nejasne tvrdnje učestalije su u srpskom jeziku, dok su u еnglеskom više prisutnе naučne tvrdnje. Za razliku od srpskog, ispostavilo se da mеdij ima uticaj na odabir manipulativnih stratеgija u еnglеskom jeziku: reklame u časopisima najčešće su naučne ili statističke ili naravno prazne, a u televizijskim reklamama se češće ističe jedinstvenost proizvoda ili je u pitanju preporuka na osnovu ličnog iskustva.

"Kazakhstan, like other former Soviet states, seeks national self-definition. For Kazakhs, proverbs are the traditional resource for defining problems, making moral judgments, and suggesting remedies. As a result, the Kazakhstani government mandates instruction in Kazakh proverbs to shape the nation. How can anthropological and folkloristic tools be implemented to assess the language ideologies brought into play in this situation without crossing the line into conjecture?

Research into "national traits" using proverbs has validity issues since it relies on small proverb sets, fails to acknowledge the multi-voiced nature of language ideologies, and projects values onto the societies in question. More recent research utilizes larger proverb sets, surveys, and participant observation thus providing examples for addressing these shortcomings.

In my own research, I have incorporated these proverb research methods while also addressing the shortcomings of the "national traits" research by setting three delimitations of my research concerning language ideologies expressed by means of Kazakh proverbs. First, I focus on youth, the societal group most likely to change linguistically in an environment of language revitalization. Second, I only explore language ideologies concerning "community". Third, I have worked with a speech community rather than attempting nationwide analysis.

My field research was completed at Kazakh National Technical University in Almaty, Kazakhstan. I surveyed students concerning Kazakh proverbs addressing "community". Students reenacted the most familiar proverbs from the set, thereby narrativizing their language ideologies concerning "community".

I analyzed the data using an adaptation of Goffman's frame analysis. The language ideology showing the most tension was individualism-collectivism. This cultural theme is best understood as a continuum going from individual to the extended family / friends, and finally to the nation. In their narratives, students grappled with the paradigm of strength in numbers and "elders" in the skits repeatedly opposed individualism. In the reenactments, students' agency received its clearest expression in terms of proverbs about extended family / friends. Thus the language ideologies concerning "community" showed the following frame issues (boundaries): 1. Tension over where the speech community should position itself along the individualism-collectivism continuum; 2. Scripts against individualism; 3. Preponderance of adaptations for smaller-scale collectives."

The paper deals with the existing potential of the grammatical realizations of evidentiality (so-called " passive evidentials ") in Lithuanian, which has been described theoretically in literature; however there are no studies that would attest to the frequency and patterns of actual use of this construction in authentic contemporary Lithuanian. The analysis has been carried out in the light of the theoretical approach (Boye and Harder 2009; Boye 2012) and the template of the database of evidential markers in European languages (Wiemer and Stathi 2010). The study employs corpus based quantitative and qualitative methodology in order to investigate the distributional patterns of the-ma/-ta construction in different types of discourse. Though-ma/-ta participles are very 2 frequent in contemporary Lithuanian, their use in the evidential construction is very rare.

This thesis reports an exploratory and contrastive corpus study examining two phenomena in postgraduate academic writing: expressing commitment/detachment and signalling authorial presence in dissertations. More specifically, the overall purpose of the study is to investigate how postgraduate academic writers from particular contexts build their academic stance and voice by employing a range of linguistic items that could be identified as hedges, boosters and authorial references. The corpus consists of a total of 90 discussions sections of master’s dissertations, 30 from Turkish L1 writers, 30 from Turkish writers of English and 30 from UK English L1 writers. A range of items, discourse functions and roles were determined during the pilot study via Nvivo 9. Then, the whole corpus was searched and analysed via WordSmith 5.0 based on the linguistic item list signalling certainty/doubt or authorial presence. In order to address two crucial phenomena in dissertation writing of postgrad...

Newspaper commentaries constitute a part of media discourse, which is a significant area of inquiry in intercultural rhetoric analysis. Through conducting a contrastive textual analysis of newspaper commentaries culled from the English newspapers in the Philippines and Sri Lanka, this paper explored the notions of genre and micro-genre on the 2015 papal visit in the two countries. To set a tertium comparationis in examining the genre-newspaper commentaries on the papal visit, the timeframe was set during the two-week duration of the visit. To investigate the micro-genres employed by the writers, two sets of 15 newspaper commentaries on the visit respectively in the Philippines and Sri Lanka were selected and analyzed. Findings revealed that both Filipino and Sinhalese writers in English newspaper commentaries tended to employ the micro-genre of " media explanatory exposition " more often than other micro-genres, and in terms of rhetorical structures, both of these writers tended to show variation, dynamism, and individuality. Implications for ESL (English as a second language) and EFL (English as a foreign language) teaching are provided in the light of these findings.

