Copula

A copula construction is defined as the most basic construction or constructions which a language uses to encode the meanings of: (a) identity of two participants normally encoded as noun phrases in that language (for example, ‘that man is my father’, ‘that woman is Mary’); and (b)group membership or classification using noun phrases (for example, ‘that woman is a doctor’, ‘that man is a teacher’) (Curnow 1999).The copula grammatically is applicable in Hausa with the extension of marking gender. The Hausa copula nee/ceeis a grammatical element devoid of independent meaning, which differentiates between masculine singular and feminine singular respectively (Batagarawa 2014). The Hausa predicate is divided into Predicate 1 (verbal predicate) e.g. Àlíyá á sàyímoótaà and Predicate 2 (nonverbal predicate) which consist of Predicate 2A e.g. ÀlíMaálàmiíneè and Predicate 2B e.g. Zaáfiíàkwái à Sákkwátoó. Predicate 2A is the copula constructions in Hausa which always comprises more than one NP and copula nee/cee. While the nee isindicating masculine gender, ceeis indicating feminine gender. This paper is going to discuss some observations where some sentences in Hausa can take both nee and ceè copulas with the same semantical expression. e.g. Háusábàdábobáceè and Háusábàdábobáneè or Wánnànwàsánkwáikwáyoóneè and Wánnànwàsárkwáikwáyoóceè. The paper is going to analyze and explain this important grammatical issue in Hausa and its implication in pedagogy.

In recent years there has been a growing stream of research focusing on cyber-insurance. Risk transference with insurance has been suggested by both practitioners and academics to absorb losses caused by security breaches as well as to supplement the existing set of security tools to manage IT security residual risk after IT security investments are made. In this paper, we investigate pricing of cyber-insurance products using the emerging copula methodology for modeling dependent risks from an actuarial approach which is different to the process approaches of Bohme and Kataria (2006) and Mukhopadhyay et. al. (2006). We discuss a framework for assessing the empirical dollar loss distribution from the empirical distribution of the number of infected computers. We develop a cyber-insurance model and demonstrate the Gumbel copula to price insurance premiums using a numerical example with ICSA data.

Koşaçlar, cümlede özne ile yüklem arasında yüklemleme ilişkisi kuran ana yardımcı fiilin çekimlenmiş biçimleridir.  Genel olarak Hint Avrupa dillerinde, özelde tarihi Ermenice ve Rusçada koşaçlar özne ile yüklem arasında, yüklemin hemen önünde konumlandırılır. Genel Türk dilinde ise koşaçlar yüklemin hemen sonrasında yer alır. Yapılan tarama sonucunda 16 ve 17. yüzyıllarda Deşt-i Kıpçak’ta Ermeni harfleriyle yazılan Türkçe metinlerde, +men/+dırmen,+sen, +DIr, +biz, +siz, +DIrlAr biçimbirimlerinin geniş zaman koşacı; edim, ediñ, edi, edik, ediñiz, ediler ve edir biçimbirimlerinin ise görülen geçmiş zaman koşacı olarak kullanıldığı belirlenmiştir. Bu metinlere özgü olan edir öğrenilen geçmiş koşacının kullanımı, öznenin teklik 3. kişi olduğu cümlelerle sınırlıdır. Deşt-i Kıpçak dil ilişki sahasında belirli Türkçe metinlerin Ermeni harfleriyle yazılmış olması, bu metinlerin sözvarlığına Ermenice ve Rusçadan sözlerin genel olarak kopyalanmış, Türk dilinin Ermenice ve Rusçayla ilişki içinde olduğuna işaret eder. Bu dil ilişkisi, Ermeni harfliyle yazılmış Kıpçak Türkçesi metinlerindeki bazı cümlelerin sözdizimlerini de etkilemiştir. Şöyle ki, koşaçların tarihi Ermenice ve Rusçanın sözdizimindeki konumları seçilip Türk dilinin sözdizimine kopyalanmış ve koşaçlar yüklemin hemen önüne taşınmıştır. Böylece “özne (ad öbeği) / koşaç / yüklem (eylem öbeği)” eşleme (replica) öge dizimiyle birçok cümle kurulmuştur.
ABSTRACT
The copulas in linguistic are auxiliary morphemes used to link the subject of a sentence with predicate in the sentence. The forms of the copula verb serves as the copula. In general, the Indian European languages, in particular the historical Armenian and Russian, copulas are positioned between the subject and predicate, positioned just in front of the predicate. In the general Turkic language, the copulas takes place just after the predicate. As result of review of Turkish texts written with Armenian letters in Desht-i Qipchaq in the 16th and 17th centuries;  these are determined morphemes of the present copula are +men/+dırmen,+sen, +DIr, +biz, +siz, +DIrlAr and the morphemes of the past copula are edim, ediñ, edi, edik, ediñiz, ediler and edir.  The use of past copula edir is specific to these texts is limited to sentences where the subject is the singular 3rd person. To be written in Armenian letters of some Turkish texts in language contact area in Desht-i Qipchaq and copy of Armenian and Russian words to the vocabulary of these texts points out the language contacts between Turkish, Armenian and Russian languages. This language contacts affects syntax of some sentence in Turkish texts written with Armenian letters.  Namely, the place of the copulas in syntax of the historical Armenian and Russian is copied to the syntax of the Turkish language. As a result, the Turkish copulas moved just in front of the predicate.  Accordingly, it has been found that many sentences have been established with the replica syntax for Turkish the revealed in the form of subject / copula / predicate.

