Seed ecology

Abbreviations MD = morphological dormancy; MPD = morphophysiological dormancy; ND = non-dormancy; PD + PY = combined dormancy; PD = physiological dormancy; PIC = phylogenetically independent contrast; PY = physical dormancy Nomenclature International Plant Names Index (www.ipni.org/index.html) Abstract Questions: Is kind of seed dormancy important in environmental filtering at the local scale? Are there differences among kinds of seed dormancy in life-history traits like seed mass and adult life span? Location: Southern Kalahari (Botswana, Namibia and South Africa). Methods: Using mainly literature data, we determined kind of dormancy for each species in the Southern Kalahari flora and combined this data set with data on seed mass, life form and soil texture. Soil sand content was used as an environmental gradient because the risks associated with seedling establishment increase with soil sand content and would favour seed dormancy as a bet-hedging strategy. Also, the rapid descent of water in very sandy soils may exclude species with morphological (MD) or morphophysiological (MPD) dormancy that require relatively long moist periods for dormancy breaking. Multinomial logistic regression and phylogenetically independent contrasts were applied to determine relationships of kind of dormancy with life-history variables and soil texture. Results: The proportion of species with some kind of seed dormancy was not correlated with soil sand content. However, the proportion of species with MD or MPD decreased with increasing sand content, and proportion of species with some kind of dormancy decreased with increasing seed mass and life span. Life form and seed mass, but not soil sand content, had significant effects in a multi-nomial regression model predicting the presence of kind of dormancy. With increasing seed mass, the probability of a species having physical dormancy (PY) increased relative to the probability of having physiological dormancy (PD). With an increase in life span, the probability of a species lacking dormancy increased relative to the probability of having PD. Conclusions: We found little evidence that kind of seed dormancy plays a direct role in environmental filtering. Our results suggest that traits related to dor-mancy do not evolve independently and are part of a syndrome of co-adapted plant traits.

The evaluation of physiological and biochemical aspects is essential to identify clues that can assist breeders in selecting Persian walnut genotypes with considerable tolerance to drought stress. This objective can be obtained by analyzing seed biochemical compounds from different genetic resources, e.g. seeds from individual trees that are commonly exposed to drought stress. In the current research, we evaluated the effects of drought stress, as induced by PEG6000, on the germination of walnut seeds collected from six promising genotypes (i.e. 'SS2', 'TT2', 'TT1', 'ZM1','Haward' and'Chandler'). Aphotoperiod of12hwas provided duringtheexperiments, alongwithan average temperature of 25 ± 1°C. According to the different indexes of germination, a greater tolerance was observed among three genotypes, namely, 'ZM1', 'Haward' and ‘Chandler’. In response to drought stress, the contents of proline and total soluble sugars increased, especially at intense levels of stress, whereas the amount of starch decreased. The levels of antioxidant activity significantly increased by POD, APX, CAT, SOD and LOX enzymes in the radicle and plumule tissues as the water potential reached −1.5MPa. Three genotypes, namely, 'TT2', 'TT1' and 'SS2'were susceptible to cell wall damage(i.e. bylipid peroxidation). High levels ofSpdand Spm in tolerant genotypes were accompanied by significant increases in the zeatin, endogenous IAA, zeatin riboside and ABA in the seeds. Our results suggest that, under drought stress, seed germination in walnuts can benefit from the accumulation of free Spd in seeds during the phases of germination. However, the accumulation of free Put appeared to be an inhibitory factor which suppressed the germination of walnut seeds.

Esta guía para la propagación vegetal de doce plantas de Bosque seco y manglar del Caribe colombiano, hace parte de los resultados del trabajo realizado en el Programa EbA “Estrategias de Adaptación basada en Ecosistemas en Colombia y Ecuador”, implementado por la Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GIZ - GmbH - Cooperación Alemana para el Desarrollo, bajo el liderazgo del Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible - MADS y la Alcaldía de Cartagena, con el apoyo del Jardín Botánico Guillermo Piñeres. Uno de los objetivos del Programa EbA es el de brindar asistencia para integrar el enfoque de Adaptación basada en Ecosistemas en las políticas, planes o estrategias pertinentes, así como para ponerlo en práctica y contribuir con ello a reducir la vulnerabilidad de las comunidades locales en las regiones costeras.

Till today chilli seeds are separated manually and there is no specific machine designed to separate seed from its pulp. The manual process is carried out by hammering chilli fruits with wooden stick, separating the husk using hand separator. This manual method is quite tiresome mainly due to the inhalation of fine particles of chilli fruits by labours. Its pungency results in continuous sneezing and irritation for labours. Hence, it is necessary to eliminate laborious work and time consumption. The automated process of chilli seed extraction will be the better solution for this problem, which helps farmers. This automated method can also be adopted by food industries for large scale extraction of chilli seed, as well.

