Language Learning

Coventry University Institution Wide Language Programme (IWLP) offers beginners language learning modules to approximately 3,000 students. Each module is taught over 11 weeks for a total of one hour and 40 minutes and two of the weeks are used for in class tests, so tutors generally agree that students need to practise their skills outside the classroom in order to pass the module. One way of doing this was to use the language learning app, Duolingo, which helps students to gradually broaden their linguistic, professional competence, and digital fluency through increased learner autonomy. How effective this approach is, however, has never been measured. The project ran from January to April 2018 and explored whether a correlation exists between regular use of the app by IWLP learners at Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) level A1 of French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish, and achieving a high formal coursework assessment mark. The views of both learners and tutors of their experiences of using the software, and the tutor tools provided by Duolingo Schools, will also be canvassed. A virtual classroom was set up within Duolingo Schools for each participating cohort of students and they were encouraged to use the app on a regular basis. The tutor tools allowed the monitoring of how many days learners were active, how many lessons they completed, how many courses they completed, and how many points they were awarded while using Duolingo. These statistics were compared with

The practice of language teaching and learning inside the classroom is, in fact, under the circumstance of philosophical assumption or ideological framework. Teaching program and curriculum set are absolutely written on the basis of particular assumptions about the nature and value of knowledge. These assumptions mainly determine actual decisions in listing important items to be taught and learned along with the way those items are delivered. Approaches in language teaching have always been developed, in one hand, under consideration of linguistic and psychological theories of learning and educational objectives along with the expected demands of classroom teaching and learning in another hand.

This study aims at discussing how the discursive genre theory (BAKHTIN, 1992; DOLZ; SCHNEUWLY, 2004) contributes to the understanding of how video games can foster English language learning. Persona 4: Golden, the video game chosen for this study, was analyzed through Dolz and Schneuwly 's (2004), namely: action capacities; linguistic capacities; linguistic-discursive capacities. The analysis shows that the first six hours of gameplay of the aforementioned object of study present a wide array of text genres that simulate texts found in the real world, engaging players in authentic practices that stimulate language learning. Moreover, as the understanding of language is a prerequisite to move forward in the game, motivation is a key factor in P4G. Lastly, since the game used in this study is also present in other media, players might engage in gaming culture.

The year 2020 marked the 25th year since Bonny Norton published her influential TESOL Quarterly article, ‘Social identity, investment, and language learning’ (Norton Peirce, 1995) and the fifth year since we, Darvin and Norton (2015), co-authored ‘Identity and a model of investment in applied linguistics’ in the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. From the time Norton's 1995 piece was published, investment and motivation have been conceptually imbricated and often collocated, as they hold up two different lenses to investigate the same reality: why learners choose to learn an additional language (L2). In our 2015 article, we made the case that while it is important to ask the question, ‘Are students motivated to learn a language?’ it is equally productive to ask, ‘Are students invested in the language practices of the classroom or community?’ (Darvin & Norton, 2015, p. 37). We recognize that the relationship between language teachers and learners is unequal, and that teachers ...

Teaching the research paper has been considered a “present controversy” for over fifty years (Saalbach, 1963). Some scholars believe that it prepares students for “generalized academic writing” (Reiff and Bawarshi, 2011; Sutton, 1997; Schwegeler and Shamoon, 1982). However, others have referred to the research paper as a “fossilized,” “pseudo-academic,” “mutt genre” (Nowacek, 2011; Wardle, 2007; Carroll, 1999; Larsen, 1982). This chapter argues that radical openness and information overload--two major features of new media composing environments--compromise the relevance of the traditional research paper. First, the research paper has been praised and blamed for its (in)ability to help students learn the importance of writing from sources (Brent 2013, Rooney 2000). However, the parameters of most research assignments are incapable of matching the scale of data available at any given time. For instance, typical constraints like “use 5-7 sources” for a first-year college writing course seems ridiculous when it takes seconds to retrieve thousands, if not millions, of possible sources. Next, open-access publishing and collaborative authorship have transformed the way that research is conducted and recognized across disciplines. Although teaching students how to crowdsource research makes the most sense in a data deluge, the research paper privileges single authorship. Moreover, the problems of authorship and source attribution implicate the research paper in certain kinds of fraud. For instance, plagiarism and term paper mills are a “built-in” problem of research papers (Howell, 1977).  In sum, this chapter focuses on what the term "research" means in a context of too much information.  It concludes by offering a brief discussion of literature relevant to this topic.

