History of Slovakia

Shorter English Version: https://www.academia.edu/966274/The_Kingdom_of_Hungary_and_the_Habsburg_Monarchy_in_the_Sixteenth_Century._Translated_from_the_Hungarian_by_Thomas_J._and_Helen_D._DeKornfeld_Boulder_Colorado_Social_Science_Monographs_Wayne_New_Jersey_Center_for_Hungarian_Studies_and_Publications_Inc._New_York_Distributed_by_Columbia_University_Press_2009._East_European_Monographs_DCCXXXV._CHSP_Hungarian_Studies_Series_18._xviii_410_p

© Vydavateľstvo Spolku architektov Slovenska, Bratislava 1993. ISBN 80-900483-6-6 /  © Publishing Association of Architects der Slowakei, Bratislava 1993. ISBN 80-900483-6-6

***
Licenční upozornění: Uveřejnění publikace na tomto profilu je uskutečněno s vědomím a souhlasem Spolku architektov Slovenska; upozorňujeme čtenáře na potřebu respektovat autorská práva, tedy aby dílo užili jen pro vlastní potřebu za účelem studia a dalšího výzkumu. Díky za pochopení! Správci profilu.
***
Licensing notice: Publication of publications on this profile is carried out with the knowledge and consent of the Association of Architects der Slowakei; Readers are cautioned on the need to respect copyright, therefore, to enjoy work only for their own use to study and further research. Thanks for understanding! Manager profile.

The work called Notitia Hungariae novae historico-geographica performed by Hungarian polymath, teacher and evangelical priest Matthias Belius (1684 – 1749) to this day represents a lot of contemporary information that researchers try to interpret in the boundaries of various historical or related human disciplines. Bel was interested in theology, history, geography, philosophy, medicine, and folk customs and traditions. He spoke several languages, studied or worked in several Hungarian cities, and with his works and activities he contributed to the development of science, education, culture, language and literature. The work Notitia, in which the author mapped the individual counties and districts of Hungary, offers informations on selected towns and villages, watercourses, bridges, caves, mountains, forests, mineral wealth, agricultural crops, animals, customs and traditions of the population, military meetings or religious conditions. A similar structure was also connected with the Modrý Kameň district, where the author contained a description of 55 villages. We get a picture that the villages fell under the jurisdiction of the Esztergom archbishopric and chapter and the diocese of Vác. A rich number of local families is named here. From the field of the Hungarian-Ottoman clashes is included the Ottomans' attempt to conquer the bastion defended by the Hungarians in Bušince (1552), from the circle of anti-Habsburg uprisings is exceptional the battle, that took place between the armies of the emperor and Francis II Rákóczi at the locality of Romhány (1710). The complex picture is completed by mentions of grain cultivation, viticulture, fruit growing, hunting, logging, fishing, the present watercourses, bridges, mills or the occurance of Slovak population.

By the second half of the 17th century, Hungary was facing a severe economic crisis due to looting of the countryside by the Ottoman Empire and the brutality caused by the uprisings against the Hungarian nobility and the Habsburgs. In addition to bloodshed from military clashes, the country was beset by religious disputes between the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches. Despite a peaceful agreement signed between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Monarchy in 165o, invasions continued into neighbouring Turkish-occupied Hungary and villages were sacked by enemy forces.
In August 1652 marauding troops, commanded by the Esztergom bey Kara Mustafa Pasha, were returning from a raid in the Hron Valley. On the 26th August, Adam Forgat', an experienced military leader, led soldiers loyal to Imperial forces and the local nobility to attack the Ottoman Turks near the village of Nagyvezekény (today Veľke Vozokany in Slovakia).
Aid came the next day from a group of rural farmers Forgáč had quickly rounded up from the surrounding villages during the night. With their help, he was able to counter Kara Mustafa's attack and force the enemy back. During the battle the Ottomans lost all the food, cattle and captives they had previously managed to seize. Unfortunately, Mustafa's divisions were able to recover relatively quickly from their humiliating defeat. They conso-lidated their positions and then several days later marched several days later toward the Forgáč estate at Gýmeš.
On 2 September 1652, during this new raid, they ambushed a party accom-panying Nitra Canon Mikuláš Jurkovič near historic Barsledéc, now the small village of Ladice, as he was travelling to the Benedictine abbey in modern-day Hronský Beňadik. Over the generations, local residents have handed down the legend of this tragedy by word of mouth. However, it remains very much a mystery because little reliable information has been preserved. There is a fragment of a historical memorial at the edge of Ladice, built near the ruins of Gýmeš Castle, indicating where Canon Jurko-vič´s party was said to have been attacked and overcome.
This publication concentrates on detailed historical research conducted to investigate the event. There is no evidence of Jurkovič having been killed where the historic monument in Ladice is today situated and the name of the canon was not mentioned in the list of martyred priests sent by Bishop Slepčiansky in Rome. It can be inferred from what is known that Jurkovič was most probably captured and died at another location after a subsequent Ottoman attack.