Seed germination and seed longevity under different environmental conditions are fundamental to understand the ecological dynamics of a species, since they are decisive for its success within the ecosystem. Taking this into account, seed germination and seed storage behavior of a pioneer species of tropical dry forest (Tecoma stans) were studied in the laboratory, to establish the effect of different environmental conditions on a local tree population. Two seed lots collected in July 2011, from Cali (Colombia), were evaluated under three alternating temperatures (20/30, 20/25, 25/30 ºC; 16/8 h) and four light qualities (12-hour white light photo-period, darkness, and 15 minutes of red light-R and far red light-FR). Final germination was recorded for all treatments; for white light treatment the daily germination was recorded to calculate mean germination rate, mean germination time, and two synchronization indices. To assess the effect of light quality on physiological variables, a destructive germination test was carried out. For this test, another seed lot was evaluated under the same light conditions using an alternating temperature of 20/30 °C-16/8 h, recording germination during six days for every treatment. In addition, seeds were stored at two different moisture contents (7.7, 4.1 %) and three storage temperatures (20, 5, -20 ºC), during two time periods (one and three months); a seed germination test was conducted for each treatment. Four replicates of 35 seeds per treatment were used for all experiments. Germination was high (GP > 90 %) with all alternating temperatures under white light, whereas under R, FR, and darkness germination was evenly successful at low temperatures, but at higher temperature, half of the seeds entered into secondary dormancy (GP= 45-65 %). However, mean germination rate and synchronization under R and FR decreased significantly in comparison to white light treatment and, consequently, mean germination time increased. Seed storage behavior of this species is orthodox due to the high germination (GP > 90 %) obtained under all treatments. In conclusion, T. stans seeds have a negative germination response at high incubation temperatures in the absence of white light, entering into a secondary dormancy. In contrast, an environment with a lower temperature and without white light delays the germination, but at the end seeds are able to reach the same germination values. This seed dependence on incident light in limiting conditions suggests a physiological mechanism on the seed tissues of this species, probably mediated by phytochromes. Finally, the orthodox seed storage behavior of T. stans is a reason to include this species in ex situ seed conservation programs for restoration and recovery of the tropical dry forest; however, long-term studies should be conducted in order to evaluate the maintenance of this characteristic throughout longer periods of time. Rev. Biol. Trop. 66(2): 918-936. Epub 2018 June 01.

Storage of native forest tree seeds is essential for the development of seed-based forest restoration methods, such as direct or aerial seeding and for increasing representation of native trees in nurseries, for conventional tree planting. The study, presented here, investigated seed germination, dormancy and storage behaviour of 16 native tree species, used to restore upland evergreen forest in northern Thailand. Eleven of them, had orthodox seeds (storable at minus 20˚C and 5% moisture content): a proportion consistent with other studies of seasonally dry tropical forest: Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Adenanthera microsperma, Alangium kurzii, Bauhinia variegata, Choerospondias axillaris, Gmelina arborea, Hovenia dulcis, Manglietia garrettii, Melia azedarach, Phyllanthus emblica and Prunus cerasoides. Four species had recalcitrant seeds: Artocarpus lacucha, Dimocarpus longan, Horsfieldia amygdalina and Syzygium albiflorum. All except D. longan set seed in the early rainy season and could therefore be used for direct or aerial seeding without storage. Inclusion of D. longan and Diospyros glandulosa (the latter classed as intermediate, with seeds that could be partially dried but not frozen) in forest restoration plantings will only be possible by nursery-based sapling production and conventional tree planting.

This work reviews the historical and current pest risks and research concerning seed storage in the Czech Republic
(CR). Stored seed pests (i.e. animals causing injuries to the germ and endosperm) represent a high risk of economic
damage due to the high value of seeds coupled with long-term seed storage in small storage units (e.g., boxes, satchels).
Rodents represent a significant risk to all types of seeds, especially seeds stored in piles or bags. Mites, psocids, and
moths are the main pests of stored grass and vegetable seeds: mites can decrease seed germinability by 52% and psocids
caused 9.7% seed weight loss in broken wheat kernels after 3 months of infestation under laboratory conditions.
Although beetles (Sitophilus sp., Tribolium sp., Oryzaephilus sp.) and moths (Plodia sp.) are common pests of grain
seeds (e.g., wheat, barley, maize), two serious seed pests, Sitotroga cereallela and S. zemays, are rare in the CR. Bruchus
pisorum is a common pest of pea seeds, while other Bruchids are rare in the Czech legume seed stores. Currently, the
control of seed pests is becoming difficult because the efficient pesticides (e.g., methylbromide, dichlorvos, drinking
anticoagulant rodent baits) for seed protection have been lost without the development of adequate substitutes. New
research on seed protection in the CR using biological control (mite predators Cheyletus sp.), low pressure, modified
atmospheres, and hydrogen cyanide is overviewed.

