Grammar of English

Glossophobia, an individual’s anxiety of public speaking, has been observed to be a common phenomenon among students. The present study explores factors associated with glossophobia among ESL students of a tertiary institution in Upper-West Ghana, the Dr. Hilla Limann Technical University, Wa and makes recommendations for improvement in their public speaking skills. The study combined both quantitative and qualitative research approaches in an opinion poll involving 46 participants from the Level 300 class of the Secretaryship and Management Studies of the Business School. Participants acknowledged the importance of public speaking, but conceded that at some point in their student lives, when they had to speak in public, glossophobia prevented them from making a good impression on the audience. Speaking English before a crowd was identified as the most dreaded experience. Low self-confidence in speaking in public; lack of constant speaking experience and lack of knowledge in public ...

Contents:
1 - Grammatization in Linguistics (Dildə Qramatikləşmə Prosesi)
2 - On Morphemes (Morfemlər Haqqında)
3 - The Case Category in The Turkish Language of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Türkcəsində İsmin Hal Məquləsi)
4 - The Definite and The Indefinite in The Turkish Language of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Türkcəsində Müəyyənlik Anlayışı)
5 - The Concept of Possession in Linguistics (Dil və Yiyəlik Anlayışı)
6 - Verbal Mood in The Turkish Language of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Türkcəsində Felin Modallıq Anlayışı)
7 - The Temporal Category in Linguistics (Dilçilikdə Zaman Anlayışı)
8 - The Principal Pillars of Sentence (Cümlənin Təməlləri)
9 - Syntactic Branching in The Turkish Language of Azerbijan (Azərbaycan Türkcəsində Sintaktik Budaqlanma)
10 - Variable Idiomaticity in The Turkish Language of Azerbijan (Azərbaycan Türkcəsində Dəyişkən Deyimsəllik/Frazallıq)
11- Proverbial Similarities between English and The Turkish Language of Azerbijan (Azərbaycan Türkcəsində  Bəzi Atalar Sözü və Onların İngilizcə Qarşılığı)

La Théorie des Opérations Prédicatives et Enonciatives (TOPE) d'Antoine Culioli Cette théorie est aussi appelée (par son concepteur) Théorie des repères. En voici, brièvement résumés, les principes fondamentaux : But et méthode de la linguistique La linguistique est « la science qui a pour objet le langage appréhendé à travers la diversité des langues naturelles et des textes ». Par ailleurs, le langage est une activité signifiante de représentation qui a) ne nous est accessible qu'à travers des textes (oraux ou écrits), c'est-à-dire des agencements de marqueurs (qui sont la trace d'opérations auxquelles nous n'avons pas accès) ; b) est en fait une interactivité, une activité intersubjective, puisqu'y sont engagés deux partenaires, un énonciateur et un co-énonciateur ; c) suppose d'une part la production, d'autre part la reconnaissance (les deux partenaires alternant au niveau de la production, et celui qui produit un énoncé étant engagé dans la reconnaissance de sa propre production). Il faut distinguer trois niveaux :-le niveau 1, qui nous est inaccessible, est celui des opérations mentales, qui se ramènent à la construction de représentations (en gros, notions et relations établies entre notions).-le niveau 2, qui nous est accessible, celui du texte (oral ou écrit), i.e. des agencements de marqueurs, qui sont des traces (donc des représentants) des opérations de niveau 1.-le niveau 3, dit métalinguistique, construit par le linguiste, et qui est une représentation du niveau 2 : il s'agit de simuler, par la relation établie entre le niveau 3 et le niveau 2, la relation entre le niveau 1 et le niveau 2. Le but de la théorie est donc de modéliser l'activité de langage, en fait, la double activité, non-symétrique, de production et de reconnaissance d'énoncés par les partenaires de l'énonciation. L'activité de production d'énoncés consiste à effectuer les opérations du niveau 1 en en laissant comme traces les marqueurs du niveau 2. L'activité de reconnaissance consiste à se servir des marqueurs de niveau 2 pour reconstruire les opérations de niveau 1. Ce qu'il importe de remarquer ici, c'est que l'activité de langage ne consiste pas à échanger des énoncés qui ont un sens prédéfini, identique pour les deux partenaires de l'échange comme peut l'être par exemple la valeur d'une pièce de monnaie qui passe d'une main à une autre. L'activité de langage consiste, pour les deux partenaires à construire et à reconstruire des valeurs référentielles, avec toute la labilité que cela suppose (« la compréhension est un cas particulier du malentendu », dit Culioli). Le « sens » n'est donc pas une chose donnée une fois pour toutes, mais qui pour ainsi dire se négocie dans les tiraillements de l'ajustement intersubjectif. On notera que la relation entre le niveau 1 et le niveau 2 n'est pas bi-univoque (pas à sens unique dans les deux sens) :-on a souvent plusieurs valeurs possibles pour un même marqueur : par exemple, MAY peut servir à exprimer l'éventualité (John may be aware of the fact), la permission (Visitors may ascend the spire for 50p), le souhait (May he rest in peace) ou le but (They struggle to cure diseases so that people may live longer) etc.-on a souvent plusieurs marqueurs possibles pour une même valeur : par exemple, on peut exprimer l'éventualité avec l'auxiliaire MAY, un adjectif, un nom ou un adverbe : John may be aware of the fact. It is possible that John is aware of the fact. There is a possibility that John is aware of the fact.

