Garrisoning

The Political System of the Eighteenth Century’s City of Białystok
Białystok received city rights in 1692, known privileges had been passed in the years 1749 and 1760. In spite of the fact that these acts granted basic principles of the urban system, the owners of Bialystok were able to freely decide changes that could have violated the existing order. An important change was the establishment of the landwójt office in 1769. The landwójt (mayor) was a position appointed for life by the Branicki
family. The landwojt was able to subdue the municipal authorities and the city ´ judiciary. Białystok was an extremely diverse city in terms of its organization. In this article I was able to isolate four loosely interconnected authority structures: city – suburbs – the Jewish community – military garrison. This, diverse in form, urban organization
was supervised by courtly suzerainty. Until the 1st half of XVIII century owners could have made necessary steps independently (to a great extent). With the development of Białystok they handed over their powers (including judicial power) to the General Commissioner of the Podlasie Estates. Izabela Branicka decided in 1772 to appoint
a special official – a governor. His sole task was to manage the city.
An important arrangement was the division of Białystok into two areas: the left-bank, where the city “proper” was located, and the right-bank, which, despite frequently naming it a “new city”, was not a distinct urban structure. Unification was made under the reign of War and Domain Chamber and the whole process ended with the lease of Białystok by Izabela Branicka to the King of Prussia in 1802.

"Fanno il deserto e lo chiamano pace." Così lo storico Tacito descrive i legionari di Roma, espressione rapace di uno Stato in espansione. In effetti, nell'immaginario collettivo, l'esercito romano rappresenta una compatta, inarrestabile macchina da guerra. Un esempio ineguagliabile di efficienza e disciplina. E lo fu davvero, anche se non fu solo questo. Seguendone l'evoluzione è possibile ripercorrere lo sviluppo dell'intera società romana. Proprio ciò che in questo volume fa Federica Guidi, puntando la lente d'ingrandimento sulle forze armate dell'Urbe, che a prima vista appaiono una realtà monolitica. Partendo dall'epoca regia per arrivare alla tarda età imperiale, l'autrice descrive con uno stile sapientemente vivace l'articolazione delle legioni, le tecniche di guerra, ma anche gli aspetti più quotidiani della vita dei soldati: dalla costruzione delle macchine belliche alle pratiche mediche di soccorso, dall'addestramento alla organizzazione dei castra. Per scoprire che le legioni furono lo specchio della grandezza di Roma e della sua straordinaria capacità di includere e integrare l'altro, il diverso.

This paper describes the adjustments and changes of Ming military system after the war against Wokou (1549-1564/1565), especially in the garrison army section and the expenditures. I discuss the administrative-military change, social change and the related historical trend (the Ming court lost the control of the army gradually) after the coastal challenge in the context of the previous military/militia divided system. Many garrison troops were cut, while some maintained, asking some more financial support paid by silver. The change of the military structure turned to be the key points of the dynasty’s decline: In a short-term perspective, the threats of piracy were solved; in a long-term perspective, over half a century later, the dynasty collapsed eventually.

Two long appendixes of the details of military arrangement and silver supplies, "the Defense Sites of Prefectures, Guards and Garrisons Along the Yangtze River" and "the Silver Supply Details of Minzhuang, Gongbing, Caojiang, Jiangfang, Haifang in South Zhili Prefectures and Counties," indicate the dilemma of the Ming system in the sense of corvee and silver.

This essay suggests that to a large extent, historians have shown an interest in the military history of Hong Kong. They not only studying about the hopeless defence during WWII, but also explore Hong Kong’s defence strategies and military garrison across different ages. The essay would propose a few characteristics of Hong Kong’s military history, and show why historians are interested in studying this topic.