Convolvulaceae is the most advanced plant family (asterid clade) that produces seeds with physical dormancy (water-impermeable seed coat). There are several different opinions about the nature of the specialized structure ('water gap') in the seed coat through which water initially enters seeds of Convolvulaceae, but none of them has been documented clearly. The primary aim of the study was to identify the water gap in seeds of Ipomoea lacunosa (Convolvulaceae) and to describe its morphology, anatomy and function. Light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, tissue-sectioning, dye-tracking and blocking experiments were used to describe the morphology, anatomy and function of the water gap in seeds of I. lacunosa. Dormancy-breaking treatments caused slits to form around the two bulges on the seed coat adjacent to the hilum, and dye entered the seed only via the disrupted bulges. Bulge anatomy differs from that of the rest of the seed coat. Sclereid cells of the bulges are ...

The famed ancient herb, known to the Romans as silphium (Greek silphion), is widely regarded as the first recorded instance of human-induced species extinction. Modern scholars have largely credited direct exploitation (e.g., over-harvesting; over-grazing) as the primary cause of silphium’s extinction, due to an overwhelming demand for the plant in ancient times. Recent research has revealed strict cold-stratification requirements for the germination of silphium’s closest living relatives, revealing the likelihood that silphium shared these same germination requirements. Documented environmental changes in ancient Cyrenaica (e.g., widespread deforestation; cropland expansion) likely resulted in accelerated rates of desertification throughout the region as well as the direct disturbance of silphium’s habitat, effectively eliminating the necessary conditions for silphium’s successful germination and growth within its native range. Contrary to previous conclusions, this evidence suggests that anthropogenic environmental change was instead the dominant factor in silphium’s extinction, marking silphium as the first recorded instance of human-induced climate-based extinction.

Studies were made to determine the optimum germination temperature, depth of dormancy, and storability of
non-dormant, prechilled Malus trilobata seeds from three altitudinal provenances (Kadirli, Önsen, and Bertiz) in
the Eastern Mediterranean region of Turkey. The optimum germination temperature (based on seed germination
percentage and speed) was 18°C and the seeds required about 12 weeks prechilling to break full dormancy. Germination of non-dormant, prechilled seeds, 7.5% moisture content, decreased by about 24% after 1 year of storage at 3°C.

Pinus brutia (Turkish redpine) is one of the most common tree species in Turkey. Some isolated P.brutia populations exist outside its main distribution. In this study, the seeds of three disjunct P. brutia populations (Pazarcık, Gölbaşı, Şırnak) have been investigated. 1000-seed weight of Pazarcık, Gölbaşı and
Şırnak were 44,1 gr, 61,21 gr, and 52,25 gr, respectively, in air dry conditions. Between 4 and 6 weeks chilling durations have been required for full elimination of seed dormancy. Average germination percentages were about 80 % after the dormancy removal. Higher and faster germinations were obtained at 20 °C than 24 °C. The seedlings should be propagated from the isolated populations and used in forestation

Although plant-inhabiting ants are known to act as effective deterrents to a variety of vertebrate and invertebrate herbivores, this has been reported only once before for primates, a group better known for their predation of ants. In the present study, we investigated the effects that colonies of Pseudomyrmex viduus ants living in individual Macrolobium acaciifolium (Fabaceae) trees have on the rates of visitation and fruit removal by four taxa of seed-predating vertebrates: the primate Cacajao melanocephalus ouakary; macaws (Ara spp.); large parrots (Amazona spp.); and the Northern Amazonian red squirrel (Sciurus igniventris). We found that ant presence significantly reduced both rates of visitation and of fruit removal by C. m. ouakary. The same pattern of reduced fruit removal was also observed for other seed predators (parrots, macaws, and squirrels) but not for visitation rates (although this may be a result of the small sample size). This appears to be only the second-known d...