As I mostly teacher low-level classes conducted usually entirely in L2, sometimes the issuing of instructions can be protracted and problematical. I would like to become more aware about this aspect of teaching and learn how to give instructions to my low-level learners more effectively.

How humans possess the language ability is a matter of long controversy among the linguists. Some of them believe that the ability of language is the result of innate knowledge. Unlike other species humans possess that innate ability which is genetically coded. To them language is the outcome of nature (genes). Conversely, others claim that the ability of language is learned through experience extracting all the linguistic information from the outside environment. It is the outcome of nurture (environmental factors/stimuli). At present, there is no clear winner regarding the debate as both genes and environmental factors/stimuli seem to play a vital and important role in language acquisition.

Anormal Psikoloji kitabı, ruhsal bozukluklar alanında çalışan tüm profesyoneller, psikiyatristler, klinik psikologlar, psikologlar, psikolojik danışmanlar, hekimler, sosyal hizmet uzmanları, psikiyatri hemşireleri ve bu alanlarda öğrenci yetiştiren akademisyenler ile eğitim alan öğrenciler için temel bir başvuru kitabıdır.
2013 yılının Mayısı ayında yayımlanan DSM-5 ölçütlerine göre ruhsal bozukluklarla ilgili sunulan bilgilerin güncellemesinin de yapıldığı bu kitap, tüm dünyada pek çok üniversitenin psikiyatri ve psikoloji bölümlerinde ders kitabı olarak okutulmaktadır.
Kitabın her bölümünde, ilk olarak ruhsal bozukluklarla ilgili vakalar sunulmakta, daha sonra bozuklukların klinik tanıları yapılmakta ve DSM-IV-TR’den farklı olan DSM-5’te yapılan değişikliklere yer verilmektedir. Ayrıca, DSM-5’teki tanı ölçütleri, bozuklukların etiyolojisi ve epidemiyolojisi, bozukluklar üzerinde kalıtımın ve çevrenin etkileri, biyolojik ve sosyal ve kültürel etkiler, en güncel araştırmalardan elde edilen verilerle harmanlanarak sunulmaktadır. Ruhsal bozuklukların tedavisinde etkili olacak terapi yaklaşımları ve ilaçla yapılan tedaviler hakkında da bilgiler veren kitap, sahip olduğu zengin içeriği ile eşsiz bir kaynaktır.
Anormal Psikoloji kitabının; profesyoneller ve öğrenciler için önemli bir rehber olacağına, yardıma ihtiyaç duyan insanların sorunlarının çözümüne, ruhsal bozuklukların tanı ve tedavisinde önemli katkılar sağlayacağına inanıyoruz.

Design and technology education provides children with opportunities to create solutions to specific needs in innovative ways. This paper reports on research that focused on the language that the children used when they were involved in a design and technology activity. In accessing the results of the language study, the findings suggest that the children's motivation was high and played a significant role in children's task engagement and persistence. Analysis revealed that there were several key ideas that the children focused on, namely: the fun experienced by participating in the activity, the difficulty of doing the task, the satisfaction of completing the task, the importance of social interaction and the frustrations surrounding aspects of the task. These affective factors that are related directly to motivation will be demonstrated through the children's language responses to their participation in design and technology education.

Fabula, an interdisciplinary project funded by the EU Multimedia Software programme, provides software to enable children learning European minority languages to create bilingual digital books. We share a set of assumptions and approaches to the key issues addressed by ...

In this paper, the details of processing algorithms used in a training program with language learning-impaired children (LLI's) are described. The training program utilized computer games, speech/language training exercises, books-ontape and educational CD-ROM's. Speech tracks in these materials were processed using these algorithms. During a four week training period, recognition of both processed and normal speech in these children continually increased to near age-appropriate levels. We conclude that this form of processed speech is subject to profound perceptual learning effects and exhibits widespread generalization to normal speech. This form of learning and generalization contributes to the rehabilitation of temporal processing deficits and language comprehension in this subject population.

