Religion In Russia

The Jehovists-Il’inites are a little known millenarian movement
founded in the mid-nineteenth century by a Russian army officer
and religious thinker, Nikolai Il’in. Still active in parts of the former
Soviet Union, the Jehovists-Il’inites are an example of how the survival
of a marginal religious group depends on its ability to employ elements
of discourse that resonate with people in a given geographical, social,
and cultural environment. The history, doctrine, and present circumstances
of the Jehovists-Il’inites illustrate aspects of the emergence, development,
and perseverance of sectarian movements in the modern and
late modern period.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the circumstances under which the New Israel group of Russian Spiritual Christians repatri-ated from Uruguay to Soviet Russia in the 1920s. New Israelites were the largest of all overseas "sectarian" groups that responded to the Soviet authorities' call to return to the country and take part in creating collective agricultural enterprises. The cooperative enterprise established by that religious community on the territory of the present day Rostov Region endured for a few years. Shortly thereafter, due to changes in government policies, it was transformed into a sovkhoz and lost its economic and ideological autonomy. The article demonstrates , using private correspondence between the movement's leaders as evidence, that contrary to popular opinion, political and ideological considerations did not play a significant role in their decision to re-emigrate. Key factors behind the re-emigration to Soviet Rus-sia were the catastrophic financial situation in which the New Israel community in Uruguay found itself, as well as the threat of criminal prosecution looming over its leaders. The leftist and communist language frequently employed by the New Israel leadership was mainly a rhetoric tool used to solve practical issues in the short run.

The Russian Orthodox Church Moscow Patriarchate (ROC), the largest religious community in Russia, plays an essential role in the process of the cultural and national self-identification of the Russian people. Being a socio-political institution with a centuries-long history, it possesses great symbolic capital and enjoys public respect, which has been used for political purposes.

Since Vladimir Putin regained the presidency in 2012, in order to strengthen the political regime in Russia the Kremlin has begun to extensively draw upon conservative ideology and promote the traditional moral and social values which the Church is viewed as the guardian of. This has resulted in establishing closer relations between the secular government and the ROC, as well as in a greater engagement of ROC hierarchs and organisations in domestic and foreign policy issues. This situation exposes the ROC to criticism for being excessively involved in politics, and in the longer term, to the risks linked to potential destabilisation of the governmental system in Russia.

"Lucidly and engagingly written, Christopher Marsh's book is a landmark contribution to the growing literature on secularization and desecularization in the modern world. Previous studies have typically focused on a single country or religious movement, while there has been precious little comparative, cross-national and cross-civilizational research. Yet, without comparative research, it is impossible to theorize desecularization and detect its broad, cross-national meaning, patterns, causes, and consequences. Dr. Marsh's book fills in this gap. It detects and theorizes the patterns of religions' suppression, resilience and resurgence by comparatively exploring the cases of Russia and China. These are, without an exaggeration, the two most important and massive cases of forced secularization and subsequent religious resurgence in the 20th — early 21st century. The book marshals impressive empirical evidence, ranging from documentary sources to representative national surveys. An outstanding expert on Russia as well as China, Christopher Marsh aptly utilizes his thorough knowledge of the two cases and his fluency in both languages to present to his readers a convincing, empirically grounded yet theoretically consequential account of the stunning resilience of faith under the ruthlessly oppressive atheist regimes, and of its ongoing spectacular revival." -Peter Berger, Professor Emeritus of Religion, Sociology and Theology. Director, Institute on Culture, Religion, and World Affairs, Boston University.

The Moscow Patriarchate is a transnational subject of political relations which acts both inside and outside the Russian Federation. It has specific goals: to maintain the integrity of its canonical territory and to gain dominance within the Universal Orthodox Church. It is in competition with the Patriarchate of Constantinople, it makes alliances with Slavic Orthodox churches and it pursues diplomacy. The activity of the Moscow Patriarchate is of interest to the Russian government. This article examines relations between the Russian Orthodox Church and other Orthodox churches and their significance for Russian foreign policy.