(250 words) After losing its artisan character after World War II, bread is now commoditized as the outcome of an increasingly globalised seed, cereal growing, milling and baking industry. Yet, alternative pathways are emerging to develop a more resilient and locally-adapted cereal system. Our case study focuses on exploring the emergence of a cereal seed network in Wallonia, which gathers farmers, millers, bakers, households and researchers. In this paper we look into the creative process of co-construction of this network, after 3 years of participant observation. We explore how group objectives and personal motivations evolved along with internal and external events. The main objective of this network is to conserve and breed a diversity of cereal varieties adapted to local agroecological food systems. Our results show that (i) novelties are being produced and tested in farms; (ii) opening up a safe-learning space favours networking of these isolated novel actors; (iii) collaborative management of cultivated diversity entails opportunities and challenges. We discuss these results in the light of similar experiences of seed networks in Europe and outline questions raised by challenges faced in participatory research on seed. Our conclusions suggest that in order to improve the nutritional quality of bread and develop a more resilient cereal system, collective management of seed and participatory plant breeding programs should be fostered. This will need a reversal of agronomy research approaches and of priorities in food policy

This paper examines the causes of disappearance/loss and current status of the African elephant in KLNP against the backdrop of international/regional agreements, conventions, national/sub-national institutions (including forestry/wildlife laws); and presents propositions. Data were collected from official reports, Nigeria Parks Magazine and published literature. Results revealed overwhelming anthropogenic disturbance (e.g. built infrastructure, namely Air Force terminal, dam), weak legislation, obsolete equipment and poor enforcement, illegal logging, poaching, cattle herding/banditry and perverse transnational diplomacy, as probable reasons for the loss/exodus of African elephant from the park. There was no substantial empirical evidence to tie elephant loss/disappearance to human-wildlife conflicts or ivory trade. However, the literature is rife with information that while Beninoire communities on the corridor are incentivized to protect wildlife, particularly the African elephant, their Nigerian counterparts with vast indigenous knowledge of behavioural/habituation and migratory pattern, are invariably alienated. The Nigerian government should define responsibilities and harmonize roles for departments and agencies; expedite/orchestrate national forest/wildlife laws; and foster multilateral cooperation towards rehabilitation/protection of wildlife species that utilize trans-national migratory corridors.

Dianthus cruentus Griseb. (Caryophyllaceae) is a herbaceous perennial species native to the Balkan Peninsula, including Greece, and western Asia. It is a species of great ornamental interest due to its architectural inflorescences and its compact blue-green foliage, particularly resistant to dry and poor soils and attractive to pollinators such as butterflies and bees. In addition, it is a species of medical potential due to its strong antioxidant action.
In the present study, the determination of the appropriate conditions for maximizing the germination of its seeds in both in vitro and in vivo conditions was initially investigated. Two seed lots collected from a native population of the species on Mount Kallidromo, Fthiotida, dry-stored for 0 or 12 months, were used, without any pre-treatment.
Regarding in vitro germination, the seeds were surface sterilized with a 20% commercial bleach water solution for 10 minutes, were then rinsed with distilled water and afterwards were placed in Petri dishes containing ½ MS medium, under 16 h photoperiod from 37.5 μmol m-2 s-1 fluorescent light, at temperatures of 5, 10, 15, 20 or 25 °C. The optimum temperature for seed germination was 15 °C, in which the highest germination ability in both recently collected (98%) and 12-month-old seeds (100 %) was observed. The lowest germination percentages were recorded at the two extreme temperatures of 5 °C and 25 °C, with particularly low values for recently collected seeds (18% and 15%). At all temperatures, minus that of 5 °C, the seeds germinated rapidly (T50 = 2-6 d). The duration of the seeds’ dry storage significantly affected their germination, increasing the germination percentage at the 2 extreme temperatures and demonstrating the positive effect of dry afterripening. As for ex vitro germination, the seeds were placed in pots with a mixture of peat-perlite (1: 1, v/v) and were incubated in growing chambers at temperatures of 15, 20 or 25 °C. The highest germination percentage was observed at 15 °C for both seed lots (97-99%), while the lowest at the temperature of 25 °C (62% and 4% for the 0- and 12-months-old seeds respectively). Germination ability was slightly lower in ex vitro germination, especially at 25 °C.
Furthermore, the micropropagation of the species from explants excised from 2-month-old seedlings was investigated on solid substrates. Substrates containing MS medium and 8 g L-1 agar were used in almost all substages of the proliferation stage, and the effects of cytokinins BA, 2iP and ZEA, with the absence or the presence of auxin NAA, were investigated, using explants derived from non-hyperhydric or hyperhydric shoots. In the initial culture substrates containing 0.1 mg L-1 BA or 0.1 or 0.5 mg L-1 2iP the explants produced shoots at a high percentage (72-87%), but many of these were shown to be hyperhydric, with abnormal morphology and vitreous appearance. The number of hyperhydric shoots and the number of nodes seemed to be higher on substrates containing 2iP, with the largest number of normal shoots (2.3) appearing in the substrate containing 0.1 mg L-1 BA.
During the 1st subculture stage, hyperhydric shoots were observed in bigger numbers in the substrate containing 2iP, while an increase in shoot proliferation and the number of hyperhydric shoots was correlated with the use of hyperhydric explants grown on hormone-free MS substrate. In the 2nd subculture stage, the presence of 0.1 mg L-1 BA yielded the largest number of shoots regardless of the physiology of the explants, while the addition of 0.05 mg L-1 resulted in a significant increase in the number of normal shoots and a reduction in hyperhydricity rates when hyperhydric explants were used. In the 3rd subculture, when explants derived from nonhyperhydric shoots were used the highest value of the multiplication index (4.5) and the maximum number of shoots (3.6) was recorded in MS substrate containing 2 mg L-1 BA. Increasing the concentration of agar to 12 g L-1 produced the largest number of shoots (2.4) when hyperhydric explants were used. In both cases, the highest percentages of hyperhydricity were recorded on MS substrate containing 0.1 mg L-1 ZEA. In contrast, during the 4th subculture, the use of this substrate resulted in the greatest multiplication index value at this stage (4.8).
Overall, the use of MS substrate with 0.1 mg L-1 BA and 0.05 mg L-1 NAA resulted in the highest values of the proliferation index (5.1) regardless of the physiology of the explants used, with its maximum value (5.2) recorded from the culture of hyperhydric explants on MS substrate containing 0.1 mg L-1 BA and 12 g L-1 agar. The presence of phytohormones in the substrates increased the production of callus around the base of the explants, while high concentrations of cytokinins lessened the occurence of roots.
D. cruentus microshoots were rooted in MS or ½ MS substrates in the presence or absence of IBA. The use of MS substrate resulted in lower rooting rates (55-70%) when lower concentrations of IBA were used (0 or 0.1 mg L-1). The optimal concentration of IBA was found to be 0.5 mg L-1 regardless of the multiplication substrate where the microshoots originated or the nutrient medium used in the rooting substrate, with rooting rates of 83-100%, while in some instances a carry over effect, caused by the cytokinin content of the shoot proliferation substrates, was observed on the roots’ number and median length.
The ex vitro acclimatization of the rooted microshoots was completed with a success rate of 91% using a peat:perlite substrate (1:1, v/v). Significant morphological differences were observed between acclimatized plantlets, including differences in stem length and total number of shoots and nodes, which were correlated with the influence of different shoot proliferation and/or rooting substrates, while the presence of IBA during rooting seemed to have an amendable effect on their survival. Finally, the use of an integrated, 60-days-long propagation protocol with shoot proliferation and rooting occurring concurrently in one stage on MS substrates free of PGRs or containing BA or 2iP and NAA produced rooted young plants at a high percentage (88%), which had the maximum observed total number of shoots and nodes and were then successfully acclimatized, surviving at a percentage of 86%.

