Poverty Measurement

In recent years, the use of direct measures of deprivation alongside current income has shown,that the latter provide a rather ,imperfect measure ,of permanent ,income ,or command,over resources. Research has shown ,though that the relationship between income,and deprivation increases if panel measures ,of income ,are used to highlight persistent income ,poverty. In this paper we confirm ,this relationship before moving onto,the analysis of panel ,measures ,of deprivation ,and the relationship between persistent income ,and persistent deprivation poverty measures. Our analysis shows that that while there is a clear and systematic relationship between persistent poverty and persistent deprivation, the degree of overlap is far from perfect. Over and above the impact of persistent income poverty, a variety of resource related variables such as education, labour market experience and social class, and need related variables such asmarital status and household structure, allow a signific...

Poverty has been shown to negatively influence child health and development along a number of dimensions. For example, poverty–net of a variety of potentially confounding factors—is associated with increased neonatal and post-neonatal mortality rates, greater risk of injuries resulting from accidents or physical abuse/neglect, higher risk for asthma, and lower developmental scores in a range of tests at multiple ages. Despite the extensive literature available that addresses the relationship between poverty and child health and development, as yet there is no consensus on how poverty should be operationalized to reflect its dynamic nature. Perhaps more important is the lack of agreement on the set of controls that should be included in the modeling of this relationship in order to determine the “true” or net effect of poverty, independent of its cofactors. In this paper, we suggest a general model that should be adhered to when investigating the effects of poverty on children. We pr...

This paper will briefly survey the monetary approach to poverty measurement - a set of techniques and methodologies, adopted mostly by economists, based on the identification of poverty with a shortfall in a monetary indicator and the "objective" derivation of a poverty line. In order to describe these methodologies, the underlying rationale and the factors which have contributed to the current shape of this "approach", we will start by discussing the origins of such an approach. This will allow us to substantiate our claim about the peculiar and measurement driven nature of this approach to the definition of poverty, as well as critically to assess the extent to which the "objectivity" of the methods makes the results immune from value judgements. Further, it will allow us to identify some crucial features of this approach, which will be discussed with respect to current developments in the literature. A particular emphasis will be placed on identifyin...

Rwanda has developed an elaborate and comprehensive social protection system that is embedded in the national constitution of the Republic of Rwanda through its rights-based approach. The social protection agenda is also elaborated in the national development programmes Vision 2020 and the EDPRS (Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy) 2 as a flagship.  Multiple legal frameworks have been designed around the idea of tackling poverty and inequality in Rwanda. In addition, the government has adopted a new scope of financing arrangements setting and targeting local revenues as the major financing sources of social protection programmes. Aid financing is also recognized from different donors such as the World Bank. The government of Rwanda is also committed to improving the performance of its public financial management system to cut public expenditure especially those related to administrative costs.
Rwanda has several social protection schemes that include: (1) Social security programme for civil servants, (II) Vision2020 Umurenge (VUP) which is the vast social assistance programme that caters to selected poor households identified in lowest Ubudehe  categories (1, 2 and 3). (III) The Genocide survivor support fund (FARG), (IV) The Rwanda demobilized and integration support fund that caters for demobilized and physically disabled soldiers and (V) Complementary support programmes that were established in an effort to support  the country’s broader development objectives. These programmes include a universal primary education programme called “12 Years Basic Education”, universal health coverage which was introduced in 2005 known as “ Mutuelle De Santé, Girinka programme  and Ubudehe”. These interventions aim at promoting social inclusion and political stability.
This study however focuses on the potential contributions of VUP social assistance programmes to addressing vulnerabilities among the poor. VUP components examined include: Direct Support “Cash Transfer” programmes, public works programme and financial service programmes. VUP programme was introduced in 2008 as a poverty reduction strategy and the scheme expanded in terms of sector coverage from only (30) sectors in 2008 to (330) sectors in 2015. Positive records on beneficiary enrollment rate have been recognized across the three components over a course of time.
In 2000, the Rwandan statistics office estimated that more than half of the total population of Rwanda subsisted on less than $1.25 a day. The GDP per capita income of Rwanda was reported at only (143.04) in 1994. Through comprehensive strategies put forward by the government of Rwanda, GDP per capita was increased to (417.68) by 2014. 
To date, Rwanda’s poverty profile indicates that nearly one million poor people were lifted out of poverty between 2001 and 2010. In the financial year 2000/01, poverty incidence was reported at 58.9% of the total population, while 40% lived in extreme poverty. By 2010, poverty incidence was reduced to 44.9% and extreme poverty was reported dropping to 24.1%.
According to integrated household living survey data for 2013/14, it was reported that between 2010/11 and 2013/14, poverty incidence recorded a decline of 5.8%, while extreme poverty decreased by 7.8% respectively. VUP programme has been successful in impacting the lives of its beneficiaries, but the level of impact varies by different levels of vulnerabilities in the 6 VUP “Ubudehe” categories. In Rwanda’s context, it is evident that the programme has had positive results on meeting household basic needs such as food consumption and increased livestock holding among beneficiaries of the public works programme.
It was reported that 80%  of VUP programme beneficiaries are enrolled in Rwanda’s universal health insurance scheme known as Mutuelle De Santé. The government has facilitated the poor to access health services through health insurance premium subsidies and thus impacted the lives of VUP beneficiaries. Social protection programmes were reported to be significant on household food security and health care utilization but not for education. VUP survey conducted in 2014 didn’t find education significant among VUP supported households. This may be explained by the fact that the government introduced a universal primary basic education and expanded the support to 9 years basic education. The programme is universal for all, however, net attendance in primary was reported high among VUP households. 
Determinants of VUP performance results were reported as follows: legal and policy frameworks adopted by the government of Rwanda. The National Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda guarantees all Rwandans their economic and social support in the areas of education, health, justice and decent livelihood. The national social protection programme of 2011 defines social protection as the system of regular and predictable cash transfers to those living in poverty and those vulnerable to falling into poverty. The strategy also defines the social protection floor for the most vulnerable households and individuals comprising cash transfers and access to essential services; and increased participation of the informal sector in the contributory social security system. 

