Organizational Identity

This study examines the relation between servant leadership and organizational identity and job involvement in Tax office of Guilan in Iran. One hundred and twenty two employees are participated in the study. For this purpose, a questionnaire with three parts was used. The questionnaire included three main sections, namely servant leadership, job involvement, and organizational identity. The analysis of the data obtained through the questionnaire indicated that servant leadership has significant effect on organizational identity and job involvement. Also, job involvement has positive effect on organizational identity. The findings, implications of the study, and suggestions for further research in this field are discussed in detail.

The article is dedicated to the theoretical substantiation of the three-level structure of the civic identity of an individual. The theoretical and methodological basis of the study were the theories of social identity and social self-categorization (H. Tajfel, J. Turner), the concept of organizational identity (S. Albert, B. Ashforth, J. Dutton), and role theories (E. Berne, E. Goffman). It is proposed to consider civic identity as a kind of organizational identity that operates on three levels: institutional ("citizen-state"), community ("citizen-community of citizens"), and individual ("citizen-I"). It is proven that the institutional level of civic identity presupposes the inclusion of the individual in the organizational environment of the state: cognitive (understanding of the normative field of the state and the real practice of organizational interaction in it), value (social perception of the axiological field of the state, the terminal values of statehood in general and a specific state in particular), emotional (experiences associated with relations with the state as an organization), and behavioral one (realization of civic behavior). Civic identity at the community (group) level involves affiliation with co-citizens (actual acceptance of them as in-group; civic mentality developed by them; similar understanding of all events and processes of the organizational environment of the state, which facilitates and intensifies communication between citizens regardless of their ethnicity). The common experience of facing typical problems (from domestic to political) itself does not lead to cohesion, mutual support, or positive assessment of co-citizens, but it puts the foundation for civic solidarity due to the common value and significance of this experience. The individual level of civic identity presupposes self-identification with the role of a citizen (in the context of role and script interactions with state institutions and fellow citizens). An individual may identify ownself with his/her role as a citizen at varying degrees, may "know" it well or not, but in each case, the role of the citizen becomes part of his/her role repertoire. Playing the role of a citizen can result in both open constructive and (more often) surrogate relations with the state, which may lead to various psychological games-manipulations and destructive scenarios. Each of these levels of civic identity can be developed in a different manner. The dominance of one of the levels carries certain typicality of manifestations of citizenship, so we see the prospect of further research in the development of a typology of the civic identity of an individual, and designing appropriate research tools.
Keywords: civic identity; state; community of citizens; levels; affiliation; mentality; role; role interaction; organizational identity.

We live in the times of images. They surround us transmitted through various media. It is a complex concept, it fluctuates between imagination and reason of the audience, between expectations of people and reality of the organizational, social life. In view of such fragmentation and fleetingness, seems difficult to pin it down, to research it without blurred borders of chosen analytical scheme. Image is a product of individual or organizational identity, communicated image and image perceived by a given audience.

Leonardelli, Pickett, Joseph and Hess integrate Brewer’s (1991) optimal distinctiveness theory with the nested categorical context typically descriptive of an organization’s internal structure, where individuals belong to groups (subgroups) nested within more inclusive superordinate groups (such as functional units nested within an organization). It is ideal for employees to simultaneously identify with the subgroup and superordinate group, that is, to engage what is called a “dual identity,” as doing so aligns the loyalty and the interests of subgroup members with the superordinate group as a whole. However, the authors first review evidence that individuals identify more with the subgroup and less with the superordinate group, what the authors call “dueling identities,” because individuals prefer the more distinctive subgroups to superordinate groups. The authors then argue that such dueling identities can be transformed into a dual identity were the subgroup and superordinate group both perceived to be optimally distinctive, a prediction possible if intergroup distinctiveness is determined by what the authors call "horizontal" rather than "vertical" social comparisons. Some evidence is presented that supports this conclusion and the discussion highlights the different strategies that could be implemented to engineer a dual identity by manipulating individuals’ needs for optimal distinctiveness.