The social climate in contemporary Russia is not particularly indulgent towards alternative spirituality. Viewed by the law as secondary to the country’s “historical religions,” such movements often appear at the center of controversies and are vilified in the media. Nevertheless, alternative spirituality in today’s Russia has not only survived but flourished. For example, the teachings of Vedic Wisdom have made successful inroads into popular psychology. How can we explain the resilience of this concept, and the alternative spirituality milieu in general, given the hostile environment? Current scholarship on Russian alternative spirituality tends to approach these questions either by tracing the large-scale changes in the country’s religious landscape, or by focusing on the dynamics of single movements. I argue, however, that the picture of alternative spirituality in Russia is incomplete without a third perspective, which can capture the mutual entanglement of the milieu. In this project, I develop such a perspective by focusing on Vedic Wisdom. Based on traditional and virtual ethnographic research in Russia (2012-2019), this project shows that Vedic Wisdom is not a single teaching, but a discursive cluster that forms a distinct vernacular belief tradition within the Russian alternative spirituality milieu. In the thesis, I describe three of its most influential iterations: neo-Hindu teachings, Slavic-inspired spirituality and popular psychology. In the case studies that make up this project, I show how different actors – from spiritual seekers to feminist activists – engage in negotiation, legitimation, contestation and other discursive practices that make and unmake the Vedic Wisdom tradition. To explain the paradoxical resilience of Vedic Wisdom, I show that it is implicated in broader national and global cultural phenomena: notably, the turn towards traditional values and the popularization of neoliberal practices of the self.

The article invites readers to reconsider the history of Buddhism in Russian Trans-Baikal as a gradual process of negotiation and redefinition that involved different actors: lamas, Russian imperial officials of various levels, Orthodox missionaries, Buriat national activists, Saint Petersburg Orientologists, modern Buddhist reformers and conservatives. The process involved the construction of the centralized and subordinated confessional group out of scattered communities of lamas in the course of the nineteenth century, Irkutsk Orthodox Diocese’s attempts first to downgrade the faith of lamas to idol-worship and then to normalize ‘corrupted Buddhism’, and the 'discovery' of the larger Buddhist world by some Buriat lamas and their attempts to bring it back to ‘authentic forms’. The article shows what exactly had brought Russian officials and then Buriat Buddhists themselves to the idea that their religious tradition, which historically was labeled merely as Lamaistvo, is a ...

Jonatan Meir, “The Politics of Printing the Book Sefer Likutei Tefilot"

This essay discusses one of the more astounding books produced by Bratslav Hasidism – Likutei Tefilot, composed by R. Nathan Sternharz of Nemirov between 1822 and 1827. Notable enough for its content alone, the book also established a whole new genre in Bratslav literature, a fact requiring examination of the book’s genesis, the context of its printing, and its primary goals, as well as the controversy that erupted around it. The new Bratslav theology that emerged upon the death of Rabbi Nahman at the end of 1810[, and which was articulated in Likutei Tefilot,] carried with it a number of ramifications for the small group that had begun to gather around the tsadik, including the eruption of disputes, both internal and external, over [the role and character of] Rabbi Natan of Nemirov. This is a particularly obscure chapter in the history of Bratslav Hasidism, which as a whole remains under-explored by modern scholars; a careful examination of the initiation and crystallization of Bratslav Hasidism in its early stages will shed light on the movement as it exists today in all its diversity, both ideological and social.

The article explores the crossroads of two surviving groups of
“old Russian sectarianism” — Molokan Jumpers and Jehovists-
Il’intsy — for whom the anticipation of the millennial kingdom
on earth was a central doctrinal tenet. Researchers in the past,
as well as modern scholars of religion, usually have not paid attention
to the connection between the two movements, which was
at one time quite substantial both in the doctrinal and the practical
sense. Handwritten, typed and unofficially published sources
gathered by the author during field work served as the principal
material for the article. They include letters of Nikolai Il’in to
his followers and his other writings, the memoirs of Molokan elders,
and the historical accounts found among the Molokans of Armenia
and the USA.