This paper examines what it is possible to say about who commanded the non-Italian, auxiliary troops which frequently served in the armies of the Roman Republic. The discussion is restricted to land forces, looking firstly at the evidence for Romans in command of auxilia – mostly found at the upper levels of command – and secondly at the evidence for non-Romans commanding auxilia – mostly found at the level of individual unit commanders. The problem of classification of auxilia (allies, auxiliaries, or mercenaries?) is briefly considered, with reference to their military autonomy. The final section explores the potential value of ‘native’ commanders and Roman recognition of this, through clientela and mechanisms of reward and civic incorporation. The paper concludes with brief speculation on developments in practice over the course of the Republic.

There are enough cases of military baths in Germania Superior and Raetia when their functional surface was reduced or some parts were given other functions than those specific to the baths in the Late Period (the 2nd third of the 3rd century). The diminution of the number of the baths users was considered a cause for such reductions. An important reason behind the diminishing number of soldiers in the border areas (and implicitly of users of the baths from auxiliary forts), during the Late Period was considered the fact that a part of them were send from their garrison spots for missions in other areas (and – if – they returned with incomplete effectives, to various degrees).
In the same Late Period, troops or detachments of troops from Dacia were frequently dislocated outside the province for wars waged against the enemies of the Empire or during Roman internal confrontations (as a result of the repeated usurpations during this period). Specialists have wondered if some of the detachments from the troops of the province returned to their forts after the end of the hostilities or the temporary dislocations turned into permanent transfers in weak points or in certain concentration areas.
Through the present initiative we wish to verify the variants from the perspective of the used area of military baths.

This paper deals with finds of clay slingshots discovered during the archaeological investigations of the Roman military camp Novae in the Iron Gates gorge. Castle Novae is situated in eastern Serbia,18 km downstream from the entrance to the Iron
Gates gorge, at the confluence of the Čezava river with the Danube.

Although much has been written on the efforts of the Lancastrian regime to impose its power in France in the aftermath of the Treaty of Troyes (1420), the role played by English military forces  and  administrators  in  some  regions,  such  as  Champagne,  remains  very  obscure.  The  article examines the case of the most remote outposts of Lancastrian power in France, the gar-risons of Montigny-le-Roi and Nogent-le-Roi in the region of Bassigny in the east of Cham-pagne (now in the Département de la Haute-Marne). These garrisons have been portrayed as troublesome to both friend and foe as well as a means of putting political pressure on the duke of Burgundy. However, a study of the report on the garrisons’ abuses in the 1423–1426 and re-lated documents reveals their Anglo-French composition and provides evidence of the efforts of the Lancastrian government to impose control over the garrisons. The same report along with financial sources concerning the garrisons’ effectives makes it possible to reconsider the scale of English participation in the battle of Bulgnéville (1431). Finally, the evidence for the 1430s suggests that after the loss of most important cities of Champagne to the Dauphinists in 1429 the garrisons in Bassigny remained in close contact with the Burgundians and were engaged in a number of joint operations up until the Treaty of Arras (1435) and Franco-Bur-gundian reconciliation. Thus the article provides a more complex and dynamic picture of the history  of  the  two  garrisons  and  their  role  in  Anglo-Burgundian  relations  within  changing  political and military contexts

This book deals with the impact of the end of Roman peace on late Roman and primarily early medieval society using the example of fifth to seventh century Gaul. To this end, the study focusses on society as it was and the world of thought of those who lived in it. As the study aims at analysing the societal transformation following the breakdown of quietude, it primarily focusses on the significance that was attributed to war and armed violence, and the function and status of those who fought. Although the analysis is primarily based on written evidence, it also accounts for archaeological remains. The analysis comprehends a linguistic approach by focussing on changes in the terminology used to refer to core ideas and concepts related to the world of war. The study is undertaken in four main steps: a first structural analysis focusses on the changes contemporary society went through between the fifth and seventh centuries. The second part of the thesis mainly comprehends an analysis of the perception of known authors and the direct testimony they provided. In order to find out what significance contemporaries attributed to warfare and those who fought, the third and most extensive chapter focusses on the role and significance of armed violence and the military, and analyses the requirements they were expected to comply with. The last chapter is an analysis of martial ideas and concepts as they were more and more frequently found in Christian writings, in order to show that not only those who fought gradually conformed to Christian requirements, but that the Church also adopted significant ideas and values, which until then had primarily belonged to the secular world. Although it has never been doubted that the early medieval society was characterised to a significant extent by military violence, the world of thought of those who fought and their role and function in the post-Roman world have only been studied very marginally until the present day. This study aims at being a first attempt to analyse the post-Roman world of war from a sociological and ideative perspective, by focussing less on the history of events than on the experience of those who were actually concerned by these occurrences. It argues that war was a significant factor of change and that this does not necessarily imply that societal transformations were not a basic part of a gradual collapse of the Roman world.