Social media have created a multitude of ways for organizations to develop and disseminate their corporate and organizational identity. However, little is still known about how identity can be observed on social media. To address this research gap, we conducted a scoping review that collected, analyzed and synthesized the corpus of published research on organizational and corporate identity and social media. The analysis presented in this paper provides a description of the state-of-the-art on this topic that we hope can help future scholars to understand the various methodological approaches and types of data most pertinent to the exploration of organizational and corporate identity on social media, even though, overall, it reveals that there are relatively few studies with a reliable and universal method for measuring these concepts. This guarantees that future research will be necessary. Practitioners may also wish to draw on our findings to design more tailored ways of strengthe...

The concept of organizational identity has its roots in the exploration of identity in an individual level. The concept of organizational identity was introduced by Albert and Whetten in 1985. They suggested that organizational identity embodies the characteristics of an organization, that its members perceive to be central, distinctive, and enduring (or continuing) in an organization when past, present and the future is taken into account. Organizational identity seeks to answer to the question of “who are we as an organization”. Researchers have explored the characteristics of organizational

Bu çalışmanın genel amacı; örgütsel atalet davranışlarına yönelik algılamaların örgütsel kimlik algısı üzerinde etkisinin olup olmadığının tespit etmeye yöneliktir. Bu nedenle etkileşimsel bir model deseni oluşturulmuştur. Çalışmamızın genel amacı doğrultusunda örgütsel atalet ve alt bileşenleri ile örgütsel kimlik algısı arasında ilişki tespiti için korelasyon analizi ve değişkenler arasındaki etkileşimin belirlenebilmesi için ise regresyon analizi bulgularına ulaşılmaya çalışılmıştır. 
Araştırmanın ana evreni Mersin illerinde farklı sektörlerde faaliyet göstermekte olan işletmeler bünyesinde çalışan toplam 24.815 çalışan oluşturmakta olup, örneklem grubunu ise ana evreni temsilen 553 adet çalışan oluşturmaktadır. Örneklem üzerinden veri elde edebilmek adına örgütsel atalet davranışlarına yönelik algılamaları belirlemek amacı ile Liao, S., Fei, W. and Liu, C. (2008) tarafından geliştirilen ve Çankaya (2010) tarafından Türkçeye uyarlanan toplam 14 soru önermesinden oluşan “Örgütsel Atalet Ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. Örgütsel kimlik olgusunu ölçebilmek için ise Dick,R.V., Knippenberg, D.V., Kerschreiter, R., Hertel, G., Wieseke, J.. (2008) tarafından geliştirilen “Örgütsel kimlik Ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. Verilerin istatistiki analizinde ise SPSS 21.0 veri analizi programından yararlanılmıştır.
Araştırma sonucu elde edilen bulgular; örgütsel atalet davranışlarına yönelik algılamalar ile örgütsel kimlik algısı arasında negatif yönlü düşük ve orta düzeyde korelasyon ilişkisinin olduğu sonucunu göstermektedir. Ayrıca çalışmamızın ana konusu olan etkileşimsel desende ise örgütsel atalet davranışları ile örgütsel kimlik değişkeni arasında negatif yönlü bir etkileşimin olduğu belirlenmiştir. Çalışma sonucunda genel olarak örgütsel kimlik algısına yönelik olumlu düşüncelerin arttırılabilmesi için örgütsel atalet davranışlarına yönelik algılamaların azalması gerektiği düşüncesine ulaşıldığını söylemek mümkün olacaktır.
ABSTRACT
The general purpose of this study is; it is aimed to determine whether the perceptions of organizational inertia behaviors have an effect on the perception of organizational identity. For this reason, an interactive model design has been created. In order to determine the relationship between organizational inertia and sub components with organizational identity perception, we tried to reach the findings of regression analysis in order to determine the interaction between the variables and the general aim of our study.
The main universe of the study is a total of 24,815 employees working in different sectors in Mersin provinces, the sample group is composed of 553 employees representing the main universe.  In order to obtain data through sampling, it is aimed to determine the perceptions of organizational inertia behaviors developed by Liao, S., Fei, W. and Liu, C. (2008) and the "Organizational Inertia Scale" was used, which consists of 14 questions that are adapted to Turkish by Çankaya (2010). In order to measure the organizational identity developed "Organizational Identity Scale" by Dick,R.V., Knippenberg, D.V., Kerschreiter, R., Hertel, G., Wieseke, J.. (2008) was used. In statistical analysis of the data, SPSS 21.0 data analysis program was used.
Findings obtained after the research; the negative correlation between perception of organizational inertia behaviors and organizational identity perception is the result of low and moderate correlations. In addition, the interactional pattern, which is the main topic of our study, is determined to be a negative interaction between organizational inertia behaviors and organizational identity change. As a result of the study, it is possible to say that in order to increase the positive thoughts towards organizational identity perception in general, it is thought that the perceptions towards organizational inertia behaviors should decrease.

