Space Race

Es wird diskutiert, inwiefern die Berichterstattung über die erste bemannte Mondladung als Ausgangspunkt für eine globalgeschichtliche Betrachtung dienen kann. Vier unterschiedliche globalgeschichtliche Zugänge werden vorgestellt, die in diesem Zusammenhang besonders produktiv sind. Im Einzelnen handelt es sich um (1) Globalgeschichte als kommunikationstechnologische Globalisierung, (2) als transnationales und-kontinentales Additionsverfahren, (3) als komparatistische Unternehmung und (4) als reflexive Glokalisierung. Diese vier Zugriffe werden mit den Perspektiven, die die Beiträge des vorliegenden Sammelbandes entfalten, abgeglichen, veranschaulicht und so en passant vorgestellt, was der Leser und die Leserin in den jeweiligen Texten zu erwarten haben.

Mighty America, who brought a human to the Moon, has the right to be proud of his great son John F. Kennedy, who became for America what the god Apollo was for Hellas. The Heaven has sent us bright signs to prove this. // Могучая Америка, доставившая человека на Луну, вправе гордиться своим великим сыном Джоном Кеннеди, ставшим для Америки тем, чем был бог Аполлон для Эллады. Небо послало нам яркие знаки, подтверждающие это.

This article explores the shift in tenor and style undertaken by the Milan-based Movimento Arte Nuclear in between 1951 and 1959. Specifically, it explores the Enrico Baj's anarchic humanism affecting his depiction of the human figure influenced by the postwar trauma of a looming nuclear catastrophe.

This paper would analyze how the securitization of the Sputnik crisis in America enabled and eventually fuelled the scientific and technological advancement of the US by legitimizing extraordinary measures taken by the President to deal with the ‘proclaimed’ threat. Firstly, this paper would introduce the case for securitization and how it applies to the event of the Sputnik Crisis, followed by the analysis of the securitizing agent Eisenhower and the referent object of the American state and prestige. Lastly, the paper would discuss the emergency measures taken to complete the securitization and how they were ‘beyond the normal political’.

The Cold War Space Race led to significant shifts in global tension. While the United States and Soviet Union competed for milestones in space exploration, the Soviet Union evolved from an isolationist entity to an international one. While the Soviet Union achieved significant milestones early on, technological development and management stagnated and the Soviet Union was soon eclipsed by the United States. These failures forced the Soviet Union to look for international cooperation in their efforts, even with the United States, and was a significant factor in the development of détente in the late 1960’s and early 1970’s. Primary source documents support this conclusion and suggest that the public image presented by the Soviet Union was vastly different from publicized activities.

Το κείμενο εξετάζει την επανεμφάνιση του Διαστήματος ως ενός Κεντρικού Πεδίου Ανταγωνισμού των Μεγάλων Δυνάμεων. Η κύρια διαφορά με τις δεκαετίες του ’60 και ΄70 όταν το φαινόμενο αυτό πρωτοεμφανίστηκε είναι ότι οι κύριοι δρώντες δεν είναι πια μόνο οι ΗΠΑ και η Σοβιετική Ένωση, αλλά περισσότεροι. Η υπερβολική εξάρτηση των ΗΠΑ από τα δορυφορικά συστήματα, που τους δίνει σημαντικό στρατιωτικό πλεονέκτημα, δημιουργεί ταυτόχρονα μια σημαντική τρωτότητα την οποία αντίπαλα κράτη είναι πρόθυμα να εκμεταλλευτούν. Χώρες σαν την Ρωσία και την Κίνα διαθέτουν τα μέσα εκείνα, για να περιορίσουν την στρατιωτική αποτελεσματικότητα των ΗΠΑ. Με βάσει την διεθνή εμπειρία και άλλες χώρες σαν την Γαλλία την Ινδία αισθάνονται την ανάγκη να προστατέψουν τα δικά τους δορυφορικά συστήματα αναπτύσσοντας και αυτές συναφείς ικανότητες. Το βέβαιο είναι ότι όλες οι μεγάλες χώρες συμφωνούν ότι το Διάστημα είναι ένας άλλος  απλά τομέας (πέρα από τη γη, τη θάλασσα και τον αέρα) στον οποίο μπορούν να επεκταθούν οι συγκρούσεις στο μέλλον. Υπό το φως της ραγδαίας μεταβαλλόμενης φύσης του Διαστήματος, από «κοινή κληρονομιά της ανθρωπότητας» σε πεδίο εθνικών ανταγωνισμών σχετιζόμενων άμεσα με ζητήματα ασφάλειας, ο ρόλος του αναβαθμίζεται διεθνώς εντός της δομής των Ενόπλων Δυνάμεων.