This project proposes that language evolve through reinforcement learning where agents communicate with each other and provide rewards if communication is successful. The fundamental difference between the learning mechanisms that humans use to communicate with one another and how machines learn to communicate is that the system used by humans presupposes that the adult already knows the meanings associated with the human language. Languages evolve historically to be optimal communication systems where human language learning mechanisms have evolved in order to learn these systems more efficiently. Machines in their learning of natural language, have to start at a place that humans mastered thousands of years ago. Uttering previously unheard signals and collectively establishing meaning. The question that this paper deals with is how can a communication system evolve if none of the conspirators have mastered the system previously using evolutionary computation and reinforcement lear...

This paper proposes an approach to automatically evaluate the prosody of Chinese Mandarin speech for language learning. In this approach, we grade the appropriateness of prosody of speech units according to a model speech corpus from a teacher's voice. To this end, we build two models, which are the prosody model and the scoring model. The prosody model that is built from the teacher's speech predicts the reference prosody for the learning text. The scoring model compares the student's prosody with the reference prosody and gives a prosody rating score. Both the prosody model and the scoring model are built using regression tree. To make the two prosodies comparable, we transform the student's prosody into the teacher's prosody space. To build the scoring model, we derive from the corpus a reference data set, in which prosody rating is associated with prosody parameters. During speech evaluation, the student's prosody is first transformed into the teacher's prosody space and then evaluated by the scoring model. Experiments show that our model works well for speech of new speakers.

This article revisits the issue of the normalisation of technology in language education, defined as the stage at which a technology is used in language education without our being consciously aware of its role as a technology, as an effective element in the language learning process (Bax, 2003). It draws on the literature relating to the history of sociotechnical innovation (Bijker, 1997) to develop the theoretical basis of the concept and examines normalisation in the light of a neo-Vygotskian conceptual framework, in order to establish a set of central principles by which to understand and interpret the normalisation process. It then considers the implications for the language teacher and other change agents, with proposals for how to introduce new technologies into language education settings with maximum impact.

Play is older than culture, for culture, however inadequately defined, always presupposes human society, and animals have not waited for man to teach them their playing. We can safely assert, even, that human civilization has added no essential feature to the general idea of play. (Huizinga, 1950, p. 1) Why language teachers should be interested in using games with learners What games can be used and how they can be used Console games Free online games Massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) Virtual worlds (especially Second Life) Alternate reality games (ARGs) The original slide show from our presentation at the WiAOC2007 is presented

« Dak mevrouw, ich eet François en ich spel krak tennis ». De meeste leraren Nederlands die lesgeven aan Franstaligen hebben dit (vrij karikaturale) zinnetje al eens gehoord. Dit laat ons zien hoe moeilijk sommige klanken van het Nederlands uit te spreken zijn voor tweedetaalleerders, onder andere Franstaligen. Naast die constatering kunnen we ons afvragen of de
Franstaligen die moeilijke klanken van het Nederlands kunnen waarnemen, en welke factoren een invloed hebben op de discriminatie van die klanken. Daarbij rijst de vraag of de aangeboren of verworven muzikaliteit
van de leerders de discriminatie van taalklanken kunnen beïnvloeden: mensen die muziekklanken accuraat kunnen waarnemen, vertonen misschien
ook een gevoelige perceptie voor niet-muzikale klanken. Deze bijdrage onderzoekt de moeilijkheidsgraad van de discriminatie van Nederlandse klanken door Franstalige studenten en de invloed van (niet)-muzikale factoren op die vaardigheid.
Op de eerste plaats focust dit artikel op de factoren die het leren beïnvloeden (Sectie 2). Vervolgens wordt in Sectie 3 de aandacht gevestigd op het verband tussen taal en muziek en het mogelijk effect dat muzikale aanleg of muziekpraktijk op taalvaardigheden uitoefent. Sectie 4 gaat nader in op de hoofdvragen van dit onderzoek en de gebruikte methodologie. Daaropvolgend staan de resultaten en de bespreking ervan centraal (sectie 5). Dit artikel wordt afgesloten met mogelijke pedagogische implicaties van deze analyse.