Every man builds his world in his own image. He has the power to choose, but no power to escape the necessity of choice (Ayn Rand). Organizational identity and image are the anima and persona of organizations, the basis of their link with internal and external stakeholders (members, clients, providers, competition etc.). The interplay between the various images of an organization, between organizational identity and image, and between organizational identity, image and member identification are some of the most investigated forms of organizational dynamics. The complex environment of today's organizations, as well as the increase in the number and variety of their stakeholders makes improbable any longer the uniqueness of an organization's image. Organizations present themselves differently to different stakeholders. Furthermore, stake-holders perceive organizations differently from how they have presented themselves. Under these circumstances, the balance between the volatility of these multiple images and the organization's need of consistence (in its quest for identity) becomes difficult to manage. This very thing has made it an extremely appealing topic for researchers from various fields, from corporate communication, management, marketing, organization theories, consultancy, organization behaviour, social psychology etc. (Cornelissen, Haslam & Balmer, 2007). This broad interest in the topics of organizational identity and image has lead on the one hand to thorough theoretical and methodological advancements , and on the other, to a multitude of sometimes overlapping concepts and theories. At this stage of theory development, a number of researchers (Brown, Dacin, Pratt & Whetten, 2006; Cornelissen, Haslam & Balmer, 2007; Hatch & Schultz, 2000) have attempted to bring some structure, if not unity, into these theories, by proposing broader frames of study that could encompass all these concepts. In the current chapter, we draw on Brown et al.'s (2006) framework to start our discussion of the dynamics between organizational image, organizational identity and stakeholders' identification with organizations. Brown et al.'s framework considers the organization and the stakeholders as the two main actors in the identity-image interplay. Hence, by defining who are the target and the recipient of each of the main questions that underlie various definitions of identity and image, they separate between identity and three types of images (see Figure 1). Starting from this simple scheme, they coin the terms organizational identity, intended image, construed image and reputation to distinguish between the various names identity and image received in the literature. The argumentative basis for this distinction lies in the question that each of these concepts tries to address (see Table 1). Based on this framework, we employ in this chapter the term organizational identification to refer to the internal system of shared meanings of an organization with respect to how it defines itself, and organizational image to refer to the distinctive public image that an organizational entity communicates, how external stakeholders perceive it, and how internal stakeholders think the others perceived it.

In a turbulent environment characterized by unexpected events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, a sharp oil price decline, and dramatic economic crises, many organizations face not only challenges but also an “identity crisis” as they are unable to respond to the question "who are we as an organization?" Some organizations may concurrently hold multiple identities without being clear on whether these are shared and agreed upon, and on their role in potentially disruptive futures. In response to this challenge and addressing a methodological gap in the broader futures and foresight field, we draw on both futures and foresight as well as management and organization literature to propose a new organizational foresight method: Identity Wind Tunneling (IWT). Designed as an enhancement of wind tunneling approaches, IWT allows an organization to understand, test, and manage multiple organizational identities. Furthermore, IWT facilitates the alignment of organizational identities across a range of possible futures created during a scenario planning process with the ultimate goal of finding a strategic identity. This represents the central, enduring, and distinctive role that the organization embodies while pursuing a long-term and holistic strategic direction that is robust across all scenarios. The strategic identity either clarifies or reimagines the identity of the organization. The paper provides a step-by-step explanation of how to implement IWT and presents a case study of its application. The method is also presented with a series of open-source templates created on the whiteboard collaborative platform Miro (https://miro.com/app/board/ o9J_kqakY js=/).