Adverbial Clause is a dependent clause that describes a verb or adjective.-An Adverbial Clause can tell about an action in terms of time, place, manner, condition, or reason  Adverbial clauses begin with a subordinating conjunction (after, before, as soon as, as if, because, etc) and include a subject and a verb-There are different kinds of Adverbial clause + Adverbial Clause of Time + Adverbial Clause of Place + Adverbial Clause of Manner + Adverbial Clause of Reason + Adverbial Clause of Condition + Adverbial Clause of Purpose + Adverbial Clause of Result + Adverbial Clause of Comparison 2/ Adverbial Clauses of Time-An Adverbial clauses of time will tell us when something happens. It can be introduced by the following conjunctions: when, after, as, as long as, before, during the time (that), now (that), once, since, whenever, and while Ex: You didn't look very well when you got up this morning. After she got married, Madeleine changed completely.-When the time clause refers to the future, we normally use the simple present after after, as soon as, before, by the time, directly, immediately, the moment, till, until, when where we might expect a simple future; or we use the present perfect where we might expect the future perfect. These two tenses are often interchangeable after temporal conjunctions:

Glossophobia, an individual's anxiety of public speaking, has been observed to be a common phenomenon among students. The present study explores factors associated with glossophobia among ESL students of a tertiary institution in Upper-West Ghana, the Dr. Hilla Limann Technical University, Wa and makes recommendations for improvement in their public speaking skills. The study combined both quantitative and qualitative research approaches in an opinion poll involving 46 participants from the Level 300 class of the Secretaryship and Management Studies of the Business School. Participants acknowledged the importance of public speaking, but conceded that at some point in their student lives, when they had to speak in public, glossophobia prevented them from making a good impression on the audience. Speaking English before a crowd was identified as the most dreaded experience. Low self-confidence in speaking in public; lack of constant speaking experience and lack of knowledge in public speaking; fear of making mistakes and being laughed at; inadequate preparation and timidity were also identified as challenges affecting participants' ability to speak English in public. To help students overcome that phobia, the study recommends that lecturers should adopt an interactive approach combined with the appropriate communication strategies to promote positive attitudes and create the desirable atmosphere for boosting students' confidence. Lecturers should also organise seminars on public speaking skills and encourage regular individual oral presentation in class so students can practise to develop positive attitudes towards public speaking.

This presentation provides a thorough explanation on the use of embedded questions in English.  Each slide provides practice for the different rules to be applied.  Embedded questions may be somehow challenging for language learners.  Therefore, they should be provided with material for self-study such as the one contained on this presentation.

Describing the grammar of a language involves setting up categories such as word classes, phrases and clauses (called a taxonomy), and creating a systematic and internally consistent explanatory account of how these categories relate to each other and how they combine to form larger units. But how many categories are needed, and how do we establish these larger units? This is a matter that naturally requires careful thought, and grammarians need to motivate the choices they make. Put differently, they need to make extensive use of argumentation to establish the framework of grammar that they are describing. Argumentation is a general notion which can be defined as an evidence-based step-by-step procedure for taking decisions. We all use various kinds of arguments all the time to take decisions in very different situations in our daily lives, for example in deciding whether to study linguistics, whether to buy a car or not, or where to go on holiday. In establishing grammatical descriptions, for example when deciding whether the word 'my' should be analysed as a pronoun, rather than as a possessive adjective, we also need to make use of reliable arguments. We refer to this as 'syntactic argumentation'.The aim of this chapter is to show how it plays a role in describing the grammar of English in many different ways. I will focus on grammar in the narrow sense, i.e. as referring to syntax, though some attention will also be paid to morphology.