Studies investigating the possible effects of age at immigration (a proxy for age at onset of second language learning) on second language acquisition among immigrants often explicitly take the effect of length of residence in the destination country (a measure of exposure to opportunities to learn the second language) into account. A third variable, age at testing, recently has caught the attention of some scholars. However, the three variables "age at immigration," "length of residence," and "age at testing" are linearly dependent. The easiest and most common response to this problem is to ignore one or two of the variables. In this article I show that this strategy can result in potentially misleading conclusions and then suggest some strategies for dealing with the problem.

Language is a system of principles and symbols that is applied for meaningful communication Language learning relates to first-language learning, which learns children learning of their language. Through language, we can express our ideas and view to others. It mentions to the knowing knowledge of rules and being capable to speak about them. Human language is different from communication of animals.

Theories of language production suggest that utterances are built by a mechanism that distinguishes linguistic subject from linguistic frame. Producing language in uttered discussion is not possible without motions. Language production is the production of uttered and scripted language. Language production connects the arranging of linguistic information.

Human language is different because it has characteristics of productive, translation etc. It believes on social learning and convention.  The human beings have evolved a capacity to communicate through language. The capacity to learn a natural language differentiates human being from other beasts, and is generally absorbed during the first decade of life throughout the critical time for language learning. The language system that evolves penetrates everyday life, rendering for an infinite linguistic ability and for the necessary creativity of language.  Development and the mind have done an amazing work resolving many difficult problems in action control, admitting problems of learning, hierarchical hold over serial behaviour.

It is not wonderful that these resolutions are victimized to solve other difficult problems such as pattern of a communication system. We suggest a theory of language of learning and production. The growth of grammatical position and symbols of language become significant through basing in perceptual experience and action system.

We propose a methodology for evaluating second language acquisition in the context of massive multi-player online role-playing games (MMORPG). Careful examination of learning opportunities present in gaming requires us to direct our attention to the characteristics of MMORPGs and how these characteristics support learning. MMORPGs accommodate active learners who assume the role of characters they have selected, create immersive environments that promote the development of conceptual knowledge and engage players in social interaction among a community of players. Since MMORPGs support social interaction between players, MMORPGs serve as the catalyst for fostering students language proficiency as students interact in a foreign language while playing the game. For these reasons, we believe that MMORPGs embody an interesting and underutilized learning environment for second language acquisition. Based upon this premise, we introduce a game-language learning model and explore Sony Online Entertainments 3D game Ever Quest II as a pedagogical tool for students learning English as a second language.

The article first introduces the special issue on the topic of Linguistic Dimensions of Inclusion in Educational and Multilingual Contexts. Key aspects of inclusive education are outlined and applied to the realm of language, communication and language learning. The concept "linguistic barrier," a collective term for linguistic practices and communicative aspects that may pose obstacles to language learning, communicative success or a successful integration of individuals in multilingual contexts, is discussed. Focal points of the individual contributions to the special issue are briefly outlined. In the second part, the article hones in on non-nativeness as a dimension of inclusion in foreign language teaching. Processes of exclusion and inclusion are illustrated through a multimodal critical discourse analysis of representational practices in units from the German EFL textbook series Navi Englisch. The main focus of analysis lies on verbal and visual cultural indexes that allow for conclusions on the representation of native and non-native social actors as well as ENL, ESL and EFL cultures. Based on the finding that the material shows a strong predominance of native language user representation , it is argued that a mainstreaming of second language identities and English as an international lingua franca in ELT can foster higher levels of inclusion that are likely to have positive, empowering effects for learners of English and non-native English language teachers alike. KEYWORDS critical discourse studies, EFL textbooks, English as a lingua franca, foreign language teaching, inclusion, language learning, linguistic barrier, non-nativeness

The purpose of this study is to investigate whether a group of 116 Dutch children with specifi c language impairment (SLI) shows differences in sensory processing when compared to a control group of age-matched 4 -7-year-old typical peers. The Sensory Profi le-NL -a standardized questionnaire of 125 items -was completed by caregivers of children in both groups. Children with SLI differed signifi cantly from the control group on all 14 section scores and 4 quadrant scores of the Sensory Profi le-NL. The effect size of the difference in sensory modulation patterns of children with and without SLI on this measure was large (Cohen ' s d Ն 0.80). Diffi culties in sensory modulation can be characterized as frequent co-morbid problems in children with SLI. Logoped Phoniatr Vocol Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by 85.90.91.235 on 05/21/12 For personal use only. Logoped Phoniatr Vocol Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by 85.90.91.235 on 05/21/12 For personal use only.