"The former Roman province of Raetia is situated on the territory of present-day Bavaria. Due to its key location directly north of Italy, Raetia held an unparalelled military significance as well as a unique social structure. In the last century, researchers have uncovered approximately fifty Roman forts via excavations. The rapid technological advancement of the last two decades resulted in an enrichment of methods in archaeology as well as in other scientific fields. Regular aerial surveys, geophysical prospection and LIDAR scanning enabled the discovery and indentification of a further thirty forts and Roman military installations. Furthermore, these new methods allowed to observe more precisely the mostly unknown inner layout, ground-plan and periodization of the already-known forts’ buildings. Dendrochronological analyses supplied data to the dating of the fort’s defenses and structures, which, in numerous cases, led to a drastical redefinition of previous chronology, which was mainly dependant on the typology of finds. The constructional/reconstructional phases of several forts was modified by decades, thus resulting in the establishment of a completely new chronological system regarding the history of Raetia. J. E. Faßbinder, C. S. Sommer and W. Czysz are the main advocates of these new methods.
The spread of non-destructive archaeological methods did not effect a decrease in traditional excavations and fieldwork. Thus the number of known epigraphical sources from Raetia increases even nowdays. The discovery of new inscriptions displaying the names of units as well as Raetian discharge documents continue to further enrich and tinge our knowledge on provincial military history. The dislocation of Roman auxiliary troops in Raetia was first summarized by H.-J. Kellner in a short article of five pages in 1971. The system he established continues to be in use, despite the various changes in the operating of the forts brought about by the above-mentioned new methods. Publishers of Raetian military diplomas discovered during the last two decades, continue to use H.-J. Kellner’s system, neglecting the modified layout and dating of the forts, pressing new data into a system, that is no longer consistent.
Due to this significant bias between the system of forts and the system of units – the two of which should not and cannot be separated – it has become inevitable to draw up a new dislocation regarding Raetia, that considers the results of both research branches, i.e. that of the forts and that of the units. The summary of forts and units on a provincial level allows to further specify historical details and furthermore, enables us to better understand the events that occurred and the relations that were present between Rome and its territories as well as those outside its borders. I have started this task as an MSc thesis with the guidance of Zs. Visy and C. S. Sommer and plan to publish the results as an English monography.
The legio III Italica Concors was raised and transferred to Raetia as a direct result of the so-called Marcomannic wars during the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 161-180). After a decade-long campaign, the legion constructed its fort at Castra Regina, on the territory of present-day Regensburg in AD 179. This was the first time in history that Raetia housed a legion as permanent garrison. This had several implications, and brought about various changes in provincial life. In contrast to those of the auxiliary forces, the legionary soldiers were exclusively Roman citizens, thus their presence offset both the social and economical scales of previous era. As attested by epigraphical evidence, after their discharge, several former soldiers and officers remained in Raetia. They held civil offices, established villas, constructed various public buildings, built shrines. With themselves, they brought both the need for new facilities, wares and religious trends as well as the financial sources to accomplish these needs. In my paper I offer an analysis of epigraphical and archaeological material in order to demonstrate the role, that thes legionaries held in the provincial life of Raetia as well as the effect they exerted on it."