II wojna światowa w znacznej mierze ominęła spiskie i orawskie miejscowości , które w 1939 roku zostały przyłączone do Słowacji. Polityka tego sojusznika III Rzeszy była bowiem względnie łagodna, co więcej doprowadziła do wzrostu gospodarczego.
Moim celem było przedstawienie obrazu przejścia przez te dwie krainy frontu zimą 1945 roku, który wyłania się z zebranych relacji najstarszych mieszkańców. Ze wspomnień wyłania się obraz odmienny dla Spisza i Orawy. W tym pierwszym regionie walki trwały krótko i nie przyniosły większych strat, w drugim zaś linia frontu ustabilizowała się na ponad dwa miesiące. Mieszkańcy Orawy doświadczyli grozy śmierci i zniszczeń wojennych. Zapewne dlatego z pewnym sentymentem wspominali upadającą już wtedy Słowację.

Druhá svetová vojna vo veľkej miere obchádzala mestá na Spiši a Orave, ktoré boli v roku 1939 pripojené k Slovensku. Politika tohto spojenca z Tretej ríše voči miestnemu obyvateľstvu bola pomerne. Okrem tohto viedlo k hospodárskemu rastu.
Preto su to mnohjú obyvateľom Spiša a Oravy, ktorí prešli frontom v zime roku 1945, veľmi vrjlo do pamäte. Analýzou ich spomienok som sa pokúsil znovu vytvoriť spominku na tieto udalosti.
Obraz, ktorý som znovu vytvoril, sa pre Spiš a Oravu odlišoval. V prvom regióne boje trvali len krátko a nepriniesli veľké straty, zatiaľ čo v druhom sa frontová línia udržala viac ako dva mesiace. Obyvatelia Orawy zažili hrôzu smrti a vojnovú skazu. Pravdepodobne aj preto si s určitým sentimentom spomenuli na niekdajši Slovenský štát. Obraz nemeckých vojakov ktorý prezentovali , bol tiež celkom priaznivý, č osa nedá povedať o vojakoch Červenej armady. Obyvatelai oboch regiônov byli využivaní okrem iného na odpratávanie snehu z ciest, na prepravu, prípravu jedla a pochovánie padlých.

Death march in 1873 in the town of Detva and its surrounding area
leaving behind a real trigger. For the whole year have died in the
parish of up to 998 people, which was three times the average number
of dead people per year in the decade, said a total of one tenth of the entire Detva‘s population. In this "memorable" year thus significantly
dominated the number of dead over the birth (468). Significantly,
although on the other hand, a short demographic crisis essentially
recorded throughout Hungary.
Abrupt population declined and to return to its original
staffing levels needed to five years. After 1873, the territory of
Slovakia emerged in a devastating wave of smallpox, cough and
cholera, which history called epidemic. Smaller its manifestations
Although they appeared until the First World War, but with the
exception of Czarist Russia on the European continent had
pronounced fatal.

After the establishment of interwar Czechoslovakia in 1918 it was evident that the political culture of population and the support of state by its citizens in Slovakia represented a serious problem. The role of the emerging political elites was to build a positive attitude of population to the new regime. In this context, the most important population group represented the Slovak population. It shared, in its majority, indiff erent attitude to the creation of the Czechoslovak State. State elites, on the contrary, shared idea of
“political immaturity” of the so-called Slovak people. The paper focuses on the political socialization of the Slovak population, its agenda and agents in the early years of the Republic, and marginally on impact of emerging politicization of life on individuals, families and community.