В статье рассматриваются религиозные взгляды популярного российского музыканта Сергея Трофимова. Анализу подвергаются тексты песен и интервью артиста. Делается вывод о близости его взглядов учению инглингов – нового религиозного движения, зародившегося в России в 1990-х годах. На этом примере видно, как в российском обществе формируются нетрадиционные представления о православии.
The paper is concerned with the religious views of the famous Russian musician Sergey Trofimov. The analysis focuses on the lyrics and interviews of the artist. It was concluded that his views are close to the teachings of the ynglings, a new religious movement that took root in Russia in the 1990s. This example shows how non-traditional perceptions of Orthodoxy are formed in Russian society.

This paper focuses on a Neo-Orthodox Tibetan Buddhist movement’s shifting trans-European positioning on the web and in its media self-representation with regard to public discourses around homosexuality. The analysis presented also
proves methodologically relevant, exemplifying through reflexive ethnography how outsider/insider scholars can manoeuvre religious politics.
As a global movement of the Karma Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism, the Diamond Way of the Danish lay teacher Ole Nydahl has been particularly successful in its proselytising efforts throughout Eastern and Central Europe. Previous research has noted the selectively socially conservative and mildly homophobic tendencies of the Diamond Way (Scherer 2011; 2013). In the trans-European context, from Russia to the U.K., Nydahls and the movement’s mild homophobia/strained LGBT-neutrality appears to draw public criticism for either being too pro-LGBT or too anti-LGBT. The investigation highlights the shifting public perceptions and socio-religious political frontlines in Russia and the U.K. and reveals a pattern of opportunism and (non-)negotiating public opinions.

В статье приводятся данные, полученные в результате контент-анализа сообщений российской прессы о русском неоязычестве за период с 2002 г. по 2014 г. Отмечается негативный информационный фон, сложившийся вокруг этого явления. При этом источники информации, которыми пользуются журналисты при описании данного
феномена, в большинстве случаев слишком субъективны.

В исследовании подробно рассмотрено пять комплексов автобиографических текстов, относящихся к периоду 1770–1860-х годов. Хронологически они охватывают первую половину кратковременного «классического периода» существования класса предпринимателей в Российской империи. Представленные автобиографические тексты свидетельствуют о появлении своеобразного типа культурного купца, который, наряду со своим торгово-промышленным делом, испытывал потребность облечь свою религиозную рефлексию в текстовую форму. В дневниках, письмах, мемуарах посещение богослужений и паломничество предстают не только как духовный опыт, но и как традиционная форма социализации. Рассмотрение представленных текстов заставляет пересмотреть прежние оценки, согласно которым в историографии купечество оценивалось преимущественно как «забитое», изолированное и неграмотное, и приводит к выводу, что купечество с субкультурой религиозных практик было значимым явлением в духовном и культурном ландшафте Российской империи последней трети XVIII — первой половины XIХ века.

The paper is devoted to quantitative evaluation of the prevalence of the Old Belief in the Russian empire in the 19th – early 20th centuries. Methodology for updating the official population statistic of Old Believers in the Russian Empire is offered. The verified data on population dynamics of Old Believers is given on the provinces and regions of the Russian Empire and on the state at all. Historiographical thesis about more than tenfold belittling of the number of Old Believers in the official statistic materials of the Russian Empire is refuted. The regional differences in the scale of concealment of faith by Old Believers and in the level of falsification of their number by the State government bodies are detected.

Key words: Old Believers, statistics, cohort analysis, population census, demography, the Russian Empire

Статья посвящена количественной оценке распространённости старообрядчества в Российской империи XIX – начала ХХ вв. Предлагается методика, позволяющая уточнить данные официальной статистики о численности старообрядческого населения Российской империи. Приведены уточнённые данные о динамике численности старообрядцев по губерниях и областях Российской империи, а также по государству в целом. Опровергается распространённый в историографии тезис о более чем десятикратном приуменьшении численности староверов в материалах официальной статистики Российской империи. Выявлены региональные различия в масштабах сокрытия веры  старообрядцами, а также  уровне фальсифицированности данных об их численности органами государственной власти.