Scientific area: Horticulture

Keywords: Dianthus cruentus, native ornamental plant, germination ecophysiology, seed germination in vitro, seed germination temperature, seed lot age, dry afterripening, in vitro propagation, solid culture, seedling explant, hyperhydricity, hyperhydric explant, callus induction, in vitro rooting, ex vitro acclimatization, cytokinins, IBA, carry over effect, acclimatized plantlets’ morphology

Although plant-inhabiting ants are known to act as effective deterrents to a variety of vertebrate and invertebrate
herbivores, this has been reported only once before for primates, a group better known for their predation of ants.
In the present study, we investigated the effects that colonies of Pseudomyrmex viduus ants living in individual
Macrolobium acaciifolium (Fabaceae) trees have on the rates of visitation and fruit removal by four taxa of
seed-predating vertebrates: the primate Cacajao melanocephalus ouakary; macaws (Ara spp.); large parrots
(Amazona spp.); and the Northern Amazonian red squirrel (Sciurus igniventris). We found that ant presence
significantly reduced both rates of visitation and of fruit removal by C. m. ouakary. The same pattern of reduced fruit
removal was also observed for other seed predators (parrots, macaws, and squirrels) but not for visitation rates
(although this may be a result of the small sample size). This appears to be only the second-known demonstration
of the repellent effect of ants on primates and, indeed, the first for squirrels and psittacine birds. © 2014 The
Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 114, 260–273.
ADDITIONAL KEYWORDS: Amazona – Ara – Cacajao – Formicidae – plant defence – Sciurus.