Syntax is the study of a set of grammatical rules for words or clauses in the formation of sentences. Etymologically, the term "syntax" means stringing words into phrases and phrases into sentences. This is a conception that lets people know how to start a question with a question word. Rules to help readers and writers understand the text It is also an important tool that writers can use to write literature. By studying them, you can understand the complex messages, but the syntax does not guarantee that the sentences are meaningful. The syntax does not guarantee that the statement is meaningful. The syntax is responsible for how sentences are constructed to form more complex words, phrases, and expressions, which can be combined into a sentence. Writers need to understand how to use sentences, which are easy to understand among the four English sentence structures. Simple sentences consist of a single, Compound sentences consist of two or more independent clauses; complex sentences consist of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses; and compound-complex sentences consist of several independent clauses as well as at least one dependent clause. The syntax is responsible for how sentences are built to form more complex words and phrases that can be combined into sentences. Writers need to understand how to use sentences, which are easy to understand in the four sentence structures in English. For example, in order to form grammatically correct sentences in English without learning the syntax, we as students find it difficult to arrange the words into word combinations into sentences when we study them to improve our writing skills.

Noam Chomsky's minimalist syntactic theory has solved many theoretical and empirical problems. However, these results are strictly limited to compositional/derivational syntax, the intervention of semantic conditions on syntactic derivations being excluded.
How can semantic conditions apply?
The theory of Conceptual semantics developed by Ray Jackendoff makes it possible to formulate precise constraints on the combination of semantic primitives and on their correspondence with syntactic structures.
Part I summarizes the two theories considered.
Part II aims to evaluate the descriptive adequacy of these two models applied to phrasal constructs.
Part III focuses on the application of minimalist syntax to noun phrases and related semantic issues.
The hypotheses of minimalist syntax are used, in part II, to analyze the diachronic  evolution of the conditions on pronominal coreference, from Old English to Modern English. Case theory is restated in terms of the formal feature theory of minimalist syntax and applied to middle constructions, clitic clusters in French, ditransitive constructions in English and the comparative grammar of inalienable possession in English and in French.
It is proposed to link the evolution of the English pronominal system, towards the end of the 15th century, to the morphological weakening of subject agreement features. Prepositional incorporation seems better formulated in the semantic component of the grammar than in its syntactic component and the same holds for lexical constraints on the interpretation of inalienable possession, which notably involve the concepts of "affector" and "affected target".
Part III investigates the syntax of Modern English noun phrases, and defends the hypothesis that there are two intermediate functional nodes between the determiner and the noun head: the syntactic locus of discrete quantification and that of continuous quantification.
These results then make it possible to confirm a central hypothesis of conceptual semantics: the impossibility of reducing semantic interpretation to purely syntactic representations.
                                                                                                       
(French version)       
         
La théorie syntaxique dite minimaliste de Noam Chomsky a permis de résoudre de nombreux problèmes théoriques et empiriques. Ces acquis se limitent toutefois au domaine de la stricte syntaxe combinatoire, l'intervention de conditions sémantiques sur les dérivations syntaxiques étant exclue.
Comment les conditions sémantiques peuvent-elles s'appliquer ?
Le modèle élaboré par Ray Jackendoff, la sémantique conceptuelle, permet de formuler des contraintes précises sur la combinaison de primitives sémantiques, et sur leur correspondance avec les structures syntaxiques.
La première partie résume les deux théories envisagées. La deuxième partie a pour objet d'évaluer l'adéquation descriptive de ces deux modèles dans la grammaire de la phrase. La troisième partie porte essentiellement sur l'application du modèle minimaliste au sein du groupe nominal et sur l'interprétation de certaines structures nominales.
Les hypothèses de la syntaxe minimaliste sont utilisées, dans la deuxième partie, pour analyser l'évolution diachronique  diachronique des conditions sur la coréférence pronominale, du vieil-anglais à l'anglais moderne. La théorie du cas inhérent est reformulée dans les termes de la théorie des traits formels du programme minimaliste, et appliquée aux constructions moyennes, au placement des clitiques en français, aux constructions ditransitives anglaises, et à la grammaire comparée de la possession inaliénable en anglais et en français. Il est proposé de lier l'analyse de l'évolution du système pronominal anglais, vers la fin du XVeme siècle, à l'affaiblissement morphologique des traits d'accord-sujet.
L'incorporation prépositionnelle semble mieux formulée dans le composant sémantique de la grammaire que dans son composant syntaxique, de même que les contraintes lexicales sur l'interprétation de la possession inaliénable, qui font principalement intervenir les concepts d'affecteur et de cible affectée.
La troisième partie a pour objet la syntaxe du groupe nominal anglais moderne, et défend l'hypothèse qu'existent deux noeuds fonctionnels intermédiaires entre le déterminant et la tête nominale : le site de la quantification discrète et le site de la quantification continue.
Ces résultats permettent alors de confirmer une hypothèse centrale de la sémantique conceptuelle : l'impossibilité de réduire l'interprétation sémantique à la combinatoire syntaxique.