The present comparison of conditional clauses in English and Nor-
wegian is based on material from the English–Norwegian Parallel
Corpus. The conditionals are studied with respect to their form,
meaning and placement. A cross-linguistic comparison of origi-
nal texts uncovers much similarity between the languages as re-
gards properties of conditionals, but certain frequency differences
as regards syntactic and semantic choices; briefly, Norwegian has
more sentence-final conditionals than English, and also a higher
proportion of open conditionals. The analogous resources for ex-
pressing conditionals cause translations to be very similar to the
source texts, with a low proportion of non-congruent correspon-
dences in both directions of translation. Similarly, the placement
of conditionals is to a great extent preserved in translation, thus
neutralizing the differences in positional preference found in the
cross-linguistic comparison. This highlights the advantage of bidi-
rectional translation corpora, allowing researchers to distinguish
cross-linguistic differences from translation effects.

บทคัดย่อ

บทความนี้เป็นส่วนหนึ่งในงานวิจัยที่ศึกษาเปรียบเทียบข้อผิดในกระบวนการสร้างคำประสมภาษาอังกฤษที่เป็นคำยืมแปล กลุ่มตัวอย่างในจำนวน 60 คน คัดเลือดมาจากระดับคะแนนประสบการณ์ภาษาอังกฤษของนักเรียนไทยระดับปริญญาตรีชั้นปีที่ 1 จำนวน 330 คน โดยจำแนกนักเรียนไทยที่มีประสบการณ์ภาษาอังกฤษสูง และกลุ่มที่ประสบการณ์ภาษาอังกฤษต่ำ ข้อมูลที่ใช้ในงานวิจัยมาจากแบบทดสอบการสร้างคำประสมภาษาอังกฤษจากคำภาษาไทยที่เป็นคำยืมแปลจำนวน 80 คำ โดยไม่จัดกัดอัตราความเร็วในการนึกรู้คำ (Reaction time) ผลการวิจัยสรุปได้ว่า กระบวนการสร้างคำประสมภาษาอังกฤษที่มีความหมายเทียบเท่ากับคำประสมในภาษาไทยทีเป็นคำยืมแปลมีลักษณะของการสร้างคำที่มีความแตกต่างเป็นแนวต่อเนื่อง (Continuum) จากการ (Problem Avoidance Strategy) ซึ่งกลวิธีและข้อผิดในการสร้างคำประสมภาษาอังกฤษของกลุ่มตัวอย่างทั้ง 2 กลุ่มมีความแตกต่างกัน นอกจากนี้กระบวนการการสร้างคำภาษาอังกฤษของนักเรียนกลุ่มต่ำแสดงให้เห็นถึงความจำกัดของคลังคำซึ่งนักเรียนไทยมีไม่เพียงพอจะใช้เพื่อนึกรู้คำ และเป็นกลุ่มที่ข้อผิดเกิดจากการถ่ายโอนภาษาแม่มากที่สุดผ่านทั้งทางรูปเขียนและมโนทัศน์ อย่างไรก็ตาม ผลการทดลองเสนอแนวคิดที่ว่า ผู้เรียนทวิภาษาที่มีประสบการณ์ภาษาอังกฤษสูงมีกลวิธีการสร้างคำประสมภาษา มีความหมายใกล้เคียงกับคำในภาษาอังกฤษมากกว่าและมีรูปแบบที่หลากหลายกว่า โดยใช้โครงข่ายทางความหมาย และมีระดับความถูกต้องตามไวยากรณ์ของรูปคำภาษาอังกฤษมากกว่า ครั้งนี้ไม่พบกลยุทธ์การเลี่ยงปัญหา ดังเช่นในกลุ่มที่มีประสบการณ์ภาษาอังกฤษต่ำ