Fire Trol 934® is a long-term fire retardant commonly used in fire prevention and extinction. Our objective was to determine the effect of this chemical on seed germination of nine plant species from Mediterranean-type shrublands, where these chemicals are potentially used. Seeds were exposed to five different Fire Trol concentrations, (0 (control) to 10%, on a log scale) and monitored in a germination chamber for nine weeks. Seeds from four Cistus species were subjected to an additional heat treatment that simulated thermal scarification caused by fire. Retardant exposure caused a significant decrease in total germination in all species, and exposure to the highest Fire Trol concentration (10%) resulted in complete inhibition of germination. However, the sensitivity to Fire Trol varied across species and this differential species sensitivity may potentially lead to different impacts in the soil seed banks depending on whether sites are burned or unburned. Exposure to Fire Trol 934 may affect recruitment of shrubland species particularly during dry autumns, due to limited leaching of these chemicals from the soil surface. Consequently, its use should be avoided in sites where particularly sensitive plant species are present. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 20: 543–548, 2005.

ABSTRACT
Most farmers are not activists. They make, however, their own sense of the world and act – sometimes quite stubbornly – according to that sense given, grasping what they perceive as opportunities, and protecting what they feel as essential for their livelihood. Political projects for Nicaraguan society, international policy- making, corporate strategies and imperial ambitions engage with and affect the varieties grown locally. The article analyses the creativity and political potential, as well as the contradictions and inconsistencies of the quotidian practice of seed saving under extreme constraint in light of the major struggles about Nicaraguan seed legislation.

Arabic Translation of Article entitled :
Syrian seed bank gets new home away from war
Shaoni Bhattacharya
05 October 2016

Nature (2016) doi:10.1038/538016a
.
البذور السورية تنتقل إلى مسكن جديد

ستكون جينات النباتات القديمة في متناول أيدي العلماء مرة أخرى.

شاوني باتاشاريا

The soil seed bank represents part the regenerative potential of a plant community. It can affect both the composition and the vegetation pattern after natural or anthropic interferences. The study was carried out in the Parque Estadual das Fontes do Ipiranga (PEFI), an urban fragment of the Atlantic Forest in the city of São Paulo-SP. In PEFI, well preserved areas are found nearby very disturbed areas, in which a rhizomatous and scandent bamboo species (Aulonemia aristulata (Döll) McClure) predominates. The objective of this study was to evaluate if the dominance of the bamboo plants interfered in the number of seeds from shrub and tree species incorporated in the soil seed bank, thus modifying the capacity of natural regeneration. Two sites were selected: in one of them, the bamboo plants predominated (B) and in the other, bamboo plants occurred sparsely (SB). In each area 45 soil samples distributed in 0.7 ha were randomly collected (total area 1.8m2). The soil samples were exposed to natural sunlight in a greenhouse and the emerged seedlings were counted weekly during the following six months. A significant difference was observed between seed number of the two areas (Mann-Whitney, p<0.05). In B, 2270 seeds germinated while 2911 germinated in SB. Consequently, seed density differed between the two areas: 1260.56 and 1617.22 seeds.m-2, respectively. The seed density from tree species was significantly higher in SB (622.8 seeds.m-2 in B and 1308.9 seeds.m-2 in SB, according to the Mann-Whitney test at p<0.05), although in B, a higher seed density from shrub and herb species were found (Mann-Whitney, p<0.05). Asteraceae, Poaceae, Solanaceae, Cyperaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Melastomataceae were the most abundant families present in B (66.2% of all species). In SB, the same families occurred, except for Cyperaceae (51.16% of all species). Miconia cf. cinnamomifolia and Vernonia sp. were the most abundant species accounting for more than 80% of the seedlings recruted in both areas. The proportion of tree and shrub species was higher than 90% in the two areas (90,1% in B and 97,4% in SB), nevertheless this difference was significantly higher for SB (χ2=124.69; gl=1; P<0,001). Pioneer species predominated in the two areas. The total number of pioneer individuals in SB was significantly higher (χ2=8.91; gl=1; P<0.01). Zoochoric dispersion predominated among shrub and tree species, with 80% of the species in B and 71% in SB, this last area being significantly higher (χ2=436.30; gl=1; P<0,001). B presented higher species abundance and diversity in spite of the low diversity and equability indexes found in the two areas. Significant differences in the floristic composition of shrub and tree species were observed between B and SB (MRPP, A=0.1347, p<0.001). The high amount of seeds from shrub and tree species found in areas B and SB demosntrates the capacity of regeneration of these two areas. It also shows that the presence of A. aristulata in area B does not affect the disponibility of seeds in the soil seed bank.