Ключевые слова: старообрядчество, статистика, когортный анализ, перепись, демография, Российская империя

Данное издание представляет собой сборник лучших исследовательских работ, присланных на конкурс «Вера и религия в современной России». Молодые исследователи из 47 регионов РФ представили свой взгляд на изучение религии с точки зрения самых разных научных дисциплин. Что привлекает внимание и становится предметом их исследований? Как они видят современные проявления духовной и религиозной жизни? Ответы на эти вопросы читатель найдет в данной книге.

This article applies Berger’s new paradigm for religion in a pluralist age to the case of Russia, a society that underwent 70 years forced secularization and yet today displays great religious diversity. The analysis rests upon two major assumptions. The first is that of “multiple secularities,” meaning that societies that arrive at secularity may arrive there from very different points of departure and by following very different secularization paths, and the particular paths taken are of considerable consequence. Second is the assumption that Russia’s history of forced secularization continues to have profound implications on all aspects of the sacred and the secular in Russia today. This is explored in the areas of church-state relations; religious belief; religion and national identity; and the implications of these on what Berger calls “formulas for peace.” Throughout the analysis, Berger’s theory proves quite valuable and offers several useful lenses through which to view the relationship between the sacred and the secular in today’s Russia.

В монографии рассматриваются вопросы ранней истории секты христововеров или хлыстов в России. Разбираются проблемы генезиса старого русского сектантства, выясняются его социальные корни. Анализируются аспекты культа сектантов, функциональное назначение отдельных элементов ритуала, сектантская иконография.
The monograph addresses the issues of early history of the sect of Khristovovers or Khlysty (Flagellants) in Russia. The problems of the genesis of the old Russian sectarianism are distinguished, its social roots. Aspects of the cult of sectarians, the functional purpose of individual elements of ritual, sectarian iconography, is analyzed.

The article invites readers to reconsider the history of Buddhism in Russian Trans-Baikal as a gradual process of negotiation and redefinition that involved different actors: lamas, Russian imperial officials of various levels, Orthodox missionaries, Buriat national activists, Saint Petersburg Orientologists, modern Buddhist reformers and conservatives. The process involved the construction of the centralized and subordinated confessional group out of scattered communities of lamas in the course of the nineteenth century, Irkutsk Orthodox Diocese’s attempts first to downgrade the faith of lamas to idol-worship and then to normalize ‘corrupted Buddhism’, and the ‘discovery’ of the larger Buddhist world by some Buriat lamas and their attempts to bring it back to ‘authentic forms’. The article shows what exactly had brought Russian officials and then Buriat Buddhists themselves to the idea that their religious tradition, which historically was labeled merely as Lamaistvo, is a part of the emerging conception of global Buddhism.

The article deals with investigation of desecularization in post-Soviet Russia and the process of secularization in the Soviet Union. Author analyzes different aspects of secularization typical for the countries with communist regimes such as “hyper-privatization of religion” and “distillation of the religious consciousness” and studies specifics of revival of religion in Russia after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Finally, through the example of Russian Orthodox Church the article considers the idea that “worldliness” of religious institutions when they go out in public space from the religious ghetto is the counter-secularization process.