Imagining Outer Space makes a captivating advance into the cultural history of outer space and extraterrestrial life in the European imagination. How was outer space conceived and communicated? What promises of interplanetary expansion and cosmic colonization propelled the project of human spaceflight to the forefront of twentieth-century modernity? In what way has West-European astroculture been affected by the continuous exploration of outer space? Tracing the current thriving interest in spatiality to early attempts at exploring imaginary worlds beyond our own, the book analyzes contact points between science and fiction from a transdisciplinary perspective and examines sites and situations where utopian images and futuristic technologies contributed to the omnipresence of fantasmatic thought. Bringing together state-of-the-art work in this emerging field of historical research, Imagining Outer Space breaks new ground in the historicization of the Space Age.

Peanuts creator Charles M. Schulz insisted good ol’ Charlie Brown and his friends were neither “great art” nor “significant.” Yet Schulz’s acclaimed daily comic strip—syndicated in thousands of newspapers over five decades—brilliantly mirrored tensions in American society during the second half of the 20th century.
Focusing on the strip’s Cold War roots, this collection of new essays explores existentialism, the reshaping of the nuclear family, the Civil Rights Movement, 1960s counterculture, feminism, psychiatry and fear of the bomb. Chapters focus on the development of Lucy, Peppermint Patty, Schroeder, Franklin, Shermy, Snoopy and the other characters that became American icons.

NOTE: This is the self-archive version of the chapter "​​Why Space Migration Must Be Posthuman" in the book "The Ethics of Space," edited by Schwartz, J., Milligan, T., published by Springer, Vol. 8, 2016, pp. 137-152. ISBN: 978-3-319-39825-9 (Print) 978-3-319-39827-3 (Online). For the final version of this article, please purchase the chapter: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39827-3_10
ABSTRACT: This chapter responds to the urgency for reflecting on the large-scale ethical implications, socio-political challenges and technological preconditions of space migration, by highlighting the importance of treating outer space in relation to Earth, and not as a separated otherness. Instead of the utilitarian view of space, which perceives it as the ultimate resource, this chapter will approach space from an onto-epistemological standpoint inspired by Heidegger's definition of technology: outer space will be thus accessed as " a way of revealing " , allowing for an original understanding of the notion. This focal point will be emphasized by showing how outer space has historically performed and continues to manifest as a way of revealing, in the processual constitution of human and posthuman identities. In the first section, this chapter will demonstrate that, in the ancient world, astronomical insights were crucial to the understanding of the Earth and to the development of human civilizations. In the second section, it will underline how, in the space race, humans lost their ontological primacy; it will also critically analyze the history of humans in space according to practices of discrimination such as: anthropocentrism, sexism and racism. In the third section, it will highlight how space pragmatics should be revised by developing sustainable space technologies in order to comply with the theoretical principles of the " Outer Space Treaty " (1967), expanding the beneficial vision of space exploration, from humans and Earth, to non-human beings and non-human agents, including other planets. The dynamics of space migration will be inquired by reconciling the varied philosophical landscape of the posthuman, bridging different schools of thought such as: Posthumanism, Transhumanism, New Materialism and Object-Oriented Ontology.