Institutional reforms around the policy implementation guidelines and responsibilities of line ministries and other levels engaged in delivering social protection services has played an important role in achieving VUP success. Rwanda has increased its national budget for social protection since 2008. To date, the government has adopted sustained channels of financing social protection systems by allocating 10% of the domestic revenues for the sector. This amount covers the VUP budget and other local economic development programmes.
The budget allocated for VUP in 2008 was only 5,281 million Rwf and increased by 173% to 14,437 Rwf million in 2014.  Rwanda’s social protection budget was about (1.6%) of the national budget  in 2011, exclusive of education and health). Although success has been documented on VUP programmes, challenges remain. At the fore front, targeting issues, timeliness of delivering the transfer were reported.  Determining graduation among the beneficiaries and criteria to determine exit has not been put to practice and compliance mechanisms are not operational to ensure oversight and accountability of programme implementers.

This paper compares the standard economic welfare approach to poverty measurement to the empirical approaches proposed in the capability literature under the special focus of their suitability for operational poverty assessment, i.e. targeting and outreach evaluation. We question whether the measurement of per capita daily expenditures compared with a monetary poverty line justifiably remains the most widely used approach regarding poverty assessment. Its underlying value judgments and unsatisfactory assumptions differ considerably from those of the capability concept of poverty but the two approaches can be linked and critically compared with respect to the role of income, the conceptualisation of absolute poverty and the development of operational tools. We argue that despite the progress made in operationalizing the capability approach, there remain serious challenges when focussing on targeting and outreach evaluation and propose three alternative solutions for dealing with this...