This article presents a fragmentary inscription of a Roman soldier named Gaius Tarquitius who served probably as an ordinary soldier or as a middle-ranking officer at best in what presumably was an auxiliary cohort. Perhaps of Bithynian extraction, Gaius Tarquitius or one of his forebears may have received Roman citizenship through the patronage of Marcus Tarquitius Priscus, proconsul of Bithynia et Pontus in the reign of Nero.

Over the past 45 years, more than 25 archaeological investigations have taken place at the first century Roman military base of Manduessedum (Mancetter, North Warwickshire). 
How far has the archaeology of Mancetter advanced our knowledge of the Roman conquest of the midland region of Britannia?
The paper, which is the third part of the ‘Mancetter Diary’ series published by the Coventry & District Archaeological Society, presents an overview of the investigations 1968-2012. It is the first synthesis and discussion of the evidence for more than two decades.  It examines the chronological context and the strategic position of Manduessedum, and reviews past attempts of archaeologists and historians to frame the military site within a threadbare documentary backdrop. Re-examination of the excavation results suggests that there is likely to have been more than one fortress constructed on the site. Also considered is the spatial and chronological relationship of the military station with that of the renowned Mancetter pottery industry.

Szombathely rarely had significant military role during the Hungarian history. Not counting the Carolingian Age as well as the 15'h-century border fights and throne feuds, Szombathely played important military role starting from the last third of the 19th century - in parallel with the change in its place within the Hungarian urban structure. As a result, during the decades of Dualism (following 1867), Szombathely, developing at an outstanding rate, got a garrison composed of several units. The young author overviews this process in this present study.

The investigation of the northwest sector of the first century Roman fortress of Manduessedum (Mancetter, Warwickshire, UK) was among the first projects undertaken by Souterrain Archaeological Services Ltd. The opportunity to look for, and examine, the defensive ditch system was brought about by the demolition of a mid-20th century housing estate and re-development of the site in 1997. Previous excavations at the fortress site in the 1970s- to 1990s has assumed a three-ditch system. The presence of a fourth ditch during this excavation in 1997 could indicate two distinct phases of early fortress construction, each with a double ditch system. The fortress was built on a promontory on the west side of the River Anker, overlooking a wide floodplain and presumably facing a threat from the northeast.. Unfortunately the dating evidence, largely based on pottery, can only be tuned to somewhere between the AD50s and 70s.  The work has been since re-evaluated (Wilson M.D, 2013). The construction of the first military encampment could easily have taken place in c.48 with the war against Caratacus, as suspected by Webster.  Revision of the perimeter may then have followed in the early 50s, at which time a more permanent base (hiburnum) was established for the campaign into Corieltauvi country.
Not unexpectedly, the outermost ditch had been deliberately back-filled. Its stratigraphic sequence is comparable with observations made at other Roman forts, such as the first century legionary fortress at Longthorpe . Thin black bands denoted the former turfs of the rampart that had been shovelled back into the ditch, followed by the clayey core of the rampart.
Prehistoric pottery in the rampart material is perhaps the only signature of earlier settlement on this side of the promontory.

"This paper deals with supplying Roman troops along the Limes and in the hinterland of the province
Upper Moesia. The system of supplying and distributing of goods was conducted both on river and
land communications throughout the entire Roman period.
According to the archaeological evidence, apart from larger supply units, in which food supplies
were kept for further distribution (Porečka reka, Horreum Margi), forts along the Limes also had
buildings intended for keeping food supplies, which again could satisfy needs of soldiers for a certain
period of time."