Thomistic commentators agree that Thomas Aquinas at least nominally allows for 'to be' (esse) to signify not only an act contrasted with essence in creatures, but also the essence itself of those creatures. Nevertheless, it is almost unheard of for any author to interpret Thomas's use of the word 'esse' as referring to essence. Against this tendency, this paper argues that Thomas's In V Metaphysics argument that every predication signifies esse provides an important instance of Thomas using esse to signify essence. This reading of In V Metaphysics, which this paper defends against an alternative interpretation, entails significant reinterpretations of Thomas's technical terms 'esse substantiale' and 'esse in rerum natura' as well as Thomas's use of 'is,' both as a copula and as a principal predicate.

There are different types of copular sentence. 'Cicero is tall' does not mean the same thing as 'Cicero is Tully'. The former is typically called a predication and the latter an identity. But where does this difference come from (and the difference between these sentences and 'Cicero is a Roman statesman', 'This is Cicero', and 'The culprit was Cicero' for that matter)? This thesis is an attempt to bring the combined forces of modern linguistics and philosophy together to understand how we make meaningfully distinct sentences. It is useful to focus on copular sentences for this task because they are the minimally-sized sentences in many of the world's languages. A debate in linguistics has persisted for some years about the status of sentences like 'The culprit was Cicero', in particular, in terms of whether they should be aligned with predications or identities. The linguistic evidence points in different directions. I think there are conceptual clarifications that could elucidate the terms of this debate.

I start by investigating the obvious logical starting point: logic. Can copular sentences really be exhaustively specified as logical predications or identities in the first place? What about syntax? Does it have a problem-free definition of predication that might serve as a way of distinguishing meanings? I answer in the negative in both cases. From there the copula itself is studied, and I argue that it isn't any kind of real lexical verb that can be semantically ambiguous (like the verb 'bank' can in 'I'm going down a driveway banked by boulders and wildflowers' vs. 'I banked the cheque then went for lunch'). I then give some examples of the sort of thing linguists have shown copulas actually can do. I argue that distinguishing copular sentence meanings is not something that can be truly explained in logical or syntactic terms; the best we can hope for is to describe the different uses of the biological capacity for language, to talk of 'functions' of copular sentences and their components. I argue for an approach to a full description of copular sentences that is based mainly on use and information structure properties of the flankers of the copula. Different permutations of these give rise to different sentence types, and thus to a more pluralistic copular taxonomy. Syntax has a foundational role, but it does not serve to discriminate copular sentence meanings. Copular sentences are argued to be uniformly syntactic predications.

Overall, then, I argue that the taxonomy of copular sentences cannot be explained in terms of logical predication or logical identity. Rather, we can describe (not explain) the distinct meaning types of copular sentences in terms of the number of different licit permutations of flanker properties, where these are mainly use and information structure properties.

This paper aims to reconstruct Schelling’s ‘theory of judgment’ following his own account in The Ages of the World (Die Weltalter). I suggest that Schelling develops a notion of judgment as ‘separation of an indistinct, undifferentiated unity in order to achieve a higher, explicit unity’ throughout his different phases, and that the different ways of interpreting the copula correspond systematically to the moments implied by judgment. Furthermore, I underline how his particular understanding of judgment and its moments (undifferentiated unity, separation, explicit unity), in relation to different senses of the copula, allows Schelling to relate the structure of judgment to existence, to underline the difference between potentiality and actuality, and, especially, to discover a structure of judgment that makes room for freedom. Finally, I briefly connect the tension between an identity ‘previous’ to any subject-object distinction and the free activity of uniting what is separate, as found in Schelling’s notion of judgment, to the tension between ‘embodied coping’ and conceptual normative activity in contemporary debates.