Resumen. El objetivo de esta investigación es analizar el problema de la pobreza y la desigualdad del ingreso en México, en el contexto del proceso de democratización que ha experimentado el país en las tres últimas décadas, utilizando la metodología de crecimiento económico pro-pobre de Kakwani & Pernia (2000); Ravallion (2008) y Ravallion & Chen (2001), así como el llamado efecto igualador de Acemoglu et al. (2013), donde la democratización promueve políticas a favor de los pobres, mejorando la redistribución y reduciendo la desigualdad. Se analiza el periodo 1992-2014, que, en el plano político, marca la transición de no-democracia a la democracia. Los resultados sugieren que el crecimiento económico ha sido a favor de los pobres, aunque no en sentido estricto, pues no se observa mejoramiento de la distribución del ingreso. Abstract. The objective of this investigation is to analyze the problem of poverty and income inequality in Mexico, in the context of the process of democratization that the country has experienced in the last three decades, using the pro-poor economic growth methodology of Kakwani & Pernia (2000); Ravallion (2008) and Ravallion & Chen (2001), as well as the so-called equalizing effect of Acemoglu et al. (2013), where democratization promotes policies in favor of the poor, improving redistribution and reducing inequality. The period 1992-2014 is analyzed, which, in the political sphere, marks the transition from non-democracy to democracy. The results suggest that economic growth has been in favor of the poor, although, not in a strict sense, since there is not an observable improvement of income distribution.

This paper evaluates the ex-post impact of adopting improved groundnut varieties on crop income and rural poverty in rural Uganda. The study utilizes cross-sectional farm household data collected in 2006 in seven districts of Uganda. We estimated the average adoption premium using propensity score matching (PSM), poverty dominance analysis tests, and a linear regression model to check robustness of results.

This paper proposes to use an information theory approach to the design of multidimensional poverty indices. Traditional monetary approaches to poverty rely on the strong assumption that all relevant attributes of well-being are perfectly substitutable. Based on the idea of the essentiality of some attributes, scholars have recently suggested multidimensional poverty indices where the existence of a trade-off between attributes is relevant only for individuals who are below a poverty threshold in all of them (Bourguignon and Chakravarty 2003, Tsui 2002). The present paper proposes a method which encompasses both approaches and, moreover, it opens the door to an intermediate position which allows, to a certain extent, for substitution of attributes even in the case in which one or more (but not all) dimensions are above the set threshold. An application using individual well-being data from Indonesian households in 2000 is presented in order to compare the results under the different approaches.

This paper deals with basic needs fulfillment interpreted in a subjective way. We develop a framework in which the basic needs of households in developing areas are valued from a subjective point of view. We estimate how certain indicators and assets influence basic needs perception. We compare income and perceived basic needs poverty measures, finding that they mismatch. We conclude

Yoksulluk genel olarak insanların yaşamını sürdürebilmek için gerekli temel gereksinimleri karşılayamama durumudur. Yaşamın  başlamasından günümüze kadar gelen en önemli sorunlardan biridir. Günümüzde yoksulluk hem gelişmiş ekonomilerde hem de az
gelişmiş ekonomilerde görülmektedir. Yoksulluk, çözülmesi ve devletin müdahale etmesi gereken sorunların başında yer alır. Ancak neoliberal yaklaşımda devletin ekonomiye müdahale etmemesi gerektiği savunulur. Bu yaklaşıma göre gelirin artması ile büyüme ve fakirlik sorunu çözüme kavuşturulacaktır. Ancak hesaba katmadıkları bir yer var ki büyüme
sonucunda artan gelirin adil dağılımının sağlanmaması sonucu fakirlerin daha fakir zenginlerin ise daha zengin olması sorunudur. Fakirliğin azaltılması için bazı ülkelerde devletin ekonomiye müdahalesi kaçınılmaz olmaktadır. Bu çalışmanın amacı 2000-2018
yılları arasında D-8 ülkelerinin yoksulluk durumları farklı göstergeler açısından karşılaştırıldı.
Veriler, grafik ve tablolarla yardımıyla karşılaştırmalı olarak yorumlanmıştır.
Genel olarak yoksulluk kriterlerine göre Malezya en iyisidir. Bazı faktörlere göre Nijerya ve Bangladeş en kötü durumdadır. Yoksulluk kriterleri arasında insani gelişme endeksi en doğru sonucu verir. İnsani gelişme endeksi yoksulluğu sadece ekonomik boyutuyla değil sosyal boyutuyla da değerlendirir. İnsani gelişme endeksine göre Malezya en iyi,
Nijerya ise en kötü durumdadır. Türkiye’de ise yoksulluk bazı yıllar artış göstermiştir.
Dünyada toplam gelire bakıldığında kaynakların mevcut dünya nüfusuna yetecek ölçüde olduğu ancak sorun gelir yetersizliği değil adil dağılmamasıdır. Her ülkede gelir o ülkenin nüfusuna yetecek ölçüde değildir. Bu yüzden zengin ülkelerin yoksul ülkelere karşılıksız
yardımlar yapmaları uygun olacaktır. Karşılıksız yardım yapma konusunda ülke vatandaşlarına insan hakları eğitimi verilmesi tavsiye edilebilir. Bu sayede insanların bilinçlenmesi sağlanmalı ve insanlara insan oldukları için yardım edilmesi bilinci aşılanmalıdır.