Abstract

This article reports an experimental study that aimed at investigating compound of Thai students with different English language experiences in the formation of English compound words equivalent to Thai compounds. The data were collected from 60 students, selected from 330 first-year university students by their English language experience levels determined by the scores acquired from a language exposure questionnaire. There were 30 students in each group that had the highest and lowest English language experiences. The sample groups were required to construct 80 English compound words equivalent to Thai compounds which are borrowed loans. Reaction time was not investigated. The test results from the 2 sample groups demonstrated that the proficiency of L2 lexical access was related to learners L2 experiences. They also exhibited a continuum of English word formation strategies. The result from the low L2 group revealed that they had limited English lexical items in their lexicon. In addition, an avoidance strategy was used frequently in the low group. It was also found that L1 transfer was salient in the English formation patterns of the low L2 group, both in the conceptual and orthographical aspect. However, in bilinguals with high L2 experience, there was a large diversity of L2 compound word formation strategies with a high level of grammatical accuracy. The high group also used a semantic network, and no avoidance strategy was used, in contrast to the low L2 learners.

Well is the most frequently analysed discourse marker. However, its meaning still remains elusive. The question explored in this paper is to what extent a Contrastive Analysis of a pragmatic marker can help identify its meaning and functions. The answer to this question is supported by an analysis of the occurrences of well in the film Four Weddings and a Funeral and their functional equivalents in the Catalan and Spanish dubbed versions. The analysis provides evidence for considering that pragmatic markers such as well exhibit differences in meaning when compared with logical markers such as but. Their meaning is fully pragmatic and can be represented as a radial category including modal and structural meanings.

Целью статьи является представление методики сопоставительного анализа базовых единиц внутри-и межкультурной коммуникации и демонстрация ее применения на примере модели рече-вого поведения ОБЕЩАНИЕ. В отличие от ранее предложенных терминов, таких как речевой акт (Дж. Остин и Дж. Сёрль), речевой жанр (М. Бахтин), основную единицу коммуникации пред-лагается назвать моделью речевого поведения (МРП). Иллокутивное содержание и общая органи-зация моделей речевого поведения могут считаться универсальными, в то время как их языко-вая реализация является культурно обусловленной и может существенно различаться в разных языковых сообществах. В составе анализа каждой модели необходимо вычленить и описать следу-ющие компоненты: 1) коммуникативную цель МРП или ее иллокуцию в терминах Естественного семантического метаязыка, 2) структуру модели, включающую лексическую и грамматическую ха-рактеристику основных компонентов высказываний, реализующих данную МРП, 3) коммуникатив-но-прагматические факторы, влияющие на реализацию модели, 4) коммуникативно-прагматическое поле, отражающее иерархическую организацию МРП, в составе которого выделяются прототи-пический центр и градуально сформированная периферия, 5) перлокутивный эффект МРП, то есть описание возможных реакций на высказывания, реализующие данную МРП. На основе данной мето-дики в статье представлен сопоставительный анализ МРП ОБЕЩАНИЕ в русском и немецком язы-ках. Исследование базировано на существующих корпусах немецкого и русского языков. Ключевые слова: речевое поведение, обещание, межкультурная коммуникация, контрастив-ная лингвистика, русский, немецкий ВВЕДЕНИЕ Для научных лингвистических исследований в ХХI в. характерным является выраженный интерес к вербальному и невербальному речевому поведению пред-ставителей различных языков и культур. Фокус анализа смещается в сторону по-липарадигмального анализа практической коммуникации и изучения условий ис-пользования языковых средств говорящими как в каждом отдельном языке так и в сопоставлении. 1 Данная статья является составной частью проекта «Контрастивное описание моделей ре-чевого поведения в немецком и русском языках», выполяемого Е. Которовой и В. Гладровым.

In this article we present the results of a contrastive analysis about the politeness strategies used in the expression of requests in Castilian Spanish and European Portuguese. By using the DCT methodology, we have designed a questionnaire with petitions of different cost-benefit for the conversational partner and with variations relative to power and the social distance that exists between the participants. Once the data was gathered, we did a triple study about the differences in the expression of rquests: 1) between Spanish and Portuguese, 2) from the rank of imposition of the object and the petition, and 3) according to the social distance and the relative power of the participants. The results show that, although using different linguistic and politeness strategies, the expression of petitions is similar between Spanish and Portuguese speakers, although the latter take the social distance and the relative power of the hearer more into account than the Spanish speakers at the moment of choosing politeness forms.