Este documento realiza una descripción de las medidas de dependencia con sus principales ventajas y desventajas y presenta a la cópula como una estructura flexible que permite caracterizar diferentes tipos de dependencia. Adicionalmente, introduce el uso de la cópula en la medici´on de riesgo financiero, tomando como ejemplo un portafolio compuesto por tres activos representativos del mercado colombiano. Las pruebas

In a few texts, Thomas Aquinas says that the first operation of the intellect pertains to (respicit) “the quiddity of a thing” whereas the second operation pertains to “the to be itself of a thing” (esse). But Aquinas also says that quiddities are to the intellect as color is to the power of sight. Statements such as these seem to have led Jacques Maritain and Étienne Gilson to see esse as the proper object of the intellect’s second operation. Against this conclusion, Fr Régis and Ralph McInerny have argued—using Aquinas’s In I Peryermenias, lecture 5—that since ‘is’ is a verb and ‘is’ signifies existence, but all verbs signify the first operation of the intellect, we must be able to form a concept of existence in the first operation of the intellect. This paper does three things. First, it analyzes the nature of the claim made by Maritain and Gilson. Second, it shows from internal textual evidence that “respicit ipsum esse rei” cannot mean what Maritain and Gilson take it to mean. The second operation of the intellect cannot have a proper object distinct from the object of the first operation, which is quiddities. Finally, this paper provides an alternative interpretation of In I Peryermenias, lecture 5, to the one given by McInerny. In that text, Aquinas does not speak about a particular concept of existence in the first operation of the intellect and signified by the verbs ‘is’ or ‘exists.’ Rather, he uses the word ‘esse’ in indirect speech to include generally any form or act joined to a subject by the copula, ‘is.’ Aquinas’s focus is not on what ‘esse’ or ‘est’ signifies, but on the mode in which it signifies (per modum actualitas) absent additional qualifying terms. The conclusion of this paper is that, although the esse contrasted with essence in Aquinas’s metaphysics corresponds to a concept in the intellect’s first operation, nevertheless, like the notions of blindness and of genus, this esse cannot fall properly within the intellect’s object.

My work consists of a comparative study of the performances of the multivariate regime switching model
against the single regime model in terms of portfolio returns in the context of dynamic asset allocation. The
study was conducted through the practical application, both in-sample and out of-sample, of the two
models under various portfolio optimization approaches.
In the first part of the asset allocation exercise I constructed for any asset pricing model, both in-sample
and out-of-sample, two dynamic recursive efficient portfolios that maximize the Sharpe among portfolios
on the efficient frontier (one with opened budget constraint that permits between 0% and 100% in the
riskless asset, one whose weights must sum to 1); in addition short selling, thus negative asset class
weights, is not allowed. The other three dynamic recursive portfolios that I constructed have been chosen
as those that maximize the investor utility function with three different risk aversion coefficient subject to
non-negative weights and opened upper budget constraint.
The second part of the asset allocation exercise focuses only on the out-of-sample period. Here the Copula-
Opinion Pooling approach is applied to implement in the asset pricing model views on the asset returns
produced by both the single regime model and the regime switching model. The purpose of this section is
to investigate and make a comparison of the behavior of the regime switching model and the single state
model in the COP framework in terms of both expected and realized portfolio returns and Sharpe ratio in
the context of mean-variance and conditional value-at-risk (CVaR) portfolio optimization. Therefore, in
addition to the five recursive optimal portfolios chosen with the same portfolio selection process as in the
first part, here using conditional value-at-risk as the risk exposure constraint, I derived the dynamic optimal
weights of other five different portfolios equally distributed, in terms of CVaR, along the time dependent
efficient frontier for different values of the confidence in the views.
The over-performance can be achieved by the more efficient and desirable risk-reward combinations on
the state-dependent frontier that can be obtained only by systematically altering portfolio allocations in
response to changes in the investment opportunities as the economy switches back and forth among
different states. An investor who ignores regimes sits on the unconditional frontier, thus an investor can do
better by holding a higher Sharpe ratio portfolio when the low volatility regime prevails. Conversely, when
the bad regime occurs, the investor who ignores regimes holds too high a risky asset weight. She would
have been better off shifting into the risk-free asset when the bear regime hits. As a consequence, the
presence of two regimes and two frontiers means that the regime switching investment opportunity set
dominates the investment opportunity set offered by one frontier.

Paper delivered at Teangeolaíocht na Gaeilge conference, Maynooth University, 2015.