During periods of strategic change, maintaining the congruence between new configurations of resources and activities (strategic investments) and how these new configurations are communicated to external organizational constituents (strategic projections) is an important task facing organizational leaders. One part of this activity is to manage organizational identity to ensure that the various strategic projections produced by organizational members are coherent and support the new strategic investments. Little is known, however, about how organizational leaders accomplish this crucial task. This study of strategic change at Bang & Olufsen highlights the different strategies available to organizational leaders to ensure members’ identity beliefs are aligned with their own beliefs about the distinctive and appealing organizational features that result from the new strategic investments and result in appropriate strategic projections. The
study’s findings highlight the internal identity work – or identity management – that organizational leaders engage in to preserve this congruence. The findings also complement the current emphasis in the literature on the social validation of organizational identities by pointing to the importance of a connection between
identity claims and beliefs, strategic projections and the material reality of organizational products, practices and structures.

Various types of complex organizations, with complicated motives and heterogeneous structures are present in different spheres of public life. These public institutional phenomena, tied in a network of relations systems and heading toward a specific goal, are broadcasters in the process of communication. It is said that organizations have image but it is not only their attribute, it is the meaning they communicate, the broadcast which may regard various aspects of the institution's functioning and which can reflexively influence those aspects. The article discusses the difference between the terms organization identity and organization image, including definition spheres of the latter. Moreover, it analyses the ontological status of the term image, its components and structure. The organization's "mental image" is described, one that often becomes that target of those who manage institutions, as an unexploited so far sphere of communication influence.

Olumlu bakma yoluyla olumlu görme ve düşünme yaklaşımı
olarak adlandırılan pozitif psikoloji çerçevesinde bireylerin
örgütsel özdeşleşme bireyin üyesi olduğu örgütün
değerlerini, hedeflerini ve varlıklarını kendi değerleri, hedefleri
ve varlıkları gibi benimseyerek örgüt nezdinde kendini
kimliklendirmesidir (Schneider vd., 1971). Bu bölümde önce
örgütsel özdeşleşme ile ilgili kavramsal çerçeve sonrasında
örgütsel özdeşleşme ile ilişkili kavramlar ve örgütsel özdeşleşme
ölçeği aktarılarak nihayete erdirilecektir.

Although the concept of organizational identity has gained currency in the organizational studies literature, and many conceptual issues have been addressed, there is an overall lack of attention to methodological concerns. Specifically, the field lacks a comprehensive and systematic review of how organizational identity is operationalized and measured. Given the disparate uses of the concept and the range of theories employing it, the means of measurement span the gamut of qualitative and quantitative methodologies. In this chapter, we review over 80 studies where organizational identity was operationalized and/or measured. We develop a descriptive classification framework of measurement approaches, noting the distinctive elements of the five major types that result. We then identify key patterns that emerge from the data, leading to insights and observations about the landscape of organizational identity research. We conclude with a discussion of critical implications and directions for future research.

KEY WORDS: organizational identity, comprehensive review, methodologies, operationalization, measurement, classification framework

In the highly competitive environment of the business world, organizations implement human resource policies and practices to increase the motivation and performance of employees. Efforts to keep employee turnover at minimum levels are directly proportional to employee satisfaction and their willingness to stay in the organization. Employees' dissatisfaction, leaders' attitudes and behaviours, human resources policies determine the life of the organizations. The increase in the employment turnover rate can decrease the performance of the organization, bring additional costs and cause employee trainings to be ineffective. In particular, the qualified employees can easily leave the organization if they do not like the management approach leads to the formation of different management understandings and perspectives. The leadership style of the managers and the human resources policies can shape the future of the organizations. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies in this field to help the senior managers to make decisions and demonstrate their leadership roles. The sample of this study consists of 498 white-collar employees working in the private and public sector. The findings were subjected to factor and reliability analyses by using IBM SPSS 23 program. The hypotheses were tested by regression analysis and the results were evaluated and presented accordingly.

Situated in scholarship on narrative and antenarrative, the purpose of this paper is to develop central assumptions of an (ante)narrative approach to collective identity research and to
reflexively address the methodological questions such an approach raises for producing and analysing (ante)stories. (Ante)stories include proper stories with chronology and plot as well as antestories which are fragmented and incomplete.

Based on a concrete research project exploring collective identity
as narratively constructed in negotiation between organizational insiders and outsiders, emphasis is placed on elements related to the production and analysis of (ante)stories. Challenges of the applied (ante)narrative methodology are addressed focusing on three central questions: where do (ante)stories come from? Whose (ante)stories are told? And whose storied constructions of collective identity are explored?