U radu se istražžuju sekundarne promene u adaptaciji anglicizama na morfološškom i semantičkom nivou na korpusu sakupljenom na drušštvenoj mrežži Fejsbuk u komunikaciji o rijaliti-programima. U okviru morfološške adaptacije razmatraju se razlčiti oblici reči dobijeni dodavanjem domaćih afiksa na imenice, glagole i prideve poreklom iz engleskog jezika. Cilj je da se utvrde vrsta i broj afiksa te najčešši motivi za derivaciju. Na planu semantike analiziraju se anglicizmi koji su dužžom upotrebom u srpskom jeziku proširili obim značenja ili stekli dodatno značenje. Razmatraju se i značenjske promene nastale kao rezultat delovanja metafore, pejorizacije i elipse u srpskom jeziku. Analizom ovog zasad nedovoljno istražženog aspekta adaptacije anglicizama otkriće se obrasci i tendencije u sekundarnoj adaptaciji.

Die mittlerweile zahlreichen Methoden des phraseologischen Vergleichs des Deutschen mit einer oder mehreren anderen Sprache(n) widmen ihre Auf-merksamkeit nur selten den typologisch bedingten Unterschieden und Ge-brauchspräferenzen der verglichenen Sprachen. Auch in den eher spärlich ausfallenden Studien zum deutsch-tschechischen phraseologischen Vergleich werden die doch recht markanten typologischen Unterschiede des Deutschen und Tschechischen kaum beachtet. Im vorliegenden Aufsatz wird ein Modell des synchronen phraseologischen Vergleichs vorgestellt, in dem – bei der Analyse der Struktur der Phraseme und der Suche nach ihrem Äquivalenzgrad – in Bezug auf das Rahmenthema die Frage im Vordergrund steht, wie mit den typologischen Besonderheiten des Deutschen (z. B. Artikel, stärkeres Vorkommen der Komposition) und des Tschechischen (z. B. Aspekt) bzw. mit der Differenz beim Synthetizitätsindex in den beiden Sprachen (unterschiedliche Kasuszahl, einfache Kasusformen vs. analytische Formen mit Präposition) umzugehen ist. An Beispielen der deutschen und tschechischen verbalen Phraseme mit so-matischen Substantivkomponenten wird gezeigt, dass die Ausklammerung der systembedingten, durch die Typologie " vorhersagbaren " Differenzen beim Vergleich der Morphosyntax eine präzisere Äquivalenz-Klassifikation ermög-licht.

This study is an endeavor to find how English native and nonnative EFL/ESL (English as foreign language/English as second language) writers use adversative conjunctions to connect ideas together so that texts have both coherence and cohesion. Regarding the problems nonnative writers of EFL face when composing a piece of writing, we attempted a qualitative study through compiling a stack of 200 articles written by the two groups. The research design concerned the content analysis of research articles and descriptive statistics showing the frequency of occurrences of modals in the data. The findings indicated
that the number of proper and correction adversatives exceeded those of contrastive and dismissal; the statistically significant difference between two groups lay in the use of proper and correction adversative conjunction, whereas the two groups showed little or no difference in the usage of contrastive or dismissal adversatives. These findings can help material writers, EFL/ESL teachers, and learners to appreciate the significant roles adversative conjunctions play in writing.

Книга посвящена проблеме когнитивных истоков языковой катего-ризации; в ней рассматривается комплекс вопросов, связанных с общей проблемой представления знаний в языке. На конкретном материале показывается феноменологический характер базовых когнитивных структур пространства и времени, участвующих в формировании языковой картины мира. Предлагается когнитивная модель категории вида в русском языке, анализируется эпистемическое соотношение именной и местоименной систем.

Since long time ago, there has been a great demand for learning English as a foreign language because of countless reasons and the most important of all is technology. Amongst the millions of English learners from all over the world, Arabs and specially Egyptians immensely needed to learn English for job requirements. Teaching the pronunciation of a foreign language is unquestionably a complicated task; as it necessitates a great ability of explanation in addition to an excellent awareness of this foreign language along with the learners’ mother tongue’s phonological system. This awareness enables the teacher to understand and handle the learners’ challenges in the best way. In this article, I will discuss the challenges facing teaching the pronunciation of a foreign language process, especially in English with some recommended solutions based on personal teaching experience. Before all of that, I will introduce the distinctive features of both English and Arabic phonetic system with a contrastive analysis to pave the way for the reason why there are such challenges.