Knowing how to learn a language maximizes the chances of effective learning. Metacognition, an emerging concept in cognitive psychology, aids learners to enrich their knowledge of the learning process and makes them autonomous learners. This paper details an experiment conducted with fifty freshmen in college on autonomous learning of…

This study investigated whether task complexity influences second language (L2) writers’ fluency, pausing, and revision behaviors and the cognitive processes underlying these behaviors; whether task complexity affects linguistic complexity of written output; and whether relationships between writing behaviors and linguistic complexity are moderated by task complexity. Participants were 73 advanced L2 writers, who completed simple or complex essay tasks. Task complexity was operationalized as the absence versus presence of content support. Participants’ writing behaviors were recorded via keystroke logging software. Four writers, drawn from groups performing simple and complex tasks, additionally engaged in stimulated recall. Content support was found to lead to less pausing, more revision, and increased linguistic complexity. When content support was absent, more frequent pauses and revisions were associated with less sophisticated lexis. These results, combined with stimulated reca...

Le présent article est issu des résultats de la recherche en groupe franco-japonais menée sous l'égide de la Société japonaise pour la promotion des sciences (JSPS) ainsi que de l'Égide française. La recherche bénéfi cie du fonds de leur programme : « SAKURA » (en 2007-2008) et est intitulée : « L'appropriation du français par des apprenants japonais à l'intérieur et à l'extérieur de la classe de langue : une recherche comparative sur les processus d'acquisition en contextes "homoglotte" et "alloglotte". » L'auteur est le responsable de l'équipe japonaise. La responsable française est Cyrille Granget (IRFFLE, Université de Nantes) ; les autres membres sont Dominique Klingler (Paris 3) et Ako Nishimura (Université Shirayuri, Japon). L'auteur exprime ses remerciements à Didier Chiche (Université Kônan, Japon), pour sa relecture très attentive du texte et pour ses remarques très détaillées tant sur le contenu que sur les expressions. Il va de soi qu'il n'est nullement responsable des imperfections qui subsistent. Celles-ci doivent être attribuées à l'auteur.

The socio-cultural settings of English-language and Englishmedium classrooms are intrinsically bi/multilingual and bi/multicultural as both learners and teachers bring their multiple identities and homecommunity languages and sociolinguistic practices into the classroom. However, more often than not in such contexts, monolingual ideologies are the guiding principle for the top-down language education policies of "onelanguage only" which often create conflict and tension. In a postcolonial context, this paper looks at how monolingual ideologies and policies construct L1 as "the linguistic other" in face-to-face interaction in English classrooms which are defined as "English-only". It also shows how the essentialisation of the English classroom's socio-cultural spaces as non-local is met with resistance through the use of L1 which is informed by the local/national ideologies and constructs English as "the other". Against such a conflict scenario, it finds that code-switching is employed by the participants in some classrooms to achieve pedagogical goals and to resolve the tension which also deconstructs the positioning of both English and L1 as "the linguistic other". The paper employs multilayered analyses and draws on data from ethnographic research based in the classroom and community contexts. The data includes, amongst other, transcripts of classroom interactions and opinions of teachers and students about their language choices in such interactions. The findings of the paper suggest that an appreciation of the potential of the positive power, the constructive resistance and the resource argument of L1 use in English classrooms can lead to deconstructing the essentialist meanings of "the linguistic other".