Seed traits are related to several ecological attributes of a plant species, including its distribution. While the storage physiology of desiccation-sensitive seeds has drawn considerable attention, their ecology has remained sidelined, particularly how the strong seasonality of precipitation in monsoonal climate affects their temporal and spatial distribution. We compiled data on seed mass, seed desiccation behavior, seed shedding, and germination periodicity in relation to monsoon and altitude for 198 native tree species of Indian Himalayas and adjoining plains to find out (1) the adaptive significance of seed mass and seed desiccation behavior in relation to monsoon and (2) the pattern of change in seed mass in relation to altitude, habitat moisture, and succession. The tree species fall into three categories with respect to seed shedding and germination periodicities: (1) species in which both seed shedding and germination are synchronized with monsoon, referred to as monsoon-synchronized (MS, 46 species); (2) species in which seed germination is synchronized with monsoon, but seeds are shed several months before monsoon, referred to as partially monsoon-synchronized (PMS, 112 species); and (3) species in which both shedding and germination occur outside of monsoon months, referred to as monsoon-desynchronized (MD, 39 species). The seed mass of MS species (1,718 mg/seed) was greater than that of PMS (627 mg/seed) and MD (1,144 mg/seed). Of the 40 species with desiccation-sensitive seeds, 45% belong to the MS category, almost similar (approx. 47%) to woody plants with desiccation-sensitive seeds in evergreen rain forests. Seed mass differed significantly as per seed desiccation behavior and successional stage. No relationship of seed mass was found with altitude alone and on the basis of seed desiccation behavior. However, seed mass trend along the altitude differed among monsoon synchronization strategies. Based on our findings, we conclude that in the predicted climate change (warming and uncertain precipitation pattern) scenario, a delay or prolonged break-spell of monsoon may adversely affect the regeneration ecology of desiccation-sensitive seed-bearing species dominant over large forest areas of monsoonal climate. K E Y W O R D S

Pre-dispersal seed predation can greatly reduce crop size affecting recruitment success. In addition, non-fatal damage by seed predators may allow infection by fungi responsible for post-dispersal seed losses. The objectives of this study were (1) to quantify pre-dispersal seed predation and fungal infection in a Neotropical tree species, Luehea seemannii, that produces dehiscent fruits and wind-dispersed seeds, and (2) to link pre-dispersal effects on seed quality to seed survival in the soil. To examine how seed predators and fungi influence seed losses, mesh exclosures, fungicide, and the combination of both treatments were applied to separate branches in the canopy of trees in Gamboa and Parque Natural Metropolitano (PNM), Panama. To determine if treatments affect seed viability and survival in the soil, half of the seeds collected from each treatment were buried for 4 weeks in forest soils and subsequently allowed to germinate before and after the breaking of dormancy. Overall, 24 percent of developing fruit were lost to insect attack. In contrast, fungi infected only 3 percent of seeds at the pre-dispersal stage. For seeds germinated directly after collection, fungicide significantly increased germination in the wetter site (Gamboa) but decreased germination in the drier site (PNM). The pre-dispersal insect exclosure treatment increased the fraction of seeds that remained dormant after burial in the soil. This result suggests that exposure to insect predators may cause physical damage to seeds that results in the loss of physical dormancy but does not necessarily increase the susceptibility of seeds to pathogen attack in the soil.

Eelgrass (Zostera marina) flowering development and seed production were assessed along a depth gradient at three sites during 2012 and 2013 to 1) describe the flowering seasonality in the Swedish west coast, and 2) evaluate methods using seeds for large-scale restoration, including harvesting, storage and separation of viable seeds using a vertical flume. Eelgrass flowering shoots were found in the field from June to October, reaching the highest densities in July and August (average 3.8 ± 0.5 shoots m −2). Flowering shoot densities decreased with depth, whereas shoot length, number of spathes, seeds/shoot and seed size increased with depth, resulting in the highest seed production at intermediate depths (2 m) in most bays and years. Because of low densities of flowering shoots, seed production in Sweden (on average 39–126 seeds m −2 , Jul–Sep) was an order of magnitude lower than in other studied areas. Results showed that seed production differed 2.5–3.4 times between meadows and years, mainly driven by variation in seed production per shoot. This variation was only partly explained by temperature over the growing season, suggesting that other factors such as light and the amount of filamentous algal mats might also be important in flower development. Results suggest that flowering shoots should be harvested when > 50% of the spathes have developing seeds, and that shoots should not be stored longer than 40 days in tanks to obtain an optimal release of viable seeds. A new mechanized method using a vertical flume to separate large amounts of viable seeds from the harvest is also presented.

