Hellenistic and Roman Fortifications

Abstract
This work attempts to provide a comprehensive compilation of the evidence for the so-called “pyramids” of the Peloponnese and their supposed comparanda. Contrary to many reports, it reveals that  there are no true pyramids in Greece; the group of four main sites discussed are frusta or truncated pyramids. We address a number of other supposed pyramids; in each case demonstrating that they were not pyramids at all. Again, contrary to many previous publications, we show that they were not referred to by Pausanias and nor are they of Bronze Age date. The evidence demonstrates a 4th century BC date and the best comparanda are the so-called “blockhouses” in the Argolid. Despite their monumental appearance, their function was mainly agricultural, possibly for processing high-value products, with an additional use as a refuge in turbulent times. We conclude that rather than being seen as singular monuments, future research should view them as integral parts of the 4th century BC agricultural landscape of the Peloponnese and the trade and processing of its products.

The Roman Settlement of Poggio del Molino, located in the territory controlled by the city of Populonia (Piombino, Livorno), has long drawn the interest of archaeologists. Excavations conducted by the University of Florence were interrupted for twenty years and eventually resumed in 2008. The new research project has provided evidence for the site's architectural evolution, revealing different construction stages and uses of spaces during a time of intense environmental and political change. Such data confirm the strategic importance of Poggio del Molino throughout a very long period of Roman history, from the Late Republic to the end of the Empire– mid 2 nd century BCE-beginning of 5 th century CE. The new research project is endorsed and supported by public institutions (Municipality of Piombino and University of Florence) as well as private national and international institutions (Cultural Association Past in Progress, Earthwatch Institute, University of Arizona, Hofstra University, Union College, Foundation RavennAntica) which are involved in field surveys, post-excavation studies and initiatives concerning the site's enhancement. This paper focuses on the oldest stage of the site's history, the Late Republican Fort, and on the second stage, the farm with fish sauce production.

""En Filipo II y el Arte de la Guerra tendremos la oportunidad de conocer en profundidad a uno de los más grandes reyes de la antigua Macedonia. Gracias a su habilidad como estratega, diplomático, político y soldado, heredó un reino pobre, débil y acosado por innumerables enemigos y lo transformó en el más poderoso de toda Grecia.

A lo largo de sus páginas podremos conocer la historia del reino Macedonio, desde sus orígenes míticos hasta la formación de un imperio, de la mano del que, a la postre, se convertiría en el padre del mítico Alejandro Magno y en el forjador de un nuevo ejército que cambiaria el devenir de la guerra en la Antigüedad. Filipo II fue el creador de la falange macedonia, formación que se demostraría como inigualable en el campo de batalla y que reportaría incontables victorias sobre poderosos enemigos, como los ilirios, los tesalios, los tracios, los beocios o los atenienses. Pero no sólo eso, logró integrar en el campo de batalla a la infantería y a la caballería para emplearlos en nuevas formaciones tácticas: armó a sus soldados con las míticas sarissas y apreció como pocos las posibilidades militares que la maquinaria de guerra podía proporcionarle, siendo el mecenas de numerosos avances en este campo. Soñó con conquistar el Imperio persa, cuando ya había logrado lo que nadie antes fue capaz: el control de Grecia.

Sólo la muerte le arrebató esa hazaña, pero sentó las bases de lo que más tarde conseguiría su propio hijo. Su figura levantó tanto odios como pasiones; se le conocía como mujeriego y bebedor, pero también por su habilidad para la oratoria, por sus astucia, determinación y valor. Siempre luchó en primera línea junto a sus soldados y nunca permitió que éstos le llamaran rey, sino solo "General".

In August 2003, during the survey of the site of Carsulae (Terni, Italy) remains of a fortification were identified along the western boundary of the archaeological park. These can be interpreted as the remains of a defensive 'agger' (bank) dating to the Early Iron Age - Early Republican Age.
The analysis of aerial photographs has led to the identification of many other traces of this structure.
All these elements allow the formulation of some hypothesis about the development of the fortification line during the different phases of life of the town.
By studying the aerial photographs, other archaeological traces were also identified both inside and outside the town limits. These traces are related to built structures and quarry areas.

This course presents a broad survey of historical forces at work over the past 6,000 years, examining the manners in which human societies have organized themselves along categories of race, ethnicity, class, and gender to meet the challenges of the increasing human population and its demands on natural resources: thus, it examines continuity and change in societies over time, in different places, and among various peoples.