The article offers an analysis of ethical concepts in Russian religious-didactic literature of the
17th century. The main sources are alphabets published in Moscow. There were two alphabets
printed by Vasily Burtsov, and an alphabet by Karion Istomin, as well as “Azbuka s oratsiey”
(Alphabet with Didactics), and the manuscript “Alfavititsy didaskala” (Small Alphabet of a
Teacher). These alphabets can be considered as religious-didactic literature because in addition to grammar, these manuals included the narration “On the Letters” by Chernorizets Hrabar (Hrabar, the Black Robe Wearer), extensive religious-anthropological reasoning, prayers,
the Credo, Decalogue (in the Alphabet by Karion Istomin only), the Beatitudes, and other
texts which were presented in Catholic catechisms of that time, as well as in the “Profession of
Faith” by Peter Mogila (he used the Catholic catechism in his “Profession”). The influence of
Reformation ideas is obvious, too. Several works by Karion Istomin, the alphabet primarily,
were written and illustrated under the influence of “Orbis sensualium pictus” by John Amos
Comenius, the last bishop of the Unity of Brethen (Bohemian or Moravian Church). The content of these manuals (including visual content) allows us to conclude that their mass publication was induced by the disciplinary revolution that began after the end of the Smuta (the
Time of Troubles) in Russia, which is associated with the House of the Romanovs coming to
power. The creation of a new tsardom was impossible without new people whose education
was based on religious ideas and regulations. Ethical concepts in these books were almost
inseparable from religious regulations, which is explained by the doctrinal aims of primary
education in Russia of the 17th century.

В последние годы в наших Общинах Бахаи (страны СНГ) наблюдаются странные искажения и проблемы, которые нас объединяют больше, чем наша совместная деятельность и взаимные достижения, поддержка, обмен опытом и все остальное, к чему призывает нас Всемирный Дом Справедливости в своих ежегодных Посланиях на протяжении последних 10 лет. Речь прежде всего идет о ситуации полной конфиденциальности и закрытости наших Собраний, их полная подконтрольность представителям Института Советников и фактически полная бездеятельность Собраний, как руководящих органов Общины, чье место повсеместно занимают Институты по подготовке, которые также подотчетны прежде всего Институту Советников с независимым финансированием, планированием и кругом «посвященных».

Interview with Gregory Freeze, professor at Brandeis University (USA), and his research on the history of the Russian clergy, Russian Orthodoxy in 1917-1941, and Church, state, and laity in Imperial Russia (1750-1917) [the interview is available in English and Russian]

*Scroll for English*
В статье рассмотрены особенности применения включенного наблюдения в таком малоизученном и труднодоступном поле, как монашеские общины. Исследования монашества вызывают интерес в академических кругах, однако монастырь нечасто становится объектом методологической рефлексии. Статья восполняет этот пробел и анализирует специфику указанного метода применительно к монастырской среде, его достоинства и ограничения. Отдельно рассматриваются способы формулировки легенды и два варианта доступа к полю: формально, «сверху», через церковную администрацию и неформально, «снизу», через непосредственное обращение в монастырь или проводников, имеющих к нему отношение. На примерах полевой работы преимущественно в христианских монастырях рассмотрены четыре роли исследователя в зависимости от степени включенности, а именно: гость, паломник (трудник), потенциальный монах и монах. Отдельное внимание уделено конфликтам профессиональной идентичности, которые решаются путем «исследовательских сделок». Среди такого рода компромиссов отмечена необходимость соблюдать дисциплину тела, овладевать навыками самоконтроля, физически работать и иногда даже участвовать в богослужебной стороне жизни монастыря. Рассмотрены некоторые аспекты реципрокности отношений между исследователем и информантом и способы ее поддержания. Указано несколько ограничений метода включенного наблюдения применительно к монастырской среде, среди них: сезонность сельской монастырской жизни, несистемность наблюдения, субъективность исследователя и ограниченность доступа к отдельным сферам монастырской жизни. В заключение автор обращает внимание на отбор единиц наблюдения, в частности, особенности работы в малом и крупном монастыре. В статье приводится конкретный опыт эмпирических исследований в различных монастырях от первого лица, который можно использовать в проведении аналогичных исследований. Статья опирается на материалы полевых исследований автора в русских православных монастырях с 2011 г., а также на опыт отечественных и зарубежных коллег, изучающих монашеские сообщества.