Der Beitrag bietet einen Überblick über die Position der Schulen der deutschen Minderheit in der 1. Slowakischen Republik. Auf Grund des Archivmaterials weist der Autor auf das Funktionieren der Schulen in ausgewählten Gemeinden der Slowakischen Republik, sowie auch auf die Probleme zwischen der deutschen und slowakischen Bevölkerung hin.
Nach der Entstehung der Slowakischen Republik (SR) wurden auch Schulen mit einer anderen Unterrichtssprache als Slowakisch ins Schulsystem aufgenommen (z. B. Deutsch, Ungarisch, Ukrainisch). Das Schulwesen der deutschen Minderheit erlebte in der Zeit der Slowakischen Republik einen enormen Aufschwung, was sich in seiner Ausdehnung, Organisation und finanziellen Sicherung manifestiert hat. Es wurde das Ministerium für Schulwesen und Volkskultur gegründet, innerhalb dessen die "Deutsche Abteilung" unabhängig war. Ihre Aktivitäten begannen am 1. März 1939 und ihre Amtssprache war Deutsch. Sie erledigte die Organisations-, Wirtschafts-, Haushalts- und Finanzagenda des deutschen Bildungssystems in der Slowakei.
In diesem Artikel widmen wir die Aufmerksamkeit der zunehmenden Spannungen nach 1938 und dem Einfluss des Dritten Reiches auf das Gebiet der Slowakischen Republik, die auch das Schulsystem betraf. Es kam zu mehreren Änderungen zwischen 1939 und 1944. Deutsche Schulen entstanden nicht nur in den Gemeinden mit der deutschen Bevölkerung, sondern auch in slowakischen Gemeinden (in 1943 waren deutsche Schulen in 161 Gemeinden in der Slowakei). Bis dahin wurden die gemeinsamen Schulen mit der Unterrichtssprache Deutsch und Slowakisch organisatorisch immer mehr unabhängig, während die Deutschklassen zu Gemeindevolksschulen umgestaltet wurden. In dem Artikel beschreiben wir die Probleme zwischen slowakischen und deutschen Volksschulen. Wir konzentrieren die Aufmerksamkeit auf die Streitigkeiten, die an mehreren Orten bei der Einschreibungen der Schüler an die deutsche oder slowakische Schule entstanden.
Während des Krieges wurden in vielen Gemeinden die Beziehungen zwischen der deutschen und slowakischen Bevölkerung gestört. Einige Personen deutscher Nationalität zwangen die Slowaken, ihre Kinder in eine deutsche Schule zu schicken. In einigen Dörfern kam es zu Streitigkeiten bei der Registrierung von Schülern an deutsche oder slowakische Schulen. Es passierte nicht selten, dass in die deutsche Klassen solche Schüler eingeschrieben wurden, die überhaupt nicht mehr schulpflichtig waren, oder sie nicht mehr im Dorf wohnten.
Der Status der deutschen Bevölkerung und die deutsch-slowakischen Beziehungen haben den Slowakischen Nationalaufstand dramatisch geprägt. Am Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges im Jahre 1945 wurden die meisten Bürger deutscher und ungarischer Nationalität vertrieben und ihre Schulen waren verstaatlicht. Diesem ging in vielen Fällen die Evakuierung deutscher Schüler und Lehrer und das damit verbundene Untergang deutscher Schulen voran.

Adam Hudek: Slovak Academy of Sciences and Arts, its Founding and Development between the Years 1942 – 1945
The study deals with the institutionalization and subsequent development of the Slovak Academy of Sciences and Arts during the existence of Slovak state (1939 – 1945). It introduces the main actors of this process and their activities aimed at the creation of a central institution for the coordination of scientific research in Slovakia. The plans for the Slovak Academy have its roots in the changes in the scientific community after the dissolution of Czechoslovak Republic in 1939. They were also greatly influenced by the long-term rivalry between the two Slovak centers of research in Martin and Bratislava. The Slovak Academy was established despite the disagreement of substantial part of scientific and political elites, which was based both on rational arguments and purely ideological reasons. Although the Academy gained the political backing and was opened in 1943, the support of its sympathizers was steadily waning while the opposition remained relatively strong. The financial problems, staff shortage and internal struggles seriously hampered its research activities. However, in the restored Czechoslovakia, all mentioned problems were used as a proof that the Academy was not an "ideological" institution of the wartime Slovak state. This oversimplified argument had greatly contributed to the survival and further development of this institution in the new political reality after 1945.