Kőszeg, which was one of the most important towns in Hungary at the beginning of the eighteenth century, later not only lost its commercial significance to the rival town of Szombathely, but also descended into an industrial crisis. The decline was further exacerbated by the delays in joining into the nationwide rail network, consequently the town, which has traditionally been the military centre of the county, turned its expectations to becoming home to large Habsburg army garrisons. While military revenues provided a steady income for the town, a wide array of Kőszeg communities also indirectly benefitted from activities, such as quartering privates and officers, letting buildings (storage and infirmaries) for military purposes, and providing consumables. Following the quartering reform of 1879, however, the county chose Szombathely to build the future Habsburg cavalry barracks, which were finished in 1889. This was a blow to the number of army personnel stationed in Kőszeg and had a serious impact on the town’s finances. At the same time, the ensuing crisis forced the town to find new opportunities, which brought about a discernible, albeit initially rather humble, new wave of development by the turn of the century.

The origins of the Chao Samartín hillfort as a fortified settlement can be traced back to the final Bronze Age. Its fortified nature remained unchanged during the Iron Age, but disappeared synchronically with the sudden irruption of Roman artifacts in the archaeological record, with nearly complete exclusion of the indigenous material culture, until definitive abandonment of the settlement in the second half of the second Century AD. During the transition from indigenous hillfort to a wealthy Roman community, the ancient protohistoric fortifications were strongly renewed in at least two occasions. The present contribution debates the timing and characteristics of these reinforcement episodes, and presents archaeological evidence for the participation of the Roman army in the defence of the settlement.

Key words: Hillfort, Terra Sigillata, Roma Army, Asturias

This paper deals with supplying Roman troops along the Limes and in the hinterland of the province
Upper Moesia. The system of supplying and distributing of goods was conducted both on river and
land communications throughout the entire Roman period.
According to the archaeological evidence, apart from larger supply units, in which food supplies
were kept for further distribution (Porečka reka, Horreum Margi), forts along the Limes also had
buildings intended for keeping food supplies, which again could satisfy needs of soldiers for a certain
period of time.

This paper discusses the nature, origin and functions of a peculiar type of early Ibero-Roman country house, revealed by archaeological surveys in the south of the Iberian peninsula. It includes small quadrangular buildings, with cyclopean or ashlar masonry at their base, and at least one upper storey. Formerly known as "Hannibal's towers", "fortified enclosures" or "castella", all of them prove to be civilian establishments and belong to Roman times, roughly from 50 B.C. to A.D. 100. The organization of interior space (a tripartite, axially symmetrical planning) points to a close relationship with Italian houses and store buildings from the late Republic. To a smaller extent, a punic influence is suggested by the tower-like appearance of many of these "strong houses". Archaeological evidence and literary testimonies (especially the Bellum Hispaniense) are compared in order to elucidate their function and significance. A strong contrast can be noticed between the Alentejo, Extremadura and Sierra Morena area, where they are obviously linked with mining activities, and the Betica, south of the Guadalquivir, where they served as farm houses. A possible connection with the settlement of veteran colonists by Cesar and Augustus, both in Alentejo and in Andalusia, is also discussed.

The slingshots from Serbia are exceptional proof of the employment of slingers in this part of the Roman empire. Unfortunately, the provenance of the lead sling-shots from the National Museum in Belgrade is mostly unknown, but all are of the same type: with circular cross-section and pointed ends. However, the provenance of a few slingshots have been traced to archaeological explorations of the 2nd century Roman fortress at Stojnik on the Kosmaj mountain. The fortress was built for the control and protection of nearby Roman silver and lead mines. The dimensions and weight of the lead slingshots from the Stojnik fortress,as well as other specimens of the same type from the National Museum in Belgrade, are almost identical. Their weight range varies between 126–138 g which could correspond to five Roman uncia (1 quincunx = 136.44 g) or 30–32 Atic drachmas (1 drachma = 4.336 g). Besides several lead examples from the National Museum in Belgrade, the largest find of clay slingshots originates from Cezava, i.e . the Roman fort Novae. The clay slingshots from Cezava were
discovered during archaeological excavations of the Roman military fort Novae in the Iron Gates.