The period between 1945 and 1960 represents a major moment in the consolidation of the so-called the “Cold War”. It was in this period that the atomic weapons were consolidated – and thermonuclear weapons shortly after – as devices to be used in an “imminent” World War III: in this process, the byproducts of the “Cold War” emerged, such as the “Atomic and Missiles Age” and “Arms and Space Race”, which reinforce and are reinforced by it. On one hand, during this period nuclear weapons and their delivery systems were developed, tested, improved and became operational, increasing their destructive power and capacity to delivery them into target. On the other hand, the greater the production and development of nuclear weapons, the clearer it became that nuclear weapons could not be used in war without destroying the entire planet, capitalists, communists and whatever lied between. The perception of this destructive capacity not only diminished the temperature of the “Cold War” between the two major actors of the bipolar system, but also clearly revealed the relative usefulness of nuclear weapons. Therefore, it is the technical-military component (the nuclear weapons) that kept the “Cold War” “cold” and helped define the very basis of the concept itself rather than the ideological component (capitalism versus communism). The objective of this doctorate thesis is to move beyond the concept of the “Cold War” and investigate the role of the “Cold War” and its byproducts in Brazil during the period of 1945-60, and in doing so provide a greater understanding of how Brazil specifically and Latin America in general lost their strategic importance during the post-war period. It is also my objective to analyze the usefulness of one of the internalization mechanisms of that loss – the so-called “atomic bargain” – by nationalists, communists and entreguistas, as well as the posture of these same historical actors in the face of the Brazilian strategic renaissance at the end of the 1950s, when the island of Fernando de Noronha was loaned to the United States. The research reveals that the atomic ores were not a good bargaining instrument to reverse the loss of Brazil’s strategic importance. This study also reveals that Brazil’s best bargaining chip since World War II – the island of Fernando de Noronha – was either wasted or undervalued by the Brazilian government. The prominence of the “Cold War” ideological component in historiography – readily acknowledged today – obfuscates the underlying crucial elements which were the looming threat of atomic and thermonuclear weapons (or “the irradiating focus of the ‘Cold War’”).

Key-words:

Brazil - United States political relations – “Cold War” – Atomic and thermonuclear weapons.

Paper given at the 2017 HOTCUS Annual Conference at University College Dublin.

The 1975 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) saw an unprecedented display of international cooperation in space when American and Soviet spacecraft docked together in orbit. Outer space had long been synonymous with the future in both the American and Soviet imaginations and Apollo-Soyuz drew on these associations. The “handshake in space” was intended to be a visionary dramatisation of detente, Nixon and Ford’s policy of reducing Cold War tensions by entangling the USSR in a web of cooperative agreements. Detente’s supporters contended the project’s three years of intense cooperation between the former space race adversaries was an exemplary form of US-Soviet collaboration. If we can live and work together in space, went the argument, why not on earth?

This paper explores ideas that I hope to adapt into a journal article and was commended with an “Honourable Mention” from the HOTCUS Committee in the competition for best postgraduate conference paper. It examines the ideology behind Apollo-Soyuz and how its architects claimed its extremely specific form of scientific-technical cooperation was a blueprint that could be followed in wider US-Soviet relations. Apollo-Soyuz was held as the realisation of astronaut-cosmonaut kinship, an emotive and unbreakable bond between spacefarers that transcended ideological rivalry. Detente was construed as politicians catching up to a certainty that space travellers were supposedly well aware of: all men were brothers.  Ultimately, though, Apollo-Soyuz’s model of cooperation was not robust enough to survive the challenge posed by a decline in US-Soviet relations.  NASA had characterised space cooperation as a unique “window” to the USSR’s scientific-technical elite but, in an increasingly tense and mistrustful atmosphere, detente’s critics were able to caricature the ASTP as a conduit for Soviet technological espionage. The Apollo-Soyuz blueprint collapsed under the weight of the grand expectations placed on it and proved to be an anomaly during the Cold War rather than the beginning of a new cooperative paradigm.