Based on the written sources it can be presumed, that originally a royal village existed in the turn of 12th to 13th century. In the beginning of the 13th century most probably the king Andrew II. presented the village to the Aba family from Bodrogkereztúr for military services. In 1269 the Pud from the Abas lineage sold the “terra Smilno” for 30 marks of silver to Simon from Tekule lineage. This village (perhaps only a part of it) belonged to Tekule lineage from 1269 to 1435. The Tekule family after the purchase in the second half of the 13th century they faced problems about justifying this huge land, which borders are stated in the document from 1269. Based on that, in the years 1343 – 1347 false documents of Smilno were made to prove the year 1250 the first real document of the village existence. During the settlement of a Royal castle domain “Makovica” in the 14th century there were statements of border dispute with Makovica castellans and the Tekule owners of Smilno. The last statement about the Tekule being Smilno owners come from 1357. The Makovica castle domain belonged to the Anjou kings. It is possible that half of Smilno was a part of Makovica domain at that time as it is stated in in documents from the first half of the 15th century. Based on those documents Smilno at that time belonged to the Czudars, which owned the castle domain Makovica from 1364. The second half of Smilno most probably belonged to the Tekule. “The whole of Smilno” became part of the Makovica castle well after 1435, when the Tekule finally abandoned their (half) of asset to the Czudars. In 1470, the king donated the castle Makovica to the lords of Rozhanovce. In 1492 the Makovica castle belonged to the king Vladislaus II. of Hungary. King Vladislaus donated “Makovica” castle altogether with the villages to Imrich from Perín in 1506. The same king endorsed in 1514 an exchange of counties between Imrich and Sara the widow of Jan Torysky from Šarišske Sokolovce. Imrich gave Sara “Makovica” the castle domain, Smilno was a  part of it. The lords of Šarišske Sokolovce owned Makovica castle until 1526. According to the portal list from 1427 Smilno had 46 portae, and was one of the biggest and the most populated villages within Makovica castle domain in the first half of the 15th century. It is presumed that the church of Saint Stephen the king was built in Smilno at the end of the 13th century. The first reference of the church existence is dated to 1492 stating that a church made out of stone with a cemetery vicinity. In the Middle Age in the beginning of the 16th century the parish was in Smilno, which later on ceased and was moved to Zborov. After 1526 Makovica castle domain along with Smilno became an asset to Gašpar Šeredy a honest supporter of the Hapsburgs.

The study is the first attempt to shed some light on the history of the remains of fortified medieval feudal manor in the cadastre of village Malé Zlievce (Kiszellő) that has been known in the archeological literature under the name "Várhegy", but has not been studied from the perspective of the archival documents yet. The author argues that its founder and first owner was the local noble Ján of Zlievce (Johannes de Zelew/Zellői János), prothonotary of royal judiciaries of king Sigismund between 1415-1439, and that he most likely built the manor at the beginning of this era. The study also gives an overview of his career and history of his ancestors and offsprings.

Oslavy " dňa slobody " , ako sa 28. október 1918 nazýval v období prvej Československej republiky (ČSR), patrili medzi najvýznamnejšie pravidelne sa opakujúce udalosti v pomyselnom štátnom kalendári významných udalostí. V ňom sa tento deň označoval aj ako " prehlásenie nezávislosti " či " prehlásenie samostatnosti " , či dokonca ako " deň oslo-bodenia českého národa ". Od začiatku sa mu jasne priraďovali české, resp. československé národné atribúty, pričom pojmy štátny a národný boli v tlači často zamieňané. 2 Pravidelné pripomínanie panovníkov, významných osobností, či zakladateľských udalostí predstavuje významnú súčasť historických politík jednotlivých štátnych útvarov, ktoré z nich neraz odvodzujú legitimitu svojej existencie. Pierre Nora v kontexte spo-mienkovej praxe v moderných dejinách vytvoril koncept miest pamäti, ktoré sa podľa neho rodia a žijú z pocitu, že neexistuje žiadna spontánna pamäť, že je potrebné vytvá-rať archívy, sláviť výročia, organizovať oslavy, prednášať smútočné prejavy a vytvárať záznamy, pretože tieto úkony nie sú prirodzené. Objekt sa stáva miestom pamäti, keď sa niekto usiluje neupadnúť do zabudnutia (napr. stavaním pamätných dosiek), keď sa v spo-ločnosti diskutuje o jeho vplyve a ešte stále vzbudzuje emócie. Miestom pamäti sa podľa Noru môže stať všetko, čo predstavuje niečo materiálne a veľmi konkrétne, eventuálne geograficky situované, až po abstraktný objekt, ktorý vznikol činnosťou intelektu. Môže ísť o monument, významnú osobu, múzeum, rovnako ako o symbol, udalosť či inštitúciu. 3 V tomto kontexte 28. október 1918 predstavuje tiež takéto miesto, pričom spomienky naň boli už v medzivojnovom období zhmotnené v rôznych monumentoch, textoch, či verejných performatívnych aktoch, akými boli oslavy či divadelné predstavenia. Zároveň predstavoval pravidelne pripomínanú ideu, ktorej atribúty aj spoločenský význam sa však v čase a v priestore výrazne menil.