Among many teachers, students, and users, there exist two fundamentally confused issues that are as follows:
1. What is the standard version of English? and
2. How do I determine whether a language item is standard (correct)?
The instant article answers those two questions.

The standard version of English is its “koiné language” version that includes all versions that are:
1. naturally intelligible; and
2. acceptable under “simultaneously existing” or “current” descriptive or prescriptive grammars.

The procedure to determine the correctness of a language item is a two-step process, as follows:
1. First, we must determine whether it is correct under either DG or PG and, in doing so, the DG overrides. Where the item passes this test, we move on to the next step.
2. In case of a situation in which a specific context is given, we have to see whether it suits in the given context. On the other hand, if no context is given, we must evaluate whether it is suitable in any imaginable context.

Glossophobia, an individual's anxiety of public speaking, has been observed to be a common phenomenon among students. The present study explores factors associated with glossophobia among ESL students of a tertiary institution in Upper-West Ghana, the Dr. Hilla Limann Technical University, Wa and makes recommendations for improvement in their public speaking skills. The study combined both quantitative and qualitative research approaches in an opinion poll involving 46 participants from the Level 300 class of the Secretaryship and Management Studies of the Business School. Participants acknowledged the importance of public speaking, but conceded that at some point in their student lives, when they had to speak in public, glossophobia prevented them from making a good impression on the audience. Speaking English before a crowd was identified as the most dreaded experience. Low self-confidence in speaking in public; lack of constant speaking experience and lack of knowledge in pub...

The article is dedicated to the relevance of the study is due to the fact that interdisciplinary theoretical studies in English and Kazakh linguistics make it possible today to determine the main directions related to translation, to determine the need to select specific patterns for adequate translation of materials in these languages, within the framework of general and particular linguistics. Clarification of the data of scientific research puts before scientists new ways of solving various issues in this area. In this regard, the methods and ways of transferring bilingual words into the Kazakh language create a number of prerequisites that are the basis of a number of valuable studies. There is no doubt that the adequacy of the transmission of paired English words and the definition of their equivalents in the Kazakh language are one of the urgent and complex problems facing linguistics today. Our study pays considerable attention to the peculiarities of their translation, which are the connecting link of literary and cultural ties and development between different peoples. Despite the fact that there are certain achievements in the field of translation, we still cannot deny the theoretical and practical significance of studying various works in this area. Therefore, work on the consideration of transformational models for the translation of paired words in English, although it does not completely eliminate the tasks set, an attempt to make a certain contribution in the search for solutions in this direction takes place. Given the numerous scientific works and modern works, there is an acute need to analyze scientific research on the specifics of paired words in foreign languages, including in English and the ways of their translation into Kazakh, which contribute to the strengthening and development of ties between the literature and culture of our country and other peoples. Key words: reduplication, semantics, functionality, word formation, expression, vocabulary, sociolinguistics, general linguistics, comparison.

The use of pair and small group work has been supported within the interactionist and sociocultural theories of learning. It is assumed that collaboration would lead to second language acquisition. Inspired by these theoretical claims, the present study investigates the effects of two output tasks on the acquisition of English articles. Thirty-one EFL learners, divided into two groups of pairs and individuals, participated in this study. All participants were administered a pretest and a post-test and completed two output tasks (cloze and text-editing) during four sessions. The results were indicative of no significant difference in the acquisition of English articles between the two groups of the study. However, a significant difference was found for the effect of task types.

The use of pair and small group work has been supported within the interactionist and sociocultural theories of learning. It is assumed that collaboration would lead to second language acquisition. Inspired by these theoretical claims, the present study investigates the effects of two output tasks on the acquisition of English articles. Thirty-one EFL learners, divided into two groups of pairs and individuals, participated in this study. All participants were administered a pretest and a post-test and completed two output tasks (cloze and text-editing) during four sessions. The results were indicative of no significant difference in the acquisition of English articles between the two groups of the study. However, a significant difference was found for the effect of task types.