The cold war took the world by strides after Second World War and continued till early 1990's until the disintegration of the USSR, More than a war, it was an ideological conflict. It was a conflict between what was a better way to run the world-Capitalism or Communism. Cold war refers to a situation where the countries are not actually at war with each other but still tensions prevail between them. It was a decade's long struggle for global domination and impacted each and every aspect of the world from politics to society and from economy to the science. The cold war resulted in the space war between the two power blocs in order to prove their supremacy before the world. During the cold war years a number of missions were undertaken both by the USA and USSR to prove their supremacy. Moreover at the same time so as to prevent the indiscriminate misuse of the space a number of treaties and conventions also came into the picture. This paper focuses on what cold war was and how it resulted in the space war. Along with this various space missions and treaty conventions have also been dealt it detail.

Der Weltraum war nicht immer da, sondern ist ein Produkt des 20. Jahrhunderts. Lange vor dem Kalten Krieg entstand im Wechselspiel von Astrokultur, Zukunftsdenken und Raumfahrttechnik ein Imaginationsraum, der bis heute als Projektionsfläche und Sehnsuchtsort fasziniert.

This article approaches the poetic development between J. H. Prynne’s The
White Stones and Brass. It explores this development through the use of
cosmology in both books. It traces the figure of the stars across The White
Stones and into their appearance in ‘The Ideal Star-Fighter’ in Brass. It
examines how the stars start as figures of patience and become the
instantiation of an urgent moral imperative. This image of the stars as a figure of eschaton is contrasted to Prynne’s comments on Charles Olson’s Maximus IV, V, VI, to highlight their distinctions. It then articulates how with ‘The Ideal Star-Fighter’ this former cosmological imperative twists into a lament. The poem is examined as a work that exhibits sharp contrasts between two modes of poetic thought, as being trapped between two tendencies within Prynne’s writing. The impossibility of the moral imperative is explored through the context of technological advancements that were made possible by the experiments of scientific cosmology, especially in relation to the Cold War and the Vietnam War. Through close reading of particular poems in combination with archival materials, it aims to contextualise the shift within Prynne’s poetic thought by ventilating the work through its historical context.

The subject of this paper are printed clothing and accessories produced by Russian fashion brands known as streetwear brands in the 2010s — early 2020s and dedicated to space heroes such as Yuri Gagarin and to the history of space exploration. This paper conceptualizes streetwear fashion as a field where popular knowledge about space and the history of its exploration can be manifested and at the same time where such knowledge is popularized or even produced. The paper analyzes the iconography of space developed by Russian streetwear fashion: which heroes and events are the most popular in this field of cultural production, how they are depicted and in which contexts they are embedded. It also compares the iconography of space introduced in this field with the Soviet canon of memory about space exploration and with Soviet iconography of cosmonautics. As my analysis shows, Russian streetwear brands regularly refer to the history of space exploration as a source of ideas and images for their collections, and not only on anniversaries. At the same time, the circle of the most popular heroes and events is quite narrow: these are Yuri Gagarin, the launch of the first Sputnik, and the flight of the two Soviet space dogs, Belka and Strelka. Other people or projects are notably less popular. The transformation of the Soviet canon of commemorated space exploration history is also clearly seen. New types of space
iconography appear, and the typology of sources of inspiration is becoming more diverse and includes different kinds of Soviet material culture dedicated to the conquest of space, such as architecture, sculpture and philately.