Abstract
This article examines the longstanding rivalry of Rome and Parthia, which began as an unintended consequence of Crassus’ decisive defeat at Carrhae in 53 BCE. It synthesizes the accounts and opinions of numerous Graeco-Roman writers from the Augustan Age to late antiquity in order to help illustrate the new and interconnected post-Carrhae world and its legacy. The rivalry of the Romans and Parthians became a primary focus of their foreign policies and drastically expanded their perceptions of the world in which they interacted. Even after the fall of the Parthians to the rebellious Sassanid Persians in the 220s CE, the Romans continued to find their three-century-long rivalry with the Parthians of interest and relevant to the changing world of late antiquity.

The article presents an edition of three new inscriptions found during the excavations of 2009, 2010 and 2012 at Tanais, as well as a republication of one inscription discovered in 1968. The earliest of them dates back to AD 108 and informs us about the restoration or construction of the southern gate (trench XIX) financed by the Hellenes temporarily living in Tanais and not having its citizenship. The fragment of the second plate is also connected with the southern gate and is dated to AD 212; it seems to be contemporary with the inscriptions CIRB 1246 and 1248, if not part of the first of them. The works on repairing defensive walls mentioned in these inscriptions can now be precisely dated. Two other inscriptions were discovered near the western gate, but they are not directly connected with it. The first of them probably refers to the reconstruction of the tower III and is dated to ca. AD 220. The second is dated to roughly the same period and represents a dedication to the river god Tanais on behalf of a thiasos. This is the third known inscription testifying to the existence of this cult and its thiasos. The new inscriptions mention persons already known from published texts, which allows us to complete our data on the prosopography of Tanais in the first half of the 3rd century AD.

"Estas páginas contienen una reflexión sobre un tema importante en el mundo antiguo: el aprovisionamiento de cereal al ejército romano. El hecho de que la base de la alimentación fuera el grano y su ausencia la causa más frecuente del descontento y de las sublevaciones en el seno del ejército motivó el desarrollo de férreos mecanismos de control y administración de los alimentos enviados a las tropas. Este trabajo ofrece información novedosa sobre este asunto y proporciona las claves para conocer mejor la dieta del soldado y las infraestructuras y construcciones asociadas al abastecimiento militar, desde la fase republicana al periodo bajoimperial.

Para el análisis del aprovisionamiento de cereal al ejército, el principal testimonio arqueológico que se conserva son los almacenes y graneros (horrea). El estudio detallado de estos edificios pretende servir de manual de referencia para el profesional que debe interpretar correctamente las estructuras descubiertas, ofreciendo información detallada sobre técnicas constructivas, dimensiones y otros datos de interés. En último término, permite reconstruir la apariencia de estas edificaciones y conocer la evolución de los sistemas empleados en su construcción, que se fueron adaptando a las necesidades del ejército en cada uno de los periodos durante los que se mantuvo vigente la hegemonía de Roma.

Esta obra muestra al público general y al profesional de la arqueología un aspecto esencial en la expansión y consolidación del Imperio Romano, pues el aprovisionamiento de cereal fue una de las claves económicas que permitió a los generales romanos mantener alta la moral de sus ejércitos con alimentos a los que estaban acostumbrados y se convirtió en el motor que impulsó el ánimo y el fervor de las tropas, consiguiendo así su eficacia en la batalla y su lealtad en tiempos de paz"

Book review:
http://www.pyrenae.com/home/index.php?option=com_k2&view=itemlist&task=category&id=20:ressenyes-43-2-2012&lang=es

http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9191541&fulltextType=BR&fileId=S0068113X14000075


http://revistas.usal.es/index.php/0514-7336/article/view/9973"

http://www.sehepunkte.de/2013/02/21727.html"""

C.Ingoglia, L.Zurla, La Sicilia interna: per lo studio delle mura di fortificazione ellenistiche di Troina (EN), in Atti del Convegno di Archeologia: Fortificazioni e società nel Mediterraneo occidentale Fortifications and Societies in the Western Mediterranean Sicilia e Italia a cura di Luigi M. Caliò, Gian Michele Gerogiannis
e Maria Kopsacheili Atti del Convegno di Archeologia, Università di Catania, Politecnico di Bari University of Manchester Catania-Siracusa 14-16 febbraio 2019.