In this paper I argue that the use of the substantive verb with noun predicate (Irish *tá sé fear) is an internal development in Manx, rather than a symptom of the language's 'creolized' nature or 'simplification' (Ó Sé 1991: 170, Williams 1994: 738-740). In no period of Manx does the substantive verb supplant the copula and substantive verb + preposition constructions; rather the different constructions co-exist (indeed some Manx copula constructions are more conservative than Scottish Gaelic), their distribution apparently determined by the semantics of permanence v. transience, tense, syntactic complexity etc. Evidence from corpora of eighteenth-and nineteenth-century Manx will be used to illustrate this distribution. I argue that the emergence of the substantive verb + noun predicate construction is to be explained by 1) the lack of an augmented past / conditional form of the copula (Scottish Gaelic b' e) 2) the lack of the development of the clefted construction with the preposition 'in' (Scottish Gaelic is e tidsear a tha annam) 3) emergence of substantive verb to clarify tense of copula (e.g. she dooinney mie v'eh 'he was a good man'), which then leads to v'eh / t'eh dooinney mie 'he was / is a good man' as the unfocused equivalent.

Phonetic realisation does not absolutely determine whether syntactic structure exists. Certain constructions might lack overt syntax, but once thoroughly examined, show telltale signs of silent syntactic structure. Copular constructions in Malay are certainly one of such constructions as subjects and complements in nonverbal predication are not mediated by a copula; therefore, by Occam’s razor, the simplest analysis would be that there is no structure between the two constituents. This study examines copular clauses in Malay and attempts to substantiate the claim that there is more syntactic structure than meets the eye (or ear) through the use of certain diagnostic tests such as the use of adverbials and auxiliaries, to detect the presence of inflectional and verbal projections. It is found that copular clauses possess both inflectional and verbal layers as it is possible for certain auxiliaries and adverbials to occur in copular clauses in Malay.

This article deals with a particular type of simple sentences with a complex predicate, which includes the demonstrative pronoun Pol. to / Russ. это. The author presents the prevailing in the linguistic literature view, that such units take the position of the so-called copula. The analysis of linguistic material of modern Russian and Polish (taking into account the category of functional syntax) makes it possible to make the conclusion, that in fact there is a subject duplication, which is used to the emphatic extract of this part of sentence in the speech.

Using the interpretation and analysis of the passage Ur-Namma 28 1:10-13 as starting point, this paper argues that copular clauses in Sumerian may function as paratactic relative clauses in biclausal constructions. It also demonstrates that the choice that which participant of the copular clause will function as head is determined not by the syntactic but by the pragmatic function of the participants. In the concluding part, the paper contends that the grammatical construction used in the frequently discussed passage E-ana-tum 5 5:10–17 is the same as that of Ur-Namma 28 1:10-13. It shows that the oddity of the E-ana-tum passage is due to the phenomenon that the name E-ana-tum is used once as an expression referring to a person, the ruler of Lagaš, and once as an expression referring to his name.

This essay, in explicating Christ as the copula, which is to say, the incarnation of the universal Word or Logos as the expression of God, posits that Christ is in fact not human and divine, but rather neither human nor divine, at least not as such. Humanity and divinity are rather the two termini which are united by the differentiating enactment of the Logos as the copula itself, the bond between God and the human being.  Humanity and divinity are thus not pre-given data to be combined in the incarnation, but they are rather the ensuing consequents. The Logos, then, is neither the subject-term proper, i.e., God the Father, who would accept the form of, i.e. acquire as a predicate-nominative, humanity, nor is the subject-term Jesus of Nazareth, who would be predicated with divinity, but the Christ, the incarnate Logos, is rather a middle term, the copula itself. In short, to say that Christ is both a human and God is neither to say that God became human (which tends toward Docetism) nor to say that a human became God (which tends toward Arianism). It is rather to say that that which is God is the same as that which is human. In this way God does not become human and a human does not become God, but that which is already a middle term, the Logos, becomes God precisely by becoming human (a monophysitism or Eutychianism that ends with two distinct natures).

This craft essay traces the role of the appositive in contemporary American poetry, looking specifically at work by Ashbery, Ammons, Rich, and Tate, and argues that apposition's unique mixture of renaming and syntactic parallelism constructs a lyrical state of mind, one that both narrows in on vital particulars and opens up a poem up to radical inclusivity.

Contemporary orthodoxy affirms that singular terms cannot be predicates and that, therefore, ‘is’ is ambiguous as between predication and identity. Recent attempts to treat names as predicates do not challenge this orthodoxy. The orthodoxy was built into the structure of modern formal logic by Frege. It is defended by arguments which I show to be unsound. I provide a semantical account of atomic sentences which draws upon Mill’s account of predication, connotation and denotation. I show that singular terms may be predicates, that it is highly implausible that there is an ‘is’ of identity in natural languages, and that modern formal logic is deficient in that it cannot recognise propositions, including singular existentials, in which singular terms are predicates, or inferences which depend upon the logical role rather than the logical category of expressions.