B. utilis is the only broad leaved angiosperm tree species in the Himalayas which dominates an extensive area at subalpine altitudes. Lack of sufficient regeneration is a major problem in B. utilis and has been declared endemic in many states of India. Very few studies on seeds and none on maturity indices of B. utilis have been conducted particularly in the treeline areas on Indian Himalayan region. The aim of the present study was to assess the seed/catkin maturity time and seed germination status of B. utilis in treeline areas. The study site was located at 30°49´22˝N and 79°21´4 7˝E between 3340 and 3560m elevation in the western Himalayan region of Uttarakhand. Physical parameters, catkin size, number of catkin, weight of catkin and mass of catkin were taken and germination was carried out in a dual chamber seed germinator for each collection date in laboratory. The tree density of B. utilis was 100 ind ha-1. The mean catkin size between first and last collection varied from 60.24±0.29 to 114.90±1.62, the change in catkin weight was 13.60 and 11.33 g during the collection period. The mass per 100 catkins during study varied between 16.30±0.74 and 33.27±0.14 g. Maximum germination 25.67±0.67% occurred when the catkin moisture content was 31.60±1.55%. At the treeline areas B. utilis is struggling for survival, growth and regeneration due to harsh climatic conditions and excessive anthropogenic pressure in the form of heavy grazing. The species requires proper conservation and management strategy, so that the seedlings and saplings could survive and replace adult trees in future. The present study is useful for assessing the exact catkin maturation time of the species for future multiplication of the species in nurseries.

“Seeds as the fourth resource...after land, water and air”
(Vía Campesina 2001: 48)
Today, seeds are no longer a symbol of collective sharing but become an unrenewable commodity which has to be purchased every year from the seed companies by the farmers. Genetically modified or hybrid seeds that are produced by the agribusiness monopolies are threatening food security, which causes the threat of extinction of local seeds. The disappearance of local seeds is not only the loss of the local varieties but also the loss of knowledge, heritage, local cuisine culture and tastes.
Biodiversity conversation is an issue which should be considered with a global perspective since the environment and nature cannot be divided by the boundaries of the countries. Against the monopoly of multinational, transnational seed companies, is it possible to preserve the diversity of seeds across countries? There are multinational agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporations such as Monsanto . The national laws and regulations on agriculture have been under transformation for many developing countries. Turkey is one of the countries where selling and even swapping of seeds are prohibited with law . What would be the reaction against these prohibitions and the loss of diversity of seeds? On the other hand, how global commodity chains and corporations’ function in this process?
Seed exchange has been a social practice for thousands of years in different cultures, “as a way to maintain genetic diversity and health of crops” (Smith, Aistara, Gy, 2015, Introduction). In the last forty years, due to industrialization of agriculture, seed diversity has faced with a loss that a new type of seed exchange networks has formed (ibid). The literature on seed saving and exchange seems to be focused on individual country or movement of case studies.

The vegetation and wild life in Saint Catherine area is subjected to great disturbance through the unmanaged human activities. In the present study we had used seed ecology in order to contribute in designing a sound long term conservation plan for the two threatened endemic studied medicinal species; Plantagosinaica, and two other Plantago species; P. ovataand P. lagopus at three levels; (a) studying the germination response at different conditions and pretreatments on wetted substrate (b) the effect of moisture content percentage on the germination during different storage periods and (C) the effect of burying on seed longevity and viability. For the threePlantago species there was a great variation in the behavior of seed germination among them, we observed that sulphoric acid (H2SO4) was the only treatment that enhanced germination in the three species at least at one of the temperature treatments. The moisture isotherm of P. ovataand P. sinaicarevealed a positive correlation wi...

Many plants from Mediterranean-type ecosystems show enhanced germination when exposed to heat and other fire-related cues. Whether
Mediterranean-type plants are fire recruiters and need fire to germinate is subject of discussion. In the present work, we tested the above hypothesis
by subjecting seeds from 57 species representative of a recently burned plant community to various heat pulses. Differences in germination
among species, taking into account their phylogeny, were studied by dividing them according to their life-form (chamaephytes, hemicryptophytes),
regeneration strategy (non-sprouters, sprouters) and geographical distribution range (Iberian Peninsula endemics, Mediterranean, widely distributed
species). Seeds were exposed to 80, 100 and 120 ◦C during 10 min, and then, incubated at 17.5 ◦C for 6 weeks in darkness. Maximum germination
was reached at 80 ◦C and control treatments and minimum germination was at 120 ◦C. Most species were tolerant to heat-shocks, only a few of
them were stimulated by heat, and around 20% suffered a reduction in germination with heat. The germination response to heat-shock differed
according to regenerative strategy and distribution range, but not to life-form. These results were supported independently of phylogeny. As
expected, sprouters and Iberian endemics were more sensitive to heat-shock than non-sprouters and widely distributed species, respectively. As a
conclusion, the studied plant group appears to exhibit resistance to heat but not dependence on it for germination. Therefore, recruitment could be
high after low intensity fires, but might be significantly reduced for most species after more intense fires.