Appunti per una fantascienza del cielo vuoto Introduzione La fantascienza cinematografica contemporanea costituisce un soggetto estremamente complesso: grazie ad una duttilità intrinseca, la sua iconografia ha finito per pollinare un gran numero di narrazioni, a volte difficilmente riconducibili alla matrice originale. Al caos classificatorio si aggiunge una sovrapposizione di differenti estetiche provenienti dal passato del genere, che finiscono per convivere in produzioni appartenenti al medesimo momento storico: la serie TV Altered Carbon (Netflix, 2018) o il sequel tardivo di Blade Runner (Ridley Scott, 1982) ad opera di Dennis Villeneuve ripropongono un immaginario cyberpunk, mentre Valerian e la città dei mille pianeti (Valérian et la Cité des mille planètes, Luc Besson, 2017) e l'ennesima trilogia di Guerre stellari portano avanti il vetusto filone della space opera. Questa sovrapposizione di futuri rende difficile la delineazione di una corrente precisa con cui identificare la fantascienza contemporanea. La maggior parte delle produzioni audiovisive legate al sci-fi, che si tratti di space opera, hard sci-fi o cyberpunk, propone un'idea di avvenire non più credibile, frutto di paure e suggestioni di cui oggi restano solo echi lontani. Negativi di presenti sbiaditi, oggi le estetiche sopra citate reclamano la propria teca nello smisurato museo dei generi filmici, di fianco a fantasy, western, horror e tutti gli altri idioletti dei racconti contemporanei. La loro ipostatizzazione in linguaggi ben definiti sottolinea come abbiano esaurito la loro funzione di futuro possibile, capace di conversare attivamente con il presente che lo ha originato senza scadere nel becero escapismo. Ad un primo sguardo, pare che il sci-fi contemporaneo abbia perso la sua capacità di immaginare il domani, una prospettiva che innerva l'intera cultura contemporanea come intuito da Mark Fisher: mentre la cultura sperimentale del ventesimo secolo era preda di un delirio ricombinatorio che dava l'impressione che la novità fosse disponibile all'infinito, il ventunesimo secolo è oppresso da un soffocante senso di finitezza e sfinimento. Non si ha affatto l'impressione di trovarsi nel futuro. O in alternativa, non si ha l'impressione che il ventunesimo secolo sia già cominciato. 1 Un tentativo di sviluppare una fantascienza radicata nel presente proviene dalle pellicole che propongono l'immagine di una tecnologia smart, facile da usare, perfettamente integrata all'interno della quotidianità e dotata di un design accattivante. Pellicole come Lei (Her, Spike Jonze, 2013) 1 M. Fisher, Spettri della mia vita: scritti su depressione, hauntologia e futuri perduti, Roma, Minimum Fax, 2019, p.19.

Russia is historically and technologically a world leader in space. It is also a strategic partner for Europe. Since the 1990s, Russia has changed and its partnerships have evolved. This transformation strongly impacts the space field and the country’s space cooperation. Russia and Europe have structured and increased their cooperation in the last decade and some Europeans are advocating closer cooperation with Russia and even a joint strategy for the development of their space activities. At the same time, Russia has reinforced its cooperation with the two fastest growing nations, India and China.
This paper gives an insight on the growing cooperation between three countries that are also the three fastest growing economies in the Eurasian region as well as in the world.

In this article I show how the revolving restaurant view can be investigated media archeologically as an optical device. As a methodology media archeology enables me to “discover” or unpack hidden connections between architectural structures, mobile mechanical observation units and information technology, allowing the concept of the cinematic to be a concern also of the architectural. This preliminary comment is part of a bigger project where I show how a media archeologically motivated analysis of the parallel development of kinetic structures, aerial rides and new imaging technologies have the potential to confront and open up new perspectives on the increasing aero-visual predominance in our culture and society.