In questo dccumento impareremo ad usare bene due espressioni: TO DO GOOD e TO DO WELL, che molto spesso vengono, in maniera errata, scambiate all'interno delle proprie frasi. Cerchiamo di comprenderne il corretto utilizzo attraverso questo articolo.

Acquista il mio ultimo Libro : I Love English : The Definitive Collection
Disponilbile su Amazon,it, Ibs,it, Feltrinelli etc etc.

Az Új Basic English 2 szerves folytatása az előzőeknek, ugyanakkor önállóan is használható. Az első kötettől eltérően 12 leckére tagolódik, ugyanakkor megőriztük az előzőben már bevált szerkezeti felosztást, amelynek megfelelően először az olvasmányokban szereplő új szavak listája, majd pedig a nyelvtani anyag ismertetése következik lexikai magyarázatokkal kiegészítve. A leckéket végül az ellenőrző gyakorlatok sora zárja.
Jelen tankönyv is célul tűzi ki az aktív (és a passzív) szókincs gazdagítását, hiszen az angolban a nyelvtan egy igen jelentős része is "lexikálisan kötött", azaz: bizonyos szószerkezetek révén realizálódik, ami nekünk, "kontinentálisoknak" sokszor igen sajátosnak tűnhet, - legalább annyira, mint az angolok reggelije, azaz: "English Breakfastja".

This paper deals with the syntactic and semantic properties of a specific kind of anaphoric device (AD) in English, instantiated by Prn+SELF lexical items (himself/herself/itself…; ‘SELF’ henceforth), which do not behave like anaphors in the sense of Binding Theory either syntactically or semantically. These devices have received the name of intensives in the grammatical literature (Leskosky 1972; Siemund 2000, among many others). We will look at the syntactic behaviour of so-called intensives in different syntactic contexts, and refine the classification of these ADs taking into consideration (a) how each type of intensive is derived, (b) the kinds of syntactic rules that can affect them, and (c) their meaning.

Factive verbs are known to presuppose the truth of their complements, and regret is an example of factive verbs. This corpus-based study aims to investigate the complement, use, and frequency of occurrence of regret in COCA, and shed light on various uses of this verb. The scope of this study was limited to the bare form of regret, and most common complements of regret were analyzed throughout the study. The findings revealed that all the complements were presupposed to be true due to the factive verb regret, and regret has various complements such as regret + Ving, regret + to V1, regret + that. What is more, all these complements assign different meanings to regret in context.

One of the most effective and economical methods for the dissipation of hydraulic energy from flood waters is to project the flows into a free trajectory jet form to a location where the impact creates a plunge pool in the downstream river bed. This type of energy dissipation can be created by a ski-jump energy dissipator which has become an increasingly popular form of hydraulic energy dissipation for large dams in recent years due to its ability to safely convey high velocity flow in excess of 30m/s to the downstream river, however very limited definitive and comprehensive guidelines have been created. There is not only insufficient documentation for the conceptual and detailed design of ski-jump energy dissipators, there is also insufficient documentation for the dimensioning of the downstream plunge pools. Both are necessary to guarantee that the passage of major floods do not threaten the structural integrity of the permanent works.

A nyelvet tanítók és tanulók tapasztalatai, valamint a nyelvvizsga tesztek eredményei egyértelműen azt mutatják, hogy a magyar anyanyelvűek számra az angol és a német igeidők helyes használatának az elsajátítása jelenti a nyelvtanulás során az egyik legnagyobb problémát. Ezen nem is kell csodálkoznunk, hiszen ezen a téren az angol és a német esetében a magyar nyelvhez képest jelentős az eltérés. Mindezek a tények arra ösztönözték a szerzőt, hogy olyan könyvet adjon az olvasó kezébe, amely áttekinthető elrendezésben tartalmazza az angol és a német igeidők képzéséről, jelentéséről és használatáról szóló, a kommunikatív nyelvtanuláshoz nélkülözhetetlen, legfontosabb tudnivalókat. Ezek leírása minden esetben szemléletes ábrákkal és konkrét nyelvi példákkal egészül ki.

The paper is a book review of a recent textbook meant for undergraduates who are not necessarily English students. The review examines the strengths of the text within the light of current syntactic developments in generative grammar and deems it parsimonious for students in the undergraduate level who desire to know the structure of the English sentence.