Two experiments using online speech processing measures with 18-to 36-month-olds extended research by showing that young children's comprehension is disrupted when the grammatical determiner in a noun phrase is replaced with a nonce determiner (the car vs. po car). In Expt. 1, 18-month-olds were slower and less accurate to identify familiar nouns on nonce-article than grammatical-article trials, although older children who produced determiners in their own speech showed no disruption. However, when tested on novel words in Expt. 2, even linguistically advanced 34-month-olds had greater difficulty identifying familiar as well as newly learned object names preceded by a nonce article. Children's success in "listening through" an uninformative functor-like nonce syllable before a familiar noun was related to their level of grammatical competence, but their attention to the nonce article also varied with lexical familiarity and the overall redundancy of the processing context.

This study dealt empirically with certain aspects of second language learning among three university students, who all had a relative degree of proficiency in Mandarin and who were in an advanced English-as-a-second-language class at UCLA. An error analysis of written verb forms was undertaken with two purposes in mind: first, to determine the short-term effects of teacher correction procedures on the eradication of errors and second, to relate interlanguage background (past language experiences, current language environment, and language learning strategies) and learners' explanation of errors to the errors themselves. A close look at the effects of correction in written work revealed that correction was neither systematic nor enlightened enough to actually influence the production of errors. Although broad in scope and in some ways rudimentary, the gathering of interlanguage background information and error explanations from the learners provided useful insights concerning the production of errors and what these errors tell us about interlanguage.

Here we review behavioral, neuroimaging, and neuropharmacological studies using a word learning task labeled as the Ancient Farming Equipment paradigm. This task has been used to explore the neural correlates of explicit learning and maintenance of new names for novel objects in the native tongue. The main conclusions drawn from these studies are as follows: (a) Retrieval of both the newly learned and familiar names is subserved by predominantly left hemispheric cortical regions; (b) within this network, retrieval of newly learned words can be accomplished in different ways depending on the exact form of training; (c) patient studies indicate that episodic memory mechanisms subserved by hippocampal structures are related to word acquisition rather than to longterm maintenance of newly learned words; (d) explicit learning and maintenance of novel words can be facilitated by neuropharmacological manipulation that boosts the dopaminergic system; and (b) neural events following completed training may predict long-term retention of newly learned words.

This article documents the work of parent-driven research teams in two school boards in the Greater Toronto Area. Motivated by a desire to move beyond a school-centred/family-centred dichotomy, this parent-lead project explores a middle space for collective learning among multiple stakeholders in publiclyfunded schooling. Drawing on participatory action research and social capital theory, I outline a generic research approach and then provide a more detailed sketch of one full research cycle focused on the theme of discipline. I evaluate the relative successes of the project and conclude by prioritizing the quality of relationships within the research. The parent-driven research at the centre of this discussion was part of a larger project situated in two elementary schools in two respective school boards in Greater Toronto. Since the 2005/2006 academic year, this broader research project has made a sustained effort to expand lines of communication between two schools and their families, most of whom are from linguistic, cultural and racial minority groups. The work at the schools began as a series of after-school, town-hall type community forums involving the respective school communities (parents, their children, in-service and preservice teachers, the school"s administration, local community agencies), and a university-based research team (a lead teacher from the school, myself as the principal investigator and two graduate student research assistants). Discussions addressed issues parents considered significant

All articles in this collection are published under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) licence. Under this licence, the contents are freely available online (as PDF files) for anybody to read, download, copy, and redistribute provided that the author(s), editorial team, and publisher are properly cited. Commercial use and derivative works are, however, not permitted. Disclaimer: Research-publishing.net does not take any responsibility for the content of the pages written by the authors of this book. The authors have recognised that the work described was not published before, or that it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere. While the information in this book are believed to be true and accurate on the date of its going to press, neither the editorial team, nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. While Research-publishing.net is committed to publishing works of integrity, the words are the authors' alone. Trademark notice: product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Copyrighted material: every effort has been made by the editorial team to trace copyright holders and to obtain their permission for the use of copyrighted material in this book. In the event of errors or omissions, please notify the publisher of any corrections that will need to be incorporated in future editions of this book.