The (ante)narrative methodology allows for a broad approach to producing and analysing (ante)stories. Consequently, it provides a rich understanding of the narrative practice of constructing
collective identity. However, it also raises questions relating to the role of the researcher in the analytic process.

This paper presents the results of a data research on the issue of organizational identity, the aim of which was to explore the current state of the discussion on organizational identity based on the analysis of papers published in 10 of the world's leading organizational and management journals between 2000 and 2011, in order to identify paradigms, subjects, and trends. After a first selection of 5509 papers, 92 articles dealing with the specific issue of organizational identity were classified for analysis. Identity is not only an important perspective of study within the organizational field, but it has also become a relevant reference to bear in mind in order to understand phenomena related to organizations. The concept of identity is not new in the human and social sciences. Philosophy has approached it from different perspectives and in different historical contexts. Identity seems to be the result of a certain line of reasoning that reduces what is real to what is identical, that is, to sacrifice the multiplicity of identity in order to explain it and to use it as a base for any theorization on the human condition. Additionally, during the last century, psychology and psychoanalysis gave identity a crucial role in the study of individual processes, and it became a key element in understanding the development of personality. Anthropology has had to produce a body of theory regarding the issue of social identity. Of course, it is also important to consider the contributions of other disciplines such as sociology, political science, and linguistics. Identity has played an important role in the theorizing of the social and human sciences, which contribute to and have an effect on organizational studies (Corley et al., 2006), the field of knowledge of this paper. Notwithstanding the academic interest the term arouses, its study in the organizational field is relatively recent (Hatch & Schultz, 2004). The conceptualization proposed by Albert and Whetten (1985), who claimed that organizational identity (OI) implied organizational aspects meeting the criteria of centrality, distinctive character, and continuity in time, has given way to new approaches. This influential work has inspired a wave of research and theorizing continuing to the present. Nevertheless, a little more than a quarter of century after its conceptualization, the definition of the term OI is not complete, and the discussion on its scope and proposed models is far from finished. Within the organizational field, definitions have abounded, ranging from the individual level to perceptions of what an organization actually is, based on institutionalist or essentialist perspectives aimed at identifying the features

Research in organizational identity has assumed a stable, democratic, political system in theorizing. Theories have also taken for granted an assumption of a stable economy and social environment of practice that make possible an effectual running of business. This, however, is not always the case. Practice outside the West find many of these theories faulty without local adaptations. This paper responds to the question of local adaptability by discussing environmental variables in Nigeria. To do this, I borrow from research in public relations which has provided environmental variables that practitioners must be aware of in order to localize research or practice in different environments. I discuss Nigeria's unstable political system, volatile economy and national culture which builds on research in cross-cultural studies. These serve on the one hand to demonstrate what organizational environments look like in Nigeria thereby showcasing deep-rooted values of organizational leaders and members. On the other hand, they also aid in the interpretation of organizational identity within organizations in Nigeria. An understanding of these variables will play a significant role in making sense of organizational identity and organizing in Nigeria. Findings are equally relevant to applied and engaged researchers and to practitioners in adjoining disciplines with interest in Nigeria.

This study is an insider action research on the Institute for Integrality, Inc., a recently formed organization dedicated to promoting integral human development. As indicated in its corporate name, integrality or completeness is at the core of the mission of the Institute.

While the Institute is still at its foundational stage, the action researcher, who is also the founder of the institution, was faced with the challenge of aligning its various stakeholders – board, management, faculty, partners, and clients – through a collaborative approach to building an authentic organizational identity. This core action research started with defining and developing the concept of integrality, followed by a fine-tuning of identity and the design of an identity-based organizational culture.

Meanwhile, the thesis action research focused on the process of organizational identity building through which an integrative theory, alongside other relevant contributions to knowledge, was derived and developed. Through meta-learning, transformative learning was found to be the best route to building organizational identity and culture, given its two powerful mechanisms of critical self-reflection and discourse.

Organizations seek to influence their reputation through a variety of self-presentation activities, which collectively express the organization’s identity. Online and social media such as blogging and micro-blogging also contribute to image building in today’s media environment. This paper focuses on organizational image as the social dimension of organizational identity, within a larger model of reputation construction. Within this model, image construction is defined as those self-presentation practices that seek to build and maintain perceptions among stakeholders regarding the organization’s identity. Bimodal network analysis was used to examine six months of image construction efforts by the natural supermarket chain Whole Foods through multiple online channels. Although the channels shared a core set of terms and overlapped in others, each channel also addressed unique aspects of the organization’s projected image. Structural constraints and directional traits are posited as the primary reasons for this image differentiation. This study suggests that the public relations function is facing new challenges in coordinating image management among various new media, subject to greater stakeholder influence than previous communication tools.