"The Roman principia with chapels of the Standards, the Genius castrorum and the Imperial cult in Egypt are of special interest. There were some examples of principia with such chapels and temples. As a rule, these monuments were built not earlier than at the end of the 3rd century A.D., during the Diocletian’s reign. These examples are found in such fortresses as ‘Abu Sha’ar, Dionysias, Narmouthis, el-Kab, Nag el-Hagar and Tell el-Herr. However there are some principia which were erected early in the 1st – 3rd centuries A.D. in such Roman fortresses of Egyptian Eastern desert as Mons Claudianus, Maximianon and Qasr Banat. The most interesting example of principia was located in the Roman fortress which was built around the Luxor temple at the beginning of the 4th century A.D. There the temple of the Imperial cult and Genius castrorum with wonderful paintings became the centre of the significant late Roman fortified ensemble.
One could suppose that main part of principia in Egypt have more common features with civil Imperial cult temples of the 2nd — 3rd centuries A.D. and their Hellenistic prototypes than earlier examples of these monuments. This fact can be explained by the general tendency of monumentalization of these edifices in the Roman Empire on the whole during the period of the 2nd – 3rd centuries A.D. The architecture of the principia became more luxurious because of increase of the Imperial cult’s significance.
On the one hand, these principia were influenced by the Roman military culture which was connected with creating camps and fortresses. On the other hand they were impacted by the Orient and hellenistic cults of the kings. The architecture of the Roman Imperial cult temple in Luxor was connected with some aspects of the ancient Egyptian cult of divine kingship. The architectural peculiarities of these monuments and iconography of their visual art which appeared in the case of these influences gave some effect on the Christian culture. Such elements as apse, ciborium or baldachin and nimbus got a wide expansion in the Christian art and architecture. Some of these features came to Rome from the culture of the ancient Orient. Therefore temples of the Imperial cult and Genius castrorum in Egypt are examples of the connection between art of the ancient Orient and Byzantine, early Christian and Medieval art and architecture."

A statue of Cybele, found during the excavations in 2016 in the fortress of Kurul, within the borders of Ordu (Kotyora) in the region of eastern Black Sea, has once more  proven that the fortress had been used not only for defence purposes but also for cultic reasons. The seated statue of Cybele has been found placed in a rectangular formed niche (naiskos) which takes place in an enclosed space with differing wall technics and  phases. The Cybele of Ordu reflects all features attributed to her ever since: Her being  placed in the entrance of a fortress, being seated in a niche (naiskos) and close to water sources, the absence of lions as in early versions or the absence of tympanon or phiale as in later depictions. That the Ordu statue is a Cybele, is clear when compared with the ‘hellenized’ Cybele statues; their iconographies are similar. The Ordu Cybele resembles the Classical Period Cybele of Athens, Pireus Moschaton and of Lebadeia as well as the Hellenistic Period Cybele of Pergamon or Palatine. The dating of the statue on stylistic bases leads us in sense of comparison material to the Pergamenean ‘school’ or to other important centres of Hellenistic statuary such as Kos or Aigai. The Ordu Cybele still carries ‘Barock’ tendencies not really being ‘Classistic’ yet and bearing a clear plain Hellenistic understanding which leads us to the mid or just to the beginning of the second half of the 2 nd century BC. A support for this dating is offered by the form characteristics and decoration of one of the preserved capitals of two pilasters, once situated at both sides of the niche. Comparable examples herefore are dated to the 2 nd century BC in Samos and Pergamon. Coins once placed in the niche and historical events are also taken into consideration for the dating and understanding of the politics of Mithradates VI. As a matter of fact coins of this king were placed underneath the statue of Cybele; finds dating earlier then the 2 nd century BC and later then the period of Mithradates VI have not been found here or elsewhere on the excavation site. This makes it once again clear that the statue was produced anyway before the death of the king. One possibil ity is that the statue was produced for the cult place of this site by sculptors who were familiar with the art trends of the 2nd century BC, before being converted to a fortress  by Mithradates VI. So this means that the statue was moved from the cult place to the entrance of the fortress by Mithradates VI. The second possibility is that it was brought  by him, after announcing himself as a king in Pergamon, from Pergamon or a centre under the influence of Pergamon, all the way to his fortress in Ordu. In this way he must have made his propaganda and at the same time he must have seeked for mercy from the goddess Cybele, as the political events started turning out to be negative for him. As a result, the stylistic characteristics of Cybele do not overlap with the dates 90-64 BC as Mithradates VI must have reorganized the cult place as a fortress with its entrance and niche for the statue. This shows us that the statue was not planed for this place but was produced much earlier, just as the capital of the pilaster. Both have been dated to the 2nd century BC.