In this study we deal with Ján Kollár’s approach to possible state-law changes in Hungary and in
the Austrian Empire in terms of the theoretical understanding of the division of power. Apart
from his more radical young years, Kollár rather belonged to more conservative personalities.
In addition to the reflections on republicanism, his work reveals, in particular, his orientation
to “Slavic democracy”, the application of which was supposed to rectify the traditional
imperfections of the feudal establishment. He also modelled an ideal Slavic state. Nevertheless,
he remained loyal to the regime in practice and did not demand any fundamental changes.
Key words: Ján Kollár (1793 – 1852), state, constitution, feudalism, republicanism, humanity

Významnú kapitolu dejín Kysúc predstavuje obdobie sprevádzané vysťahovalectvom do USA podnietené viacerými nevyhovujúcimi podmienkami v rámci Rakúsko-Uhorska. Príspevok sa zaoberá konkrétne problematikou vysťahovalectva z oblasti Bystrickej doliny koncom 19. a v prvých rokoch 20. storočia. Sleduje motívy migrácie a jej jednotlivé fázy, pričom obsahuje i štatistické údaje o migrantoch v danom období. Pozornosť taktiež venuje samotnému priebehu cesty do Ameriky a popisu konkrétnych cieľových miest, do ktorých vysťahovalci smerovali zväčša za účelom zárobku, či už natrvalo alebo s úmyslom vrátiť sa neskôr do pôvodnej vlasti. Súčasťou štúdie je i tabuľka emigrantov zo sledovanej oblasti, ktorá vychádza z údajov databázy imigračného strediska Ellis Island.
One of the most important chapters in the history of Kysuce is the period when emigration to the USA was very frequent. This was caused by many factors, mostly unsuitable conditions in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. This paper deal particularly with emigration from the region of the Bystrica valley at the end of the 19th and in the first years of the 20th century. It stuedies the motives for migration and its individual phases, while also working with course of the journey to America and describes the specific target destinations, permanently or with the intentio to return to their homeland. The table listing emigrants from this region is also part of this study - based on data from the Ellis Island immigration centre database.

(= Slavonic names for mosque with special regard to Polish, Silesian, Czech and Slovak data). -- Abstract: Even though mosques are a typical element of the Islamic culture the channels through which their designations came into Slavonic (as well as some other European languages) are not really well known. This author divides Slavonic reflexes of the Arabo-Turkic word into eight groups and discusses the reasons for their various shapes. The essay is composed of three parts: (1) Background and Western European data; (2) Slavonic and German; (3) Results and questions. The most interesting aspect is that of a semantic difference between two types of words (meczet ~ mešita ~ mošeja and džamija) and its importance for the etymology, as well as some comments on the source of the Czech and Slovak word on the one hand and the Russian term on the other. In the end of part (2) particular attention is paid to the question whether the Silesian name was borrowed from Polish or from Czech.