This chapter responds to the urgency for reflecting on the large-scale ethical and ecological implications, socio-political challenges and technological preconditions of space migration , by highlighting the importance of treating outer space in relation to Earth, and not as a separated otherness. Instead of the utilitarian view, which perceives space as the ultimate resource, this chapter will engage with an onto-epistemological standpoint inspired by Heidegger’s definition of technology: outer space will be thus accessed as “a way of revealing”, allowing for an original understanding of this notion in the processual constitution of human and posthuman identities. In the first section, this chapter will demonstrate that, in the ancient world, astronomical insights were crucial to the perception of the Earth and to the development of human civilizations. The second section will underline how, in the space race, humans lost their ontological primacy, in relation to non-human animals and robots; it will also critically analyze the history of humans in space according to practices of discrimination such as: anthropocentrism , sexism and racism. The third section will highlight how space pragmatics should be revised by developing sustainable space technologies in order to comply with the theoretical principles of the “Outer Space Treaty” (1967), expanding the beneficial vision of space exploration, from humans and Earth, to non-human beings and non-human agents, including other planets. The dynamics of space migration will be inquired by reconciling the varied philosophical landscape of the posthuman, bridging different schools of thought such as: Posthumanism, Transhumanism, New Materialism and Object-Oriented Ontology.

Der Wettlauf ins All, das sogenannte Space Race, war vom ersten künstlichen Satelliten im Orbit 1957 bis zum ersten Mann auf dem Mond 1969 ein zentraler Kampfplatz des Kalten Krieges. Im Falle der Sowjetunion verband sich die Eroberung des Weltraums mit dem Glauben an die Überlegenheit des Sozialismus und den Aufbau einer neuen, " besseren " Gesellschaft. Auch in der DDR wurden die Errungenschaften der Sowjetunion auf diesem Gebiet rezipiert und später durch technische Zuarbeit (insbesondere des VEB Carl Zeiss Jena) und personelle Zusammenarbeit aktiv unterstützt. Im Zentrum des Dissertationsprojekts steht die in der DDR in unterschiedlichen Medien inszenierte künstlerische Auseinandersetzung mit der Eroberung des Weltraums, zum Bei-spiel auf Wandbildern, Gemälden, Plakaten, Postkarten oder Briefmarken. Dieses zentrale Thema der DDR-Fortschrittspropagierung ist bisher noch nicht systematisch erfasst und aufgearbeitet worden. Untersucht wird das Wechselverhältnis von Utopie, Imagination und Realität in den Raumfahrtbildern, ihre Rolle als Bestandteil politischer Ikonographie sowie die Frage nach Herrschafts-und Technikdiskursen, die sich in den Bildern und Bild-motiven manifestieren. Ziel des Dissertationsvorhabens ist zum einen die Lokalisierung und systematische Aufar-beitung der DDR-Kunstproduktion mit Raumfahrtbezug in verschiedenen Kunstgattungen und zum anderen die Untersuchung ihres historischen und symbolischen Gehalts. Gleich-zeitig sollen die Raumfahrtbilder nicht nur als Propagandamittel im Kalten Krieg verstanden werden, sondern Einblick in eine Zeit technischen und technisierten Umbruchs gewähren und somit zur Moderne-Forschung beitragen. Es gilt, die Raumfahrtbilder der DDR zu his-torisieren und in Bezug zu setzen zu Weltraum-und Raumfahrtvorstellungen seit der Frü-hen Neuzeit und zu politischen, kulturellen sowie sozialen Entwicklungen in der DDR. Da-rüber hinaus soll auch die zeitgleiche künstlerische Auseinandersetzung mit Raumfahrt in anderen Staaten nicht außer Acht gelassen werden.

El 12 de junio de 1961, el piloto soviético Yuri Gagarin se convirtió en el primer ser humano en viajar al
espacio ultraterrestre. Eran los tiempos de la guerra fría y de una rivalidad estratégica, política,
económica e ideológica de grandes vuelos entre Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética, en que el acceso
al espacio ultraterrestre estaba reservado a los Estados tecnológicamente más avanzados y
poderosos. 60 años después, la renovada carrera espacial es cualitativa -y cuantitativamente- distinta:
cierto, los Estados siguen siendo actores destacados, pero el acceso al espacio ultraterrestre se ha
democratizado -o, al menos, hay más actores que pueden incursionar en él- y confluyen intereses de
corporaciones privadas, de particulares, de súper millonarios, amén de los de carácter