The article focuses on how the method of participant observation can be applied in such an understudied and hard-to-access field as monastic communities. Monastic studies generate interest in academic circles but rarely become subjects of methodological reflection. The article fills the gap and analyzes the specifics of this method, its strengths and limitations as applied to monastic environment. The article discusses the ways of formulating a legend and two methods of gaining access to field: through official channels and church administration, “top-down,” and unofficial routes and gatekeepers, direct contacts, “bottom-up.” Predominantly referring to the research in Christian monasteries, the author examines four roles of a researcher depending on the degree of participation, they are: a guest, a pilgrim (or trudnik), a potential monk and a monk. Special attention is paid to professional identity conflicts that are solved with the help of “research bargains.” Such compromises as observing body discipline, mastering self-control skills, physical work and sometimes even participation in liturgical activities of a monastery are mentioned. Some aspects of reciprocal relations between a researcher and an informant and the ways to sustain them are examined. The paper covers several limitations of the method of participant observation in relation to the monastic environment, among them are: seasonality of rural monastic life, unsystematic nature of observation, researcher’s subjectivity, lack of access to certain areas of monastic life. In conclusion, the author draws attention to the selection of observation units, in particular, the difference in observation in small and large monasteries. The author gives first-person examples of empirical research in various monasteries which can be used as recommendations in conducting similar fieldwork. The article draws on the author’s fieldwork in Russian Orthodox monasteries since 2011, as well as the experience of Russian and foreign colleagues who study monastic communities.

Текст на сайте журнала \ The text at the journal's website:
http://sociologica.hse.ru/2015-14-3/161122922.html
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В обзоре анализируется международная конференция «Христианское монашество от Востока до Запада. Монашеские традиции и современность в Европе», организованная в июне 2015 года социологами и богословами из университетов Граца (Австрия), Турина (Италия) и Бухареста (Румыния). Конференция инициирует социологическую рефлексию о различных монашеских традициях и роли монастырей в условиях упадка доверия к религиозным институтам. Ставится вопрос о динамике монашества как традиционного института в современных условиях не только в странах Европы, но также Азии, Африки и Америки. Особое внимание в научной дискуссии уделяется адаптации и резистентности религиозных традиций к социальным изменениям. Исследователи из разных стран продемонстрировали новаторский потенциал монашества в экономической сфере (монастыри разных стран являются пионерами в развитии сектора экологически чистой продукции), культурной сфере (развитие туризма и экскурсионных услуг), религиозной сфере (появление так называемых «новых монашеских общин»). Наряду с традиционными монастыри приобретают новые социальные роли. Отмечается секуляризации понятия «монашество», его использование
в привязке к феномену «потребления традиции» вне религиозного контекста. Конференция продолжает развивать тему междисциплинарного подхода к исследованию религии. Отдельно анализируются позиция исследователя и его профессиональная идентичность, вопросы объективности и идеализации предмета исследования.

The review analyses the international conference “Christian Monasticism from East to West: Monastic Traditions and Modernity in Europe”, organized in June 2015 by sociologists and theologians from the Universities of Graz (Austria), Turin (Italy), and Bucharest (Romania). The conference initiated a sociological reflection of different monastic traditions, and the role of monasteries in terms of the decline of trust in religious institutions. It raised the question of the dynamics of monasticism as a traditional institution in modern societies, not only in Europe, but also in Asia, Africa, and America. The scholarly discussion paid particular attention to the adaptation and resistance of religious traditions to social changes. Researchers from different countries have demonstrated the innovative potential of monasticism in the economic sphere (monasteries from different countries are pioneers in the development of the sector of organic products), the cultural sphere (the development of tourism and excursion services), and the religious sphere (the emergence of so-called “new religious communities”). Alongside traditional roles, monasteries have acquired new social roles. The secularization of the concept of “monasticism”, and its use in relation to the phenomenon of “consuming the tradition” apart from a religious context is stressed. The conference continued to develop the theme of an interdisciplinary approach to the study of religion. The position of a researcher and his or her professional identity, the issues of objectivity, and the idealization of the research subject are analyzed.