JUDr. Gustáv Husák, CSc. (1913 –1991) was involved in the Czech-Slovak public space for sixty years with a significant footprint even today. The book discusses his public activities, thoughts and political life. It’s based on a thorough research and is chronologically structured, intertwined with thematic areas, however an analytical approach prevails.
The first chapter focuses on Husák’s youth, the factors that led him to the communist movement, and his early activism. This is followed by a portrayal of the Husák’s activities during the Second World War, his role in the resistance, participation in a propaganda trip to the Nazi conquered Ukraine, and his vision of Slovakia as a republic of the Soviet Union. His later involvement in the Slovak National Uprising provided the legitimacy of his later political career in the postwar era, when he successfully led the struggle for the communist monopoly of political power in Czechoslovakia and attempts to present the Communist Party
of Slovakia as a national party. Next two chapters show the origins of Slovak bourgeois nationalism and the way Husák was incorporated with in, criminalized and eventually absolved. Further, the difficulties with Husák’s return to politics are highlighted, which brought him for the time being to the field of historical science and opposition activities. The public support and activism during the Prague Spring helped Husák to become a vice-chairman of the Czechoslovak government and a leading position in the formation of federalization of Czechoslovakia. Although the image of Husák as a reformer was so strengthened, he remained convinced of the necessity of a communist power monopoly and
a strong alliance with the Soviet Union as the guarantor of national independence and post-war socialism. After the entry of Warsaw Pact troops into Czechoslovakia, this with his agility sufficiently convinced Moscow and cemented his position as the leader of the Communist Party for the next two decades. The final chapters present Husák as a skilled tactician and political practitioner who, after tragic death of his second wife, suffered from apathy that accompanied his gradual departure from public life. The final part of the book focuses on historical sources and historiography. Referencing specific examples it portrays in detail relations between historians and Gustáv Husák and, moreover, it presents a typology of possible historical narratives about him.
The text consistently stresses the fundamental interdependence of domestic events and international factors, whilst shedding light on personal relationships between Husák and other major figures. A thematic analysis is framed to a greater extent in connection with the Czech-Slovak relations, in which Husák played a significant role. His background in Slovak nationalism, and identity of a nationally oriented Slovak Communist, punitively criminalised him and still yet earned a large recognition of the Slovak public, who rightly assumed him as
the father of the Czecho-Slovak federation whose foundation he actually built. However, he always prioritised party discipline over national interest. In this context, we can perceive Gustáv Husák paradoxically both as a destructor and an architect of Slovak statehood upon which the foundation of today’s Slovakia is built. In this respect, the intention of the text purposefully transcends the biographical motif.

Denník Pravda v seriáli Svedectvá pravdy priblížil povojnové obdobie, najmä päťdesiate roky minulého storočia. Priniesol príbehy ľudí, ktorých jediná vládnuca komunistická strana označila za triednych nepriateľov a tvrdo ich trestala. Posledný diel prináša pohľad na túto etapu našich dejín, ktorá sa napriek budovaniu a obnove vojnou zničeného štátu stala najkrutejším obdobím komunistického režimu. Do sovietskych gulagov boli odvlečené tisícky slovenských občanov. Autor: ARCHÍV VLADIMÍRA LEHOTAIA " Tri roky som sa každé ráno budil s tým, že možno dnes ma popravia, a počúval, ako viedli ľudí na popravu, " spomínal bývalý politický väzeň Ján Zeman, člen vtedajšej Demokratickej strany. Napokon ho nepopravili. Trest smrti mu po troch rokoch zmenili na doživotie. Viacerí také šťastie nemali. Z politických dôvodov bolo na Slovensku od roku 1948 do roku 1954 popravených 45 ľudí a odsúdených približne 25­tisíc. " Boli medzi nimi aj tí, čo spochybňovali alebo otvorene kritizovali myšlienku "socializácie dediny " , ktorej nosným plánom bolo združstevňovanie. Pod jej rúškom režim tvrdo presadzoval výchovu v duchu socializmu. Straníci vedeli, že je to možné najmä cez učiteľov. Prvá veta nového riaditeľa školy v Slovenskej Vsi znela: Táto dedina bude prvou ateistickou obcou! Žiakom dávali písať sloh na tému Prečo môj otec nevstúpil do JRD, v čase, keď na roľníkov tlačili, aby podpísali prihlášku," približuje František Neupauer, riaditeľ sekcie výskumu Ústavu pamäti národa. Niekde sa presvedčovacie metódy obmedzili na nátlak cez deti, ktoré poslali domov zo škôl či zamestnania, kým rodičia nepodpíšu vstup do jednotného roľníckeho družstva. Inde k nim pribudla aj bitka či namierený revolver. " V roku 1953 sa roľníci v prešovskom regióne začali verejne a hromadne búriť. Dokonca predstavitelia vtedajšieho Sovietskeho zväzu žiadali československú vládu, aby "zvoľnila " proces kolektivizácie. Báli sa, aby vzbury nezasiahli aj ZSSR," dodáva Neupauer. Režim si podriadil všetko Odstrániť vykorisťovanie človeka človekom a rovnosť šancí pre každého! To bolo ústredné heslo komunistickej vlády, ktorá sa dostala k moci 25. februára 1948. " Nová politická moc programovo a cieľavedome rozbíjala staré spoločenské a vlastnícke štruktúry, aby na ich troskách založila novú spoločnosť s novými ľuďmi. Na tento účel propagandisticky zneužila najmä mladú, neskúsenú generáciu