Spesso il cambiamento è stato presentato come antitetico alla stabilità nelle organizzazioni e necessario per la loro sopravvivenza. In realtà il cambiamento organizzativo è un fenomeno complesso, attraversato da una serie di tensioni tra diversi elementi più o meno in continuità con il passato dell'organizzazione. Attraverso il caso studio di un'azienda italiana operante nel settore bancario e la lente analitica dell'identità nelle organizzazioni, in questo articolo viene avanzata una visione paradossale del cambiamento organizzativo, che ne sottolinea le sfide e i possibili benefici, le implicazioni teoriche e pratiche. Dalla ricerca empirica, basata sull'analisi di documenti aziendali, 61 interviste e osservazioni, emerge che molteplici identità caratterizzano l'azienda studiata a livello individuale e organizzativo. Se molteplici tratti identitari possono apparire come causa di frammentazione e conflitti, identità plurime possono anche rappresentare una risorsa nell'affrontare il cambiamento. Riproducendo e rinnovando le diverse rappresentazioni che le animano, anche quelle incoerenti tra di loro, le organizzazioni possono infatti contare su una varietà di risorse e prospettive nel relazionarsi con vari stakeholder in diversi contesti, nel tentativo di realizzare un cambiamento più bilanciato e sostenibile per tutti gli attori coinvolti.

This study explores how Human Resources (HR) environment (i.e., job autonomy, opportunities for advancement, involved communication, and decisive action) promotes psychological well-being of public employees. We advance the literature by identifying organizational identification (OID) as the underpinning mechanism through which HR environment can foster employees' well-being. OID is termed as a "social cure," owing to its strong link with employee health and well-being. The results of structural equation modeling show a positive association among HR practices and OID, which subsequently enhances well-being of public sector employees. Managerial implications for public sector leaders are discussed in detail.

Research on family businesses has undergone rapid development in the past two decades.Broadly speaking, such companies perform in a distinctive way and create specific organizational cultures, identities and images. The paper has several aims. First, to present the proposed meaning of family business, second to discuss concept and model of organizational identity and show the relations in between of organizational identity and culture third to characterize the identity and culture in family businesses.

The understanding of culture depends on the dynamic understanding of cultural processes, not on their abstraction and rationalization – on those things that, precisely because they are intuitive, unconscious and taken for granted, respondents cannot always readily make available for discussion. In this chapter I explore how one form of performance ethnography – and the methods it used - can be applied to hold up a mirror to organization as a means of facilitating more sensitive understandings of culture, identity and change. I introduce the Radio-Ballads as a dramatic form that draws upon ethnographic research and presents ethnographic data in a powerful and compelling way. Drawing on writings by Ewan MacColl and Charles Parker that discuss their methods, and on some transcriptions from the programmes, I will discuss five of the most salient aspects of this work for the study of collective identity – recording the background culture; listening to language (rather than discourse); intermittent interrogative methods; collective identity and narrative myth; collective self-discovery and catalytic interviewing. I will conclude by addressing some potential criticisms of the approach.

Market entry timing strategies have been analysed by numerous scholars, but not in the context of higher education. Although there is to some degree consensus on first mover advantages, the research on late entry has been largely inconclusive. Thus, the purpose of this research was to identify and analyse the different positioning and differentiation strategies adopted by late entry institutions to gain a competitive advantage. The sample consisted of seven campuses established by foreign universities in the UAE between 2012 and 2018. Data were collected from sources freely available in the public domain, such as institution websites, promotional materials and press releases, as well as wider media coverage. Applying a content analysis procedure to institution websites, the results revealed that although the communicated identities and strategies adopted by institutions are largely homogenous, they also implement a range of positioning and differentiation strategies. One of the strongest differentiation strategies appears not related to any part of the marketing mix but to the targeted market segment-specifically, targeting students of a specific nationality. The potential advantages for institutions of a global market segmentation strategy are discussed.