This work is dedicated to the computer reconstruction of Roman fortress Nag el-Hagar in Egypt. This fortification was situated to the south of Luxor (ancient Thebes), not far from Kom Ombo (ancient Ombos). Apparently the fortress was built during Diocletian’s rule. Its architectural features are similar to other examples of Roman military architecture of the period of tetrarchy in Egypt. We chose Nag el-Hagar for the reconstruction because this fortress is a specimen of the classical Roman castrum which belongs to the period of Diocletian and at the same time it has some original architectural features. The remains of the palace of the Governor or a military commander which we can find inside the fortress are of a great interest to specialists in late Roman architecture. In this work we consider similar examples of late Roman military architecture both in Egypt and throughout the Roman Empire. Their architectural peculiarities give us the idea how the fortress and the palace in Nag el-Hagar could look like. Beside that, we have made an attempt to examine some problems of computer 3D reconstructions in general. This computer reconstruction of Nag el-Hagar shows that a late Roman fortress in Egypt was a majestic ensemble and its architectural and planning features were influenced not only by its military function, but also by the artistic concepts of the late Roman architects who built it.

After the death of Alexander III of Macedon, the Seleucid Empire emerged as one of the most powerful Hellenistic kingdoms of Asia. His huge territorial extension and the various peoples who came under their control necessitated the creation of a mighty army that would ensure their control and help protectit from its enemies.

A lo largo de sus tres siglos de historia en la época imperial romana, la función principal de la Guardia Pretoriana fue la protección de la figura del emperador allí donde este se encontrara, ya fuera actuando permanentemente como su escolta y guardia personal  en el palacio imperial o como última línea de defensa en el ámbito militar. Pero como cuerpo de élite del ejército romano acantonado en la capital del Imperio también se les encomendó el mantenimiento y, en su caso, restablecimiento del orden allí donde fuera necesario. Así, la Guardia Pretoriana se conformaría como una de las piezas clave en la historia imperial romana como uno de los actores principales no solo a nivel militar sino también a nivel político, papel este último muy alejado de las funciones iniciales para las que fue creada pero que poco a poco fue cobrando especial relevancia tanto por su cercanía a la figura de los sucesivos emperadores como por su acantonamiento en la capital imperial. Consciente de su poder, no fueron pocas las ocasiones en que los pretorianos utilizaron su posición e influencias para dirigir y aprovechar los habituales cambios políticos en la cúspide del poder . Pero, aun siendo menos conocida, no sería menor la importancia bélica que en los campos de batalla protagonizarían los pretorianos en numerosas ocasiones como unidad militar y que a la postre les consagraría como uno de los pilares fundamentales del régimen imperial prácticamente desde su creación, en tiempos de Augusto , hasta su desmantelamiento llevado a cabo por el emperador Majencio.
Como cuerpo de élite del ejército, reconocidos como los mejor entrenados y preparados como demostraron en no pocas ocasiones, y en base a su especial misión recibían una paga superior al del resto de soldados; y su tiempo de servicio era varios años menor, por lo que resultaban ser la envidia del resto de unidades militares y en particular de aquellos que servían en el limes del imperio . Es por ello que trataremos aquí de realizar un estudio esquemático sobre su formación, estructura, actuaciones, etc. con el fin de ahondar en el conocimiento de esta institución muchas veces denostada por algunas de sus intervenciones.