O TOM sa nehovorí, TO sa má robiť!“ – prezrádza jedna z rád starých mám a otcov. Tobôž by sa o TOM – teda o sexe a sexualite – nemalo písať. Autorský kolektív knihy Moc sexu sa však rozhodol pomyselne „prekročiť rubikon“ a otvoriť témy, pri vyslovení ktorých by sa naši predkovia, ale aj mnohí súčasníci iba hanblivo červenali. Odborníčky a odborníci z oblasti histórie, etnológie, sociológie, politológie a psychológie na jednom mieste ponúkajú príbehy zo sveta dejín sexuálnej každodennosti, erotickej literatúry, podôb sexuálnej výchovy, prostitúcie, „mravne skazenej“ mládeže či aktivizmu sexuálnych menšín v modernej ére Slovenska. Sex a sexualita sú totiž jedny z najprirodzenejších súčastí ľudského bytia, hoci sa často stávajú objektom nálepkovania, predsudkov a politizovania, ktoré zatieňuje iné, reálne problémy spoločnosti.

Nitra is one of the oldest Slovak towns. In the beginning of the 9th century it was a centre of the Nitra principality. But its own town privileges gained only from king Bela IV. in 1248. In that time it was a royal town. Situation has changed when king Ladislaus IV. on May 13, 1288 donated the town of Nitra along with the local guests (hospites) to Paschasius, the bishop of  Nitra for his merits. In addition, he granted him the right to call, collect and retain other guests, to regulate their freedom and to change them the usual taxes and fees. The Nitra guests were exempted from the jurisdiction of the mayor od the Nitra county and transferred to the jurisdiction of the Nitra bishop. Bishop Paschasius was previously provost of Bratislava and from the childhood of king Ladislaus he performed in his service various diplomatic messages during which he was even captured by the Cumans. For these reasons he received quite decent compensation. Thus, a significant change occurred in the town´s position. Nitra became a bishop´s town. It was a step backwards for the townspeople. However bishop began to intervene in their rights only at the end of the Middle Ages, In this period, bishops Anton of Šankovce (1492-1500) and his successor Stephen Podmanický (1505-1530) began to demand from the townspeople services that opposed their former freedoms. Only under bishop Paul of Telegd (1619-1644) was an agreement signed between the Nitra citizens and the bishop, which set out the rights and duties of the Nitra´s townspeople. On the basis of this, their relations worked until the abolition of serfdom in 1848.

The author deals with the methodology of biographical genre what is an absolutely ignored theme in Slovakia. He tries to answer the question in what way is the performance of an individual socially conditioned. His article is based on an analysis of the book of Lucien Febvre Le problème de l´incroyance au 16e siècle, La religion de Rabelais; the Pierre Bourdieu's article L´illusion Biographique; the book Saint Louis by Jacques le Goff; as well as methodology of approach of Jean Lacouture's. Then author analyses a specific case – how the home environment influenced development of political views of M. R. Štefánik which can be considered rather conservative. Štefánik's attitude to democracy was to a big extent determined by his home environment what means that it did not depend on his autonomous decision only. In the end of his article, the author points out to the ambiguous attitude of Štefánik's collaborators from the Czecho–Slovak resistance as for his cult. On the one hand they strongly supported it but on the other they conducted a whispering campaign against him and as a matter of fact, in favour of themselves.