What are the origins of the efficient language learning abilities that allow humans to acquire their mother tongue in just a few years very early in life? Although previous studies have identified different mechanisms underlying the acquisition of auditory and speech patterns in older infants and adults, the earliest sensitivities remain unexplored. To address this issue, we investigated the ability of newborns to learn simple repetition-based structures in two optical brain-imaging experiments. In the first experiment, 22 neonates listened to syllable sequences containing immediate repetitions (ABB; e.g., ''mubaba,'' ''penana''), intermixed with random control sequences (ABC; e.g., ''mubage,'' ''penaku''). We found increased responses to the repetition sequences in the temporal and left frontal areas, indicating that the newborn brain differentiated the two patterns. The repetition sequences evoked greater activation than the random sequences during the first few trials, suggesting the presence of an automatic perceptual mechanism to detect repetitions. In addition, over the subsequent trials, activation increased further in response to the repetition sequences but not in response to the random sequences, indicating that recognition of the ABB pattern was enhanced by repeated exposure. In the second experiment, in which nonadjacent repetitions (ABA; e.g., ''bamuba,'' ''napena'') were contrasted with the same random controls, no discrimination was observed. These findings suggest that newborns are sensitive to certain input configurations in the auditory domain, a perceptual ability that might facilitate later language development.

Children produce their first gestures before their first words, and their first gesture + word sentences before their first word + word sentences. These gestural accomplishments have been found not only to predate linguistic milestones, but also to predict them. Findings of this sort suggest that gesture itself might be playing a role in the language-learning process. But what role

ABSTRACT

The Internet as a worldwide literacy practice environment has created a new situation in communication, providing a new dynamic field for research. On the basis of the two articles under discussion, this commentary develops three main aspects of the Internet: as an informal learning environment for English as a second/foreign language; as a discursive space where identities are formed and social relationships are negotiated; and, as a space where the intermingling of the global and the local gives rise to hybrid language varieties. Taking into account that electronic environments are not neutral literacy practice environments but are involved in a complex nexus of power structures and relations that also need to be explored, this paper briefly addresses issues related to theoretical and methodological approaches for the study of language varieties in the Internet.

This paper reports on the first phase of an exploratory qualitative study carried out with in-service language teachers pursuing a graduate degree in Colombia. It aims at analyzing their practices, needs, and challenges, examined under two perspectives—the teacher as a learner and the teacher as a teacher. The study made use of interviews, focus groups, and questionnaires as the primary sources of data. Data analysis included a grounded theory approach and the use of coding, triangulation, and validation procedures. Results unveiled the difficulties that current in-service teachers have in different domains (cognitive, metacognitive, and linguistic), and also inform how the teaching challenges within their specific contexts influence their beliefs, practices, learning and teaching outcomes, and their professional growth. The study presents both theoretical and applied considerations to tackle the needs and challenges reported, aiming at offering a systematic analysis and approach fo...

A field experiment compares the effectiveness and satisfaction associated with technologyassisted learning with that of face-to-face learning. The empirical evidence suggests that technology-assisted learning effectiveness depends on the target knowledge category. Building on Kolb's experiential learning model, we show that technology-assisted learning improves students' acquisition of knowledge that demands abstract conceptualization and reflective observation but adversely affects their ability to obtain knowledge that requires concrete experience. Technology-assisted learning better supports vocabulary learning than face-to-face learning but is comparatively less effective in developing listening comprehension skills. In addition, according to empirical tests, perceived ease of learning and learning community support significantly predict both perceived learning effectiveness and learning satisfaction. Overall, the results support our hypotheses and research model and suggest instructors should consider the target knowledge when considering technology-assisted learning options or designing a Web-based course. In addition, a supportive learning community can make technology-assisted learning easier for students and increase their learning satisfaction.

This case study investigates the metacognitive reading strategies of three advanced proficient trilingual readers whose native language is Hausa. The study examines the reading strategies employed by the three readers in English, French and Hausa. The aim of the study was to compare the reading strategy profiles of trilingual readers through perceived use and real-time or actual use of reading strategies. The major findings revealed that: (1) The three multilingual readers demonstrate high awareness of reading strategies; (2) They deploy more reading strategies in their second and third language than in their first language; (3) Some types of reading strategies were used more often than others; (4) The most proficient readers deploy a wider range of strategies than the least proficient reader who relies heavily on translation. The topic and research questions are pertinent because it adds to a relatively small data base on the strategic reading of multiliterate and multilingual read...