Poverty is in general the inability to meet the basic needs to sustain people's lives. It is one of the most important problems from the beginning of life to the present day. Today, poverty is seen both in developed and underdeveloped economies. Poverty is at the top of the
problems to be resolved and the state to intervene. However, the neoliberal approach argues that the state should not intervene in the economy. With this approach, income growth will solve the problem of growth and poverty, but there is a place where they do not add up as a
consequence of the lack of a fair distribution of income as a result of growth, the poorer the poor and the poorer the rich. In some countries the economic intervention of the state is inevitable in order to reduce the poverty. The purpose of this study is to compare the poverty status of D-8 countries between the years 2000-2018 in terms of different indicators. The data are interpreted comparatively with the help of graphs and tables.
According to poverty criteria in general Malaysia is the best. According to some factors, Nigeria and Bangladesh are the worst. Among the poverty criteria, the human development index gives the best result. The human development index assesses poverty not only from the
economic aspect, but also from the social dimension. According to the human development index, Malaysia is the best and Nigeria is the worst In Turkey, poverty has increased for some years. However, it can be said that poverty generally declines in the world. When we look at
the total income in the world, we can see that the resources are worthy of the present world population, but the problem is not inadequacy but fair distribution. In every country, income does not reach the population of that country. Therefore, it would be appropriate for rich
countries to make unrequited aid to poor countries. It may be advisable to provide human rights training to citizens of the country in order to provide unreasonable assistance. At this point, consciousness of people must be ensured and consciousness should be given to help
people to be human.

1 Chinese proverb: BETTER teach a man to catch fish than give him fish 1.0 INTRODUCTION One of the contributions of this chapter is to lend weight to the current discourse on asset-based measures of poverty and argue in support of Carter and Barrett (2005) 2 who propose an extension of the Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) class of poverty measures. This chapter goes beyond asset-threshold and posits assets-income-based and networth measures of poverty applied to the FGT class of poverty measures. A binary classification of assets into tangible 3 and intangible is introduced representing what is called in this article the hardware and the software respectively 4. This chapter discusses the former, the hardware. I would like to use this classification to argue that while a lot of poverty studies focus on intangible assets (the software) such as education (literacy), health (longevity, fertility etc), only a few studies have focused on tangible assets (hardware) in the measurement of poverty hence it is given distinct prominence in this thesis. Tangibles include tractors, land, scotch carts, livestock and stocks (grain, seed). I entwine my work with that of Carter and Barrett (2005) with respect to the FGT class of poverty measures to broaden the scope of application of the tools they propose. This chapter is divided into five sections. Section 2 provides the background and is followed by a literature review as Section 3 which contains a brief appraisal of FGT extensions as proposed by Carter and Barrett (2005). In Section 4, I propose my own extensions to the FGT class of measures. Section 5 concludes. 2 This paper by Carter and Barrett (2005) is downloadable, see internet 2in the reference section. 3 Tangible assets are physical and material assets that have physical substance i.e. shape and form, and can be touched for example cash, land, and buildings. Intangibles describes assets that do not have a physical, tangible existence but are usually non-monetary in nature. Examples of intangible assets could include goodwill, brand value or patents, skills, knowledge and creativity etc. 4 It is quite tempting to categorise these further as concrete and abstract; objective and subjective respectively.

Currently available measures of poverty typically use an annual accounting period, which implicitly ignores both the duration of deprivation experience within a particular year and after or before the year in question. This article argues that since the incomes of the poor often fluctuate within a year, and since long duration poverty is of great social concern, measures of aggregate poverty should reflect “duration aversion”, in addition to the other axioms of poverty measurement now urged in the literature. Two composite, multiplicatively decomposable measures of poverty intensity which incorporate duration aversion are proposed and discussed.