Anadolu ve Yakındoğu’da tahkimat yapılarının mimari gelişimi, kentleşme ile yakından ilişkilidir. Bu bakımdan Phryg ve Lydia kent surlarının plan düzenlemeleri çoğunlukla içkale ve tüm kentsel yapıları içeren dış sur çevirmesinden meydana gelmektedir. Öte yandan bölgesel ölçekte arazi savunması için Lydialılar, kentlerini çok geniş çevirme şeklindeki surlarla tahkim etmişlerdir. Sardeis ve Kerkenes’te görüldüğü üzere bu Lydia tahkimat yapıları, ‘Geländemauer’ sur tipinin öncüleri arasında değerlendirilebilir. Bu nedenle ‘Geländemauer’ sur tipinin mimari kökenlerinin belirlenmesi bu çalışmanın temel meselelerinden birisidir. Peloponnessos Savaşı’ndan sonra Kıta Yunanistan’da sınır bölgelerinin savunması için tahkimat sistemleri önem kazanmıştır. Özellikle ‘polis’ ya da ‘koinon’ yerleşimlerinin kırsal bölgelerinin (khora) savunmasının önemi, Kıta Yunanistan ve Anadolu’da yeni tipteki surların ortaya çıkmasına neden olmuştur. Bu tipteki kent surları, genellikle duvarların güzergâhının topoğrafyanın doğal savunma yönünden üstünlüğüne elde etmek amacıyla arazinin yüksek sırtlarını (hattı balâ) izlediği ‘Geländemauer’ olarak tanımlanmaktadır. MÖ erken 4th yüzyılda bu tahkimat düzeni Messenia, Arkadia ve Akarnania bölgelerinde izlenebilir. ‘Geländemauer’ plan modeline göre tasarlanan kent surları, üzerinde kentsel yapıların inşa edildiği iskân alanlarından çok daha geniş alanları çevrelemektedirler. Bu tahkimat yapılarının topografik düzeni, taktik tasarımı ve inşaat yöntemleri gelişmiş bir arazi savunma anlayışını göstermektedir. Çünkü MÖ geç 5. ve erken 4. yüzyıllardan itibaren ‘Geländemauer’ tipindeki kent surlarının inşaatları, farklı topografik koşullarla uyumlu bir şekilde çeşitli duvar teknikleri kullanılarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Aynı zamanda MÖ 4. yüzyılda ‘Geländemauer’ tipindeki kent surları, Hekatomnidler Döneminde Batı Anadolu’da sistemli olarak inşa edilmeye başlanmıştır. Bundan sonra ‘Geländemauer’ tipindeki kent surları hem taktik savunma yapıları hem de topografik planları bakımından MÖ 3. yüzyılın sonlarına kadar Batı Anadolu’daki en gelişmiş ve sofistike tahkimat sistemi haline gelmiştir. Bu nedenle Hekatomnidlerin tahkimat alanında gerçekleştirdikleri sur inşa programı kendi karakteristiklerine ve Hellenistik tahkimat yapıları üzerinde uzun vadeli bir etkiye sahiptir. ‘Geländemauer’ tipindeki kent surlarının gelişiminin araştırılması ve mimar tekniklerine, topografik tasarımlarına ve kronolojik evrelerine göre antik dönem savunma sistemlerinin sınıflandırılması, Klasik ve Hellenistik dönemlerde kentleşme ve arazi iskân düzenlemeleri hakkında arkeolojik ve tarihi bilgi tabanına kesin bir şekilde katkı sağlayacaktır.

Throughout history, the Seleucid military might demonstrated
many times its importance for the maintenance, expansion and defense of the Empire. Rarely the Seleucid army was defeated in a campaign and it happened in front of the almighty Rome. After the defeat at Thermopylae and Magnesia, and following the imminent withdrawal must conquer the Ptolemaic Empire, the new king Antiochus IV Epiphanes held a military parade as never been done before, its real purpose is unknown, but the Seleucids showed the world the power that still had the Empire. Through the stories of several classic sources, we can come closer to this event and what
it could entail.

This is a reference guide to Roman legionary fortresses throughout the former Roman Empire, of which approximately eighty-five have been located and identified. With the expansion of the Empire and the garrisoning of its army in frontier regions during the 1st century AD, Rome began to concentrate its legions in large permanent bases. Some have been explored in great detail, others are barely known, but this book brings together for the first time the legionary fortresses of the whole empire. An introductory section outlines the history of legionary bases and their key components. At the heart of the book is a referenced and illustrated catalogue of the known bases, each with a specially prepared plan. A detailed bibliography provides up-to-date publication information. The book is accompanied by a website providing online links to sites relevant to particular fortresses and aerial views of all of the known fortress locations.

The present study explores the origins of Jewish ritual immersion – inquiring when immersion first appeared as a rite of purification and what the reasons may have been for this development specifically at this time. Textual and archaeological evidence suggest that immersion emerged at some point during – or perhaps slightly prior to – the first half of the first century B.C.E. It is suggested here that the practice grew out of contemporary bathing practices involving the Hellenistic hip bath. Through a process of ritualization, full-body immersion emerged as a method of purificatory washing clearly differentiated from profane bathing. By way of a subsequent process of 'hyper-ritualization', some ventured further to distinguish purificatory ablutions from profane bathing by restricting use of 'drawn water' for purification and by assigning impurity to anyone who bathed in such water. Before us is an enlightening example of one of the many ways wherein Jewish religious practices evolved and adapted in response to Hellenistic cultural innovations.

Die Tübinger Dissertation versucht die Befestigungsanlagen Italiens vom 8. bis zum 3. Jahrhundert v. Chr. zu klassifizieren und in eine historischen Zusammenhang zu bringen. Besonderes Augenmerk wird auf die Gesamtheit des fortifikatorischen Systems gelegt.
Im Download Inhaltsverzeichnis und Einleitung (bis S. 23 von 529 S.)