This article discusses the issue of labour discipline in a Christian Orthodox organisation in Russia. The sisterhood which I analyse is the meeting point of two types of ‘work’: the ‘secular work’ of employed workers is embedded into the ‘religious work’ of the sisters who live a monastic life. I argue that the religious–economic mix of the sisterhood suggests that three employment models are evident: ‘work more, get less’, ‘work less, get more’ and ‘work for free’. Religious and economic spheres are mediated by labour which takes different forms, creating distinct, but related disciplinary labour spaces. I thread the concept of discipline through religious and economic discourses in the monastic workplace, the conflicts between the religious and economic motivations to work and the role of ‘emotional work’. The analysis is based on the participant observation, conducted over a period of four months while I was a staff member of the sisterhood.

With more than a thousand years of history in Russia, many have a deep cultural attachment to the Eastern Orthodox faith. As they attempt to integrate this faith into their daily lives, Orthodoxy may provide significant spiritual capital that may facilitate Russia’s transition from Communism to democracy and the free market.

This book examines how religion interacts with Russian foreign policy, arguing that religion is an important and neglected factor in shaping Russia’s outlook towards international relations. It surveys the importance of religion in Russian social life - past and present - and considers the range of attitudes which are affected by religion – such as Russian nationalism, notions of Slavic solidarity, the divine mission of Russian Orthodox civilisation, Russian imperialism, and Russia’s special approach towards Islam. The book discusses how religious organizations, especially the Russian Orthodox Church, operate in international relations, pursuing, through ‘religious diplomacy’ their own interests and those of the Russian state; explores how religious ideas and culture linked to religion impinge on Russian attitudes and identity, and thereby affect policy; and demonstrates how policy influenced by religion impacts on Russian foreign policy in practice in a wide range of examples, including Russia’s relations with other orthodox countries, non-orthodox Western countries, Muslim countries, Israel and the Vatican.

This paper distinguishes between the (ontological) creation, (historical) emergence and (legal) ‘making’ of religion. Many religions claim plausibility by invoking long chains of (invented) traditions, while some post-modern religions positively affirm their invented character. The case of Zoroastrianism in contemporary Russia is discussed as an example of a cross-cultural ‘appropriation’ of religion, rather than a transfer of an extant religion through, for example, migration. This means that inventors, recipients and practitioners mimetically reconstruct ‘Zoroastrianism’, by adapting it to the (new) legal framework that regulates religion in Russia. Once Zoroastrianism had affirmed its presence in Russia, Zoroastrians from other parts of the world established contacts. In the course of events, Russian Zoroastrianism diversified into different tendencies (esoteric, charismatic and nativistic vs modernistic, Internet-based and international). In addition to functioning as a separate religion, Zoroastrianism in Russia has become part of Neopagan and New Age complexes and is appropriated inter-discursively in the academy, the mass media and in different genres of fiction.

The conference “Religion and Russian Revolution” was held at the
Russian Academy of National Economy and Public Administration
(RANEPA) on October 26–28, 2017. The conference included 52 pa‑
pers by scholars from 11 nations and many Russian cities. The best
papers will be published in this journal, in the Russian language,
and in an English-language volume by one of the Western publish‑
ers. The main idea of the conference was to explore not only the
impact of 1917 Revolution upon the religious institutions; not only
the intellectual and cultural reactions to Revolution; but also the
revolutionary attempts of replacing the old religions with such new
patterns of this-worldly, utopian sacrality, which sublimated the new
order and legitimized revolutionary violence

Johann Heinrich Jung-Stilling’s novel Heimweh (published in 1794-96) stirred up an enthusiastic response in Germany and beyond. His idea of Solyma, the far-away land of peace, the refuge of all true Christians at the end of time, was a major theme of Jung-Stilling’s thinking in the latter period of his life. The importance of Solyma is far greater than one might normally expect of a literary image. It was instrumental in launching large scale historical developments such as the migrations and colonization efforts of German radical chiliasts to Russia from 1814 till as late as the 1880s.