Musical Analysis

Topics and harmonic schemata powerfully interact in the late-eighteenth-century communicative channel. This article illustrates both a categorial and pragmatic interfacing of the two domains in Beethoven’s Eroica Symphony, where a particular schema-topic amalgam, the le–sol–fi–sol (Byros 2012, 2009), enables the communication of a powerful philosophical message involving the spiritual consequences of suffering, self-sacrifice, and death. The le–sol–fi–sol, as an instance of harmonic grammar, is also an ombra topic with mortal, funereal, and sacrificial connotations. As a hybrid symbolic structure, it is the basis for establishing a number of correlations of oppositions in the structural and expressive domains of the Symphony, which communicate a “tragic-to-transcendent” expressive genre and the cultural unit of “abnegation” (Hatten 1994).

In this portfolio of compositions, I have explored the concept of musical ambiguity. I perceive this kind of ambiguity as an interesting and purposeful instability, created by employing a variety of techniques to arrange and manipulate complex compositional materials. Interrupting the narrative flow with unexpected, disturbing fragments should increase the expressive tension of the musical structure and narrative, thereby obliterating ‘habitual’ hierarchies of perception and eradicating a false sense of stability in the listener. My techniques include the simultaneous juxtaposition of several aural ‘viewpoints’, such as dense versus lucid textures, as well as the fragmentation and repositioning of chosen elements. In the analyses of my compositions I have made use of some ideas and terms from the visual arts, architecture and philosophy to clarify my arguments.
Every musical element from tonality, texture and rhythm to structure and narrative is questioned and reinterpreted by means of fragmentation and juxtaposition with the aim of creating layers of textures and timbres. Prior to this treatment, a composition is generally begun with a musical idea, derived from my mental ‘sound library’, which already alludes to timbre, instrumentation, atmosphere, modality and provides motivic impetus. Furthermore, a lively collaboration with musicians plays an important role during the compositional process and has enabled me to find my own voice through the shaping of the experimental materials into the two orchestral works, a few ensemble pieces and solo works.

This thesis approaches Haydn’s sonata-form procedures from the perspective of the eighteenth-century listener, asking, if a moment is allegedly “witty” according to modern analysts, would Haydn's contemporary audience have heard it as such? Eighteenth-century wit has two sides: wit involves an aspect of surprise or deception, a breaking of understood norms; however, wit must also involve an unsuspected congruity, a broader connection created only by breaking the aforementioned norm. Taking this as my starting point, I explore false recapitulations in the Haydn’s music, concluding that this device cannot be considered witty because it did not break an understood convention. I then provide detailed analyses of the first movements of Haydn’s “Military” Symphony no. 100 and String Quartet in D major, op. 33 no. 6, arguing that they are witty not solely because they are disruptive, but because this disruption binds the sonata together in an unexpected way.

The close relationship of Victor Assis Brazil and the jazz is widespread among musicians, students and music lovers in general, especially for his eloquence as an improviser. However, the specific knowledge about the musical procedures which confirms this intimity – that would clarify such proximity - is rare. This study aimed to analyze the improvised solos of Victor Assis Brazil recorded in the album Pedrinho in order to demonstrate the existence of elements that better explain its relation with the improvisation of jazz imprint. We try to outline the articulations of the main musical elements - described by a range of authors as a constant in the study of improvisation - in order to better understand the phraseological construction, the musical poetry of Victor. The choice of this disk is justified for being the musical maturity of the saxophonist, and also because Pedrinho is the last album recorded by him.
Key words: improvisation, musical analisys, harmonic analisys, Victor Assis Brasil (1945-1980), saxophone, popular brazilian music, jazz.

This text is a translation of the introduction to the thesis presented at the University of São Paulo in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Music. The work was advised by Adriana Lopes da Cunha Moreira, PhD, and may soon have the other parts translated to English.

This work presents an aesthetic analysis that approaches the first movement of the sonata for trumpet and piano by Paul Hindemith; which is one of the most important twentieth century works of the genre for the trumpet repertoire. Thus, the analysis content on this paper is divided in four main subjects; formal structure, melodic and rhythmic structure, harmonic and tonal structure, texture, articulation and dynamics.
The complete piece is a three movement work; although, for the purpose of this work, only the first movement is going to be analyzed in order to provide a better coverage of the material that fulfills it. The approaches achieved hereby do not intend to be an absolute truth, nor the most complete reference, or even the only source that addresses the piece this way, but it should be taken on the way that considers the available sources and resources herein applied.
On the other hand, this paper does not intend to approach strictly the performance or describe appropriated techniques willing the preparation of the piece as a beforehand stage guide. Though, even if it was intended to, it would be an incomplete source due to the fact that it covers only the first movement. Despite that, the content hereby discussed may be also useful for the performance preparation − if applied properly. Otherwise, the points discussed hereby aims better to help clarifying the compositional process from an analytical point of view.

The reconstruction [see the beginning of the article], by this author, is based on some of the known facts surrounding Mozart’s transcriptions
of several three- and four-voice fugues from
Johann Sebastian Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier. Mozart
transcribed them during the period around 1782-83,
when he attended Baron van Swieten’s Sunday-morning
musical salon, and while a phase-change in his compositional
method was occurring. This change was provoked
by his encounters with Bach’s works, in combination
with Joseph Haydn’s revolutionary new string quartets
(Op. 33), written the year before.
To continue the year 2000 commemoration of the
250th anniversary of the death of Bach (1685-1750),
and to celebrate the 200th anniversary of the publication
of Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier, this article concerning
Mozart, and a projected future article on Robert
and Clara Schumann, will present evidence of the degree
to which these composers who lived after Bach, intensively
studied and “re-composed” his works as pedagogical
exercises, to deepen their knowledge of polyphony
and counterpoint, and then directly made use of Bach’s
compositional method in composing new works. This
evidence will be presented through the words of these
composers, and through several of their musical works,
not widely known today.

Propuesta interpretativa de la suite BWV 997 para laúd de
Johann Sebastian Bach, realizada a partir de una síntesis contextual de la época, además de un análisis musical a una copia de los manuscritos y al posterior estudio correlacional con tres transcripciones para guitarra, teniendo como guía para la interpretación el método para flauta traversa de Quantz. Finalmente se presentan dos composiciones para guitarra solista en el estilo barroco, realizadas desde los resultados obtenidos en el análisis y el estudio correlacional.

Haydn’s ‘recomposition’ of the recapitulation is well known, but this article proposes, against received wisdom, that Haydn composed as though following a rule in the recapitulations of fast sonata-form movements from the 1770s onwards. The article extends William E. Caplin’s functional theory to the Haydn recapitulation in order to revive the ‘sonata principle’, restated and limited to fast movements in Haydn’s instrumental cycles. It then lays out a typology of Haydn’s recapitulatory strategies that unfold within the constraints of the sonata principle.

Traducción y síntesis de la introducción y el capítulo 1 de la Guía para el análisis musical de Nicholas Cook para uso de la cátedra Análisis Musical 1 y 2, Universidad Nacional de Rosario.
Esta traducción no persigue fines comerciales y se distribuye bajo licencia Creative Commons BY NC SA.

It.Estetica della musica elettroacustica; Fr. Esthétique de la musique électroacoustique; Germ. Ästhetik der Elektroakustischen Musik; Span. Estética de la música electroacústica. This expression refers to a branch of the aesthetics of music which deepens musical thinking on electroacoustic music and the conceptual frameworks in which it can be located. Electroacoustic music, not least from an aesthetic point of view, has been studied above all by composers and much less by philosophers. For this reason, the label “aesthetics of electroacoustic music” has often been used not in reference to a specific theoretical context (subjective genitive) but rather in reference to the aesthetic qualities and the poetics of a work of electroacoustic music (objective genitive).

We can view the Classical sonata form as expanding the tonal structure and thematic design of the continuous rounded binary forms of the classical period. Refer to the attached diagram, which compares a typical rounded continuous binary form with a typical sonata movement. As you recall, the rounded continuous binary is divided into two large parts, usually demarcated by double bars. The A section (a) corresponds to the exposition of the sonata. The B section is divided into two parts: the digression (b) corresponds to the development , and the thematic/harmonic return (a') corresponds to the recapitulation. A detailed discussion of the sections in sonata form follows.

(Note: Musical fonts have been lost in the academia online version, better download the PDF version o read it in http://www.lamadeguido.com/fundamentos/eindex.htm)

The phenomenon of harmonics shapes the mechanisms of musical apprehensions. In particular, the third harmonic (the fifth), the perfect consonance, is responsible for creating the "laws" that govern our perception of harmonic tensions.
Harmonics create the palette of available sounds and intervals, and the second harmonic (the octave) is the cause that all intervals between notes can be reduced (apart from unison) to six: m2 (M7), M2 (m7), m3 (M6), M3 (m6), P4 (P5) and tritone. Of these intervals there are two very close to the perfect fifth consonance (half-tone difference), are the "quasi-fifth" intervals of M3 and tritone, which discharge their tension if one of their two notes is directed toward the note (or fundamental) that would "resolve the tuning of the fifth". These are the resolutions we call htonal and Phrygian, very important interrelationship between chords for the establishment of harmonic and tonal tensions and relaxions.
If we take these two intervals together, so that we match the resolution notes (which are separated by a tritone), we obtain the 7M3 structure, formed by an M3 and a tritone (for example CEBb), structure that reinforces and increases the resolutive tendency towards these two notes (F and B for CEBb).
This structure (7M3 = M3 + tritone) together with the tendency of tones to resolve a lower fifth (due to the harmonics structure) is what generates tonality (the notes that form the 7M3 structure are known as dominant, leading-tone and subdominant of the tone in which they want to discharge their tension).
These principles (we might also call them musical forces) are therefore very simple and elementary (in fact everything could be reduced simply to the tendency to tune the interval of fifth and to rest in the lower fifth), but, as in nature, combinations of elemental principles (or forces) can give very complex perceptual structures.
We may summarise the harmonic tension of most chords with one or two functional fundamentals (deduced from the harmonics structure) and, regardless of tonality, we can know the degrees of resolution or tension between chords by means of these fundamentals.

Since the nineteenth century, the analysis of music has undertaken to provide accounts of musical structure by explaining musical events and patterns that lend coherence to an individual work as well as contributing to its beauty and meaning. Drawing on a variety of musical building blocks-whether harmonic, contrapuntal, melodic, rhythmic or sectional-analysts of various theoretical persuasions have asked their readers to set aside their first impressions in order to pay attention to the way a piece of music works by examining the details of its 'facture'. The 'truth-value' of such interpretations can of course never be divorced from the ideas an analyst holds about musical structure, since these notions or 'theories' largely determine which musical parameters count as structurally significant. Nonetheless within the realm of musical analysis-far different from, say, mathematics or physics-it has rarely been the elegance or grandiosity of a structural theory that has attracted adherents. Instead, successful analyses have always appealed to an inherently musical plausi-bility, fuzzy though such a concept must ultimately remain. For this reason, the seeming circularity of interpretation endemic to musical analysis will appear less troubling, especially when one realises that analysts if they are to succeed-need to persuade a community of musicians that it is possible to hear a piece as proceeding 'so and not otherwise', to borrow a phrase of Theodor W. Adorno. And contrary to some popular perceptions, musicians are a famously hard-nosed lot when it comes to being told how to hear a piece with which they are intimate. The issue of musical plausibility in an analysis can be taken a step further if one asserts that accounts of musical structure are really no more than reconstructions of a set of actions taken by a composer. Analysis in this sense is tantamount to a kind of decomposition , taking apart what was once put together. How, one may ask, could it be otherwise unless the composer is some kind of idiot savanttaking dictation from an inaccessible muse? A discussion of this issue has been sidetracked for a long time by fears that analytical statements might all be taken to be identical to verbal statements composers might make (though they rarely do) about how they composed a piece of music. In the case of composers from the past, moreover, it has also seemed arrogant to claim that an analyst

In the 1930s, when Heinrich Schenker’s ideas were first spreading in the United States, there was simultaneously a call by many Anglo-American music critics for more “objective” critiques of the music per se, instead of evaluations based on critics’ personal responses to the music. For some Americans familiar with Schenker’s approach, it seemed to provide a means for this kind of “objective” criticism. Related views were significant for the type of disciplinary music theory that emerged a few decades later, for which Schenkerian ideas formed a cornerstone. This essay explores these connections in four principal sections plus a supplement. Part I examines the changing foundations of Anglo-American music criticism in the 1920s–40s, as many participants called for greater “objectivity.” Influential English critic Ernst Newman receives particular attention. Part II addresses Schenker’s own opinions about criticism as a prelude to considering how some of his early American advocates argued for an “objective” criticism informed by his views. Part III offers an example of how this goal might be achieved, by expounding a previously unexplored, 1936 essay by Carl Bricken, who had studied with Schenker’s pupil Hans Weisse. Part IV posits connections between the era’s “objective” music criticism (especially as practiced by Schenkerians) and the type of music theory that began to emerge in the late 1950s. These associations have not been widely recognized before, and reasons are suggested as to why this has been so. Finally, a supplement (or “coda”) picks up lingering threads and probes the previously unacknowledged work of Bricken, and the small and fledgling Schenkerian outpost that formed around him, at the University of Chicago in the 1930s.

Musicological investigation on the classic guitar repertoire by Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, known Italian composer of the Twentieth Century, also active in the Hollywood film industry from the 40s. Castelnuovo-Tedesco was spurred to writing for the guitar by Andrés Segovia, for which he composed many of his guitar pieces, creating a comprehensive catalog, also important and significant for the history of the six-stringed instrument.

This article discusses Witold Lutoslawski's 'Sacher Variation' of 1975, one of the in honour of Paul Sacher's 70th birthday composed works called '12 Hommages à Paul Sacher', from the point of compositional technique and explains the principles used in the pitch organization and formal construction. It is intended the analysis also to provide a basis for the further comparative analyses of the works from '12 Hommages à Paul Sacher', which will make it possible to shed light on the approach of each of the composers and also on the musical expectations and quests of Europe in the second half of the 70's through exposing the similarities and differences in the handling of the musical material by technical and aesthetic aspects. It will be seen that Lutoslawski, who excludes serial techniques and works with extremely limited pitch material, provides the formal development through a mechanical system and also uses the looseness as a formal element beside the organization. The work is also interesting that it clearly reveals some important characteristic features of Lutoslawski's music.

This work has as subject of study the interaction between musicians on improvisation in popular music, notably in the context of the “Jabour School”, stylistic stream derived from the experience of Hermeto Pascoal & Group. The purpose, through the observation of behaviors practiced in groups led by Hermeto Pascoal, Itiberê Zwarg and André Marques, was to reflect about the dynamics of interaction between the performers, using the Systems Theory as main theoretical model. We had as premise that protocols of musical communication in this stream result from synergetic reflexes of interaction between individuals; thus, considering gestural and properly musical actions, were developed the main considerations concerning interaction, from concepts of a interdisciplinary analysis model. Through the transcription and analysis of the lines played by all musicians involved in four improvised solos, were evidenced musical choices that indicate a orientation for procedures not reiterated in a widespread practice in Brazilian popular instrumental music.

http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S0020-38742014000200015&lng=pt&nrm=iso&tlng=en
Considerando que as implicações históricas dos materiais musicais interferem na apreciação e crítica acerca daquilo que compõe uma canção, aborda-se aqui o versado conjunto de notas musicais conhecido por vários termos, dentre os quais o de acorde napolitano. Assumindo que os acordes não são grandezas puras, comentam-se aspectos do tratamento técnico tradicionalmente dispensado ao napolitano e como esta alcunha porta vestígios de querelas importantes para a modernidade ocidental. Destaca-se que em sua longa e internacional trajetória, que recua aos tempos pré-barrocos, esta harmonia se viu convencionalmente reservada para a expressão do lamento e da dor, e como esse tipo de associatividade premeditada se fez também eficiente em canções produzidas no Brasil, entre 1937 a 1985, por personagens como Noel Rosa, Custódio Mesquita, Tom Jobim, Vinícius de Moraes e Chico Buarque

Whereas the historical implications of musical materials interfere with the appreciation and criticism about what composes a song, the versed set of musical notes known by various terms was approached here, among them the Neapolitan chord. Assuming that the chords are not pure magnitude, we comment aspects of the technical treatment traditionally given to the Neapolitan chord and how this nickname brings traces of quarrels that are important to the western modernity. It is noteworthy that in its long and international path, which dates back to the pre-baroque, this harmony was conventionally reserved for the expression of regret and pain, and how this kind of premeditated associability also became effective on songs produced in Brazil between 1937-1985, by artists such as Noel Rosa, Custódio Mesquita, Tom Jobim, Vinicius de Moraes and Chico Buarque.

This article presents some tools and methods to carry out transcriptions of electroacoustic music. It introduces the relationship between sound analysis and image or drawing at the birth of electroacoustic music and explains the interest of creating transcriptions. The article contains a proposed framework, based on several years of practice, which links musical analysis to transcription, sound analysis and representation. The different parts of a transcription are then detailed and methods are proposed to create annotations with reference to various examples I have created since the late 1990s. The last section presents the EAnalysis package, developed with Simon Emmerson and Leigh Landy at Leicester's De Montfort University, in order to create a tool for analyzing, transcribing and representing electroacoustic music. It introduces the interface, the architecture and the transcription features of this piece of software in relation to other technologies.

The intention of this paper is to discuss space in acousmatic music from a phenomenological perspective. It will argue that space, and our spatial experience, is radically dependent upon intentional acts of consciousness and thus, to some extent, listener dependent. It will go on to demonstrate that intentional acts are not uniform; different sound materials invoke different kinds of intentionality and, for this reason, space in acousmatic music is heterogeneous. The paper will begin by identifying different sorts of intentional acts and consider the role they play in the construction of our spatial experience. Following this, we will introduce Bakhtin’s concept of the chronotope and, taking this as a point of departure, provide some much needed terminology to facilitate spatial discourse.

There is a clear and abundant evidence to suggest that Vasílis Tsitsánis (1915-1984) was a well known songwriter, bouzouki virtuoso, lyricist and singer both in Greece and abroad. The evaluation of his work reveals that he remains a key figure in the history of Greek popular music. Vasílis Tsitsánis as musician and composer was an innovator, his musical roots in rembétiko being transformed through his creative effort is said to have led to the development and establishment of the modern laikó style. An analysis of Vasílis Tsitsánis's commercial recordings does indeed reveal aspects of his unique contribution as both performer and composer. However, the analysis also reveals the development of a style that was to have a major impact on the history of Greek popular music. Situating Tsitsánis's work in the context of broader social and political developments in Greece, this thesis is the first in-depth analysis of Tsitsánis's musical style with a focus on songs found on his commercial recordings, from 1936 to 1983. Research on the recording career of Vasílis Tsitsánis not only reveals information regarding his own music, which is in itself important alone given the contribution he is said to have made by rembétiko scholars, it also sheds light on more general issues regarding the Greek popular style that have been previously neglected.

Those who have written about songwriter Irving Berlin (1888–1989) have frequently fixated on two facts, both related to his lack of proficiency on the piano: first, that he preferred to play on the black keys; and second, that he used a “transposing piano”—i.e., one fitted with a lever that shifted the position of the strings vis-à-vis the hammers, allowing any selected key to be heard while the notes of another key are being fingered. Over the years, journalistic writers of minimal musical knowledge have succeeded in greatly exaggerating both circumstances—especially through their claims about the compositional benefits that supposedly accrue from using a transposing piano.
In this article, I set aside received hyperbole and meticulously examine the musical results of Berlin’s labors. My goal is to delimit the various types of expressive chromaticism that enrich so many of his melodies; to consider the ways in which they function, and how they impinge upon a listener’s interpretation. In the main text, 70 songs are cited, spanning a half century, from 1908 to 1957; many are examined in detail, and occasionally in more than one context. Annotated appendices provide information on many more. Because exaggerated references to the piano lever have been so prominent in the Berlin literature, I occasionally return to such a possibility in order to expose its logical inconsistencies vis-à-vis the particular type of chromaticism under discussion. In doing so, I explode the myth that a transposing lever motivated his musical choices, and propose instead the opposite: that it was a very musical ear that guided any lever-twisting that might have occurred. However, the principal aim of the article is to interpret the expressive and structural uses of a vital component of Berlin’s songs, as well as of the Tin Pan Alley repertory in general: chromaticism.
I begin with a more thorough inspection of the “black-key” argument, and the types of pentatonicism that would result from such an approach. Species of chromaticism, of both smaller and larger scales, are then scrutinized. Included in the former category are immediate or directly applied types of chromaticism—i.e., local passing and neighboring tones, blue notes, applied dominants, neighboring and passing chords, and so forth. Regarding the latter category, I consider how chromatic passages can complement the larger-scale designs of songs, through definition and elucidation of four ways in which Berlin used chromaticism on this level: in changes between parallel modes, in exactly-transposed segments or phrases, in tonicized segments or phrases, and in sectional key changes.

In composing La Bohéme, based on the novel Scénes de la vie Bohéme/Bohemians of the Latin Quarter by Henry Murger, Giacomo Puccini used musical themes symbolic of characters, emotions and settings. Jonathan Larson also based Rent on Murger's novel, and the characters, plot and themes of both the opera and musical are close to identical. Larson signposted a clear motivic connection to La Bohéme within Rent and this led to the development of my hypotheses: that Larson transposed a number of Puccini's themes into Rent; that he was aware of their symbolism; that the 'Musetta's Waltz' transposition was the most important transposition from La Bohéme to Rent; and that the transpositions applied to the 'Musetta's Waltz' theme throughout Rent were the most dramatically significant. This study compares the scores and musical themes of both works in an attempt to establish Larson's intention behind the transpositions.

The musical legacy of J Dilla continues to be felt eight years after his untimely death from lupus at the age of thirty two. During his lifetime Dilla produced dozens of albums for many influential hip hop artists while also producing his own albums and hundreds of individual compositions that are still unreleased. His influence has been felt by tens of
millions of people around the globe, the tools he used to create his compositions are held by the Smithsonian, and yet there are no academic studies analyzing his music. This paper will serve as a beginning, and will examine how Dilla approached production and composition through an analysis of the track “Workinonit” from his 2006 release, Donuts. How did Dilla make his beats and choose to arrange the samples that he used?
For example, in bars 74-81 of “Workinonit” Dilla loops a sample in which the vocals declare “Fade me,” taken from 10CC’s track the “Worst band in the world.” Perhaps due to pitch manipulation, the “F” sound has turned to an “S”, and to my ears, it sounds like the vocals are saying “Save me.” However, upon closer examination of the 10CC track, one finds that at 2:20, the vocals do indeed sound like this, and it is this part that Dilla has
chosen to loop, leaving one to wonder if he chose this section precisely because of it’s vocal ambiguity. This is especially relevant when one considers that the other repetitions
of “Fade me” on the 10CC track all have clear diction along with the same drum rhythm and guitar parts. Clearly, using this particular sample was a conscious aesthetic choice by
Dilla. The paper will look at more examples like this in order to better understand his compositional process.

Analisi de "La fabbrica Illuminata" di Luigi Nono, con un'introduzione alla situazione storico-culturale legata all'autore. Tesina per l'esame del corso di Storia e analisi del repertorio elettroacustico, tenuto da Marco Ligabue presso il Conservatorio Luigi Cherubini di Firenze.

The homophonic passages usually found in fifteenth-century motets to be sung at the culmination of the mass, the elevation, play a paradoxical role in modern scholarship. On the one hand, these passages serve to identify the liturgical function of the motets and the cycles surrounding them; on the other hand, they are hardly ever analyzed in detail, not only because their homophonic austerity seems to be of little interest, but also because they defy normal analytical procedures. To explain what happens when ‘nothing’ happens, this paper gathers a repertoire of contrapuntal-harmonic stock formulas distinguishable as clausulae, gymel, and tabula naturalis progressions. These progressions can be seen working in very different ways in elevation motets. To imagine composers with these polyphonic complexes at their disposal is to imagine theoretical and practical ways beyond a simple dichotomy between ‘counterpoint’ and ‘harmony’. In the discussion of elevation motets, questions of compositional design, of theoretical context, of performance, and of cultural context coalesce.

Bu makalenin amacı Sözsüz Şarkılar’ın 19. yüzyıl repertuvarındaki yerini saptamak, form ve armonik özelliklerine değinmek ve Felix Mendelssohn’un bu eserlere yansıttığı estetiği değerlendirmektir. Makalede Sözsüz Şarkılar’ın bestelenme ve yayımlanma süreci hakkında bilgi verilecek, neden metin ve başlık içermediğine değinilecektir. Ayrıca Sözsüz Şarkılar’ın genel form ve armoni unsurları bazı örneklerle ve tabloyla sunulacaktır. Yöntem olarak, Sözsüz Şarkılar’ın form ve armoni analizi yapılmış, ilgili kaynaklar taranmıştır. Bu doğrultuda, Mendelssohn Sözsüz Şarkılar’da sözlü lied geleneğini sözsüz olarak ele almış olduğu, Klasik ve Romantik dönem müzik estetiğini bir arada kullandığı saptanmıştır.
Anahtar kelimeler: Felix Mendelssohn, Sözsüz Şarkılar, şarkı formu, armoni analizi, form analizi.
Abstract
The aim of this essay is to state Songs without Words in the repertoire of 19th century, to examine its formal and harmonic features, and to evaluate Mendelssohn’s esthetic represented in these pieces. This essay deals with the composing and publication process of Songs without Words. Besides, the musical form and harmonic use in the work are illustrated by examples and tables. The essay put forward that Mendelssohn handles the tradition of lied –a verbal form- in Songs without Words –as a work without words- and brings the aesthetic of Classical and Romantic periods together in these pieces.
Keywords: Felix Mendelssohn, Lieder ohne Worte, Songs without Words, lied form, harmonic analysis, form analysis.

El reconocido intérprete de clave Rafael Puyana (Bogotá, 14/X/1931 - París, 01/III/2013), fue una fuente de inspiración para numerosos compositores coetáneos que, además de profesarle una gran admiración, le dedicaron obras. El presente artículo realiza, por un lado, un estudio analíticomusical, conceptual y contextual de la composición Las tres Cantigas del Rey que el compositor Julián Orbón dedicó a Puyana. Está compuesta para clavecín, cuarteto de cuerdas, percusión y soprano sobre el texto de tres Cantigas de Alfonso X “El Sabio”: A Creer debemos que todo pecado (Cantiga 65), A Virgen en que e toda santidade (Cantiga 134) y Resurgir podeet fazel os seus Vivel (Cantiga 133). Por otra parte, este artículo estudia la fascinación de ambos artistas por la música antigua y su inclusión en los repertorios contemporáneos.

Palabras clave: Rafael Puyana, Julián Orbón, Tres Cantigas del Rey, análisis musical.

PP. 84-93

The Eastern Orthodox liturgical chant repertory known as the St. Petersburg Court Chant emerged within the Imperial Court of Russia by the 19th century, during which it was published in a small number of editions. The chant spread eventually throughout the Russian Empire as well as abroad, and became a de facto standard for the common church music of mainstream Russian Orthodoxy in Russia and countries that were part of the Empire, such as Finland, Estonia, and Poland. Via emigration, Court Chant even found its way to West Europe, North America, and elsewhere.

The current study is the first dedicated work to examine in detail the composition and essence of Court Chant, and the actual reasons behind its prevalence. This is carried out by means of a reconsideration of historical documents as well as by analytical comparisons of the music with a wide range of other chant repertories of the Eastern Slavic tradition, including the square-note chant books published by the Holy Synod of the Russian Church, Russian vernacular chant sources from dioceses and monasteries, Old Rite chant books, and Ukrainian chant sources, many of which have not been described in previous literature.

The study includes an updated general history of Eastern Slavic church singing, a presentation of the liturgical system from the viewpoint of church music, an introduction to the musical notations that are used in the chant sources, a typology of chant books, and observations on the pitch organization and traditional harmony of Eastern Slavic chant.

The book will be of particular interest to chant scholars, church musicians, music historians, and all researchers concerned with computer-assisted statistical methods of music analysis.

A presente dissertação aborda os métodos de transmissão do conhecimento musical dentro de um terreiro do Candomblé. O objetivo da pesquisa foi analisar e refletir sobre como acontece o processo de ensino e aprendizagem dos atabaques dentro do espaço religioso do Terreiro Ilê Iyá Omin Axé Iyamassê, mais conhecido como Terreiro de Mãe Menininha do Gantois. No mesmo local está situado o Projeto Rum Alagbê que, desde 2001, vem fazendo um trabalho de ensino e preservação dos ritmos sagrados com crianças, jovens e adolescentes da comunidade, com uma metodologia própria de ensino, facilitando assim o seu aprendizado, desde exercícios que possibilitam ao iniciante a aprender a técnica até a parte histórica da religião. No grupo de alunos há também meninas e mulheres, quebrando assim um grande tabu, já que dentro da religião as mulheres não podem exercer a função de tocar os atabaques, sendo esse um universo completamente masculino. Além disso, pretende-se investigar o processo de aprendizagem do atabaque na formação dos Alagbês, os mestres responsáveis por tocarem os atabaques e cantarem para os orixás, a partir de depoimentos com Alagbês de vários terreiros em Salvador. Dessa forma, tem sido cada vez mais difícil para os terreiros poder contar com pessoas para assumirem este cargo, pois ser Alagbê, compreender a música ou o ritmo de religiões de matriz africana, é muito mais do que dominar uma técnica. Todo o processo envolve a ampliação da consciência religiosa sobre o mundo, a natureza e sobre si mesmo, o que significa muita responsabilidade e disponibilidade. Com base nestes pontos, este trabalho busca discutir, principalmente, o papel do Alagbê hoje, cujas atuações musicais também transcendem o terreiro, sendo muitas vezes músicos requisitados também em outros contextos.

The relationship between musical structure, perception and musical meaning can be understood as a key to the development of a theory of post-tonal music. Preliminaries of this theory are developed in three »variations«. First, a review of the difficult relationship between music theory and new music in the 20th century is explained by (1) an increasingly diverse compositional practice that has lead to a composer-centred »theory«, often amounting to nothing more than a scantily contextualized documentation of a composer's intentions and techniques, and (2) the universalist and dogmatic tendency of music-theoretical discourse around 1900 which, however, has since developed into an »epistemological pluralism« (Nicholas Cook). The Graz research project »organisation of sound«, initiated and headed by the author, pursues just such a pluralistic methodology by integrating author-and listener-perspectives on post-tonal music based on a morpho-syntactical conceptual framework with references to gestalt theory. This approach emerged not least from the observation that new music, especially after 1945, has increasingly been conceived of »morphologically« with a strong focus on music perception, as argued in the second variation. The idea that musical structure, perception and »worldliness« [Welthaltigkeit] are inseparable allowed composers to retain the idea of musical auto-referentiality while at the same time claiming the social-political impact of contemporary music. This is illustrated by a short discussion of the relationship between structural coherence and (political) meaning in works by Brian Ferneyhough, Helmut Lachenmann and Salvatore Sciarrino. The third variation discusses these questions in more detail through an examination of two recent works by Chaya Czernowin and Isabel Mundry. In Czernowin's Excavated Dialogues – Fragments Western and Chinese instruments are organized in a culturally hybrid space saturated with conflict emerging from a highly gestural material; in Mundry's Ich und Du solo piano and orchestra go through several stages of an ambiguous identity discourse informed by an essay of Japanese philosopher Kitarō Nishida. Antinomies between the composers' self-interpretations and the morpho-syntactical analysis can be understood as results of a music-specific polyvalence that should inform any theory of post-tonal music. In einem Gespräch, das im zweiten Band der Schriftenreihe musik.theorien der gegenwart dokumentiert ist, hat Helmut Lachenmann den von György Ligeti kritisierten * Mein beim Grazer GMTH-Kongress 2008 vorgestellter Beitrag Konzeptionelle Narrativität und kulturelle Identitäten. Methodiken der Analyse von Werken für westlich-asiatische Instrumentalensembles wurde in der Folge mehrfach überarbei-tet und erweitert und schließlich 2010 im Archiv für Musikwissenschaft publiziert (Utz, Kunstmusik und reflexive Globalisierung). Der vorliegende Beitrag greift im Grazer Vortrag eher kursorisch angestellte Überle-gungen zum Verhältnis von Musiktheorie und neuer Musik im 20. Jahrhundert auf und versucht sie mit Material zu verknüpfen, das im Kontext des Forschungsprojektes Klangorganisation post-tonaler Musik an der Kunstuniversität Graz entstanden ist (siehe unten). Es handelt sich dabei, wie der Untertitel andeutet, um »Variationen« ohne Anspruch auf ein durchweg kohärentes Gesamtbild.

Resumen El artículo que se presenta es fruto de la experiencia docente llevada a cabo en la asignatura obligatoria 613, Lenguaje Musical II de la Diplomatura de Magisterio en la especialidad de Educación Musical en la Universidad Jaime I de Castellón durante los cursos académicos 2007/2008 y 2008/09. A la hora de elaborar el proyecto docente me cuestioné a qué nivel se debían presentar los aspectos relacionados con la modalidad y si este tipo de contenidos tendrían aplicación para el futuro maestro de música. Desde el punto de vista de la educación musical, el objetivo que más interesaba era la aplicación pedagógica de los modos y su didáctica. Se observó que gran parte de los alumnos demostraban un especial interés en la inmediata utilidad y aplicación de los contenidos que aprendían, en su viabilidad y en su validez después de la exposición de los conceptos teóricos por parte del profesor. Por este motivo, las preguntas que más inquietaban a los estudiantes de música eran las siguientes: ¿para qué sirven los modos? ¿qué aplicación tienen?, ¿cómo se pueden emplear en las clases?, ¿qué actividades se llevarán a cabo?. A través de una revisión teórica, se analiza el concepto y definición del término modo, se realiza una síntesis y valoración propia y se presenta su tipología y clasificación. Posteriormente se diseñan estrategias metodológicas para su aprendizaje y se plantean diversas actividades en torno a la exploración, experimentación, sensibilización, interpretación, composición e improvisación musical. Las conclusiones de este artículo tienen como resultado una propuesta práctica de inmediata aplicación en el aula. Palabras clave: Modalidad, lenguaje musical, educación musical. Abstract This article presents the results of a teaching experience carried out in the compulsory subject 613, Music Theory II, included in the range of subjects in the Music Education Diploma at the Universitat Jaume I in Castellón, Spain, during the academic years 2007/2008 and 2008/2009. At the time of developing my docent project, I wondered to what extent should we present the aspects related to modality and if those contents would be able to be applied by future teachers of music. The pedagogical implementation of the modes and its methodology were the most interesting things for me. Most students showed a special interest in the immediate use and implementation of the contents they were learning, but also in their feasibility and validity, right after teacher's exposition of theoretical concepts. Therefore the questions

Quando si parla di canzone, o più in generale di popular music, si sottintende che gli aspetti musicali – che sono tutt’altro che secondari, anche nei generi nei quali il testo verbale ha particolare importanza – possano o debbano essere studiati dai musicologi. Formalmente è vero, sia perché la musicologia dovrebbe avere come oggetto “la musica”, sia perché altri studiosi (linguisti, sociologi, studiosi delle culture, eccetera) non necessariamente hanno avuto una formazione musicale di qualunque tipo. Ma spesso si trascura un aspetto essenziale, quello della storia della musicologia e della sua gerarchia di valori. Schematizzando (ma non troppo) si può dire che la corrente della musicologia largamente egemone in molti Paesi europei, che alcuni autori chiamano “musicologia convenzionale”, sia apertamente contraria allo studio della popular music; lo statuto ontologico di questa corrente maggioritaria identifica l’opera musicale con la partitura, ed è ancora ampiamente legata alla nozione ottocentesca di “musica assoluta”, dove l’eventuale testo verbale è un elemento spurio; per le stesse ragioni, la musica non ha potenziale semantico, e la ricerca di un rapporto fra testo e musica può avere senso soltanto secondo una prospettiva formale, sintattica. Gli appelli ai musicologi perché contribuiscano allo studio della canzone, quindi, sono in larga parte destinati a cadere nel vuoto. Per la musicologia convenzionale la popular music, in quanto oggetto privo di qualunque valore estetico, può e deve essere studiata dai sociologi e da studiosi di altre discipline non musicali: e se non capiscono granché di musica, poco importa.

Il ruolo della memoria nella musica di Morton Feldman è stato tematizzato da Feldman stesso fin dagli anni Ottanta e poi da molti contributi musicologici sulla sua opera. Tuttavia è mancata nella maggior parte dei casi una prospettiva più specificamente cognitivista, basata sul riconoscimento della relazione tra percezione, schemi strutturali e memoria. Gli studi sulla memoria hanno dimostrato come essa dipenda fortemente dalla presenza di schemi strutturali tra gli elementi con i quali entriamo in relazione. La presenza di una struttura riconoscibile che metta in relazione i vari elementi di una certa sequenza permette cioè di ricordare quella sequenza più facilmente rispetto ad un’altra in cui non vi siano collegamenti strutturali riconoscibili. Questo vale per sequenze di numeri, come per lettere, parole o suoni.
Il modo in cui determinate caratteristiche sonore producono – a vari livelli – relazioni strutturali significative alla percezione è stato indagato tra gli altri in modo particolarmente approfondito da Albert Bregman che nei suoi studi su quella che viene definita Auditory Scene Analysis descrive i meccanismi che consentono al nostro sistema uditivo di rintracciare/riconoscere/costruire relazioni strutturali significative tra i suoni.
In questo lavoro vengono analizzate alcune opere di Feldman appartenenti ai diversi periodi compositivi che si possono delineare all’interno della sua produzione, contraddistinte da caratteristiche affatto diverse. I principi dell’ASA saranno alla base dell'analisi che in questa prospettiva metterà in evidenza come le scelte compositive operate da Feldman in alcuni casi tendano ad assecondare la formazione di strutture percettive significative ed in altri invece a contrastare la formazione di relazioni strutturali.
Nella sua produzione più tarda Feldman sembra infine tentare una paradossale ossimorica sintesi tra questi estremi. I principi dell’ASA forniscono inoltre una cornice esplicativa all’interno della quale dare ragione delle conseguenze di queste scelte sulla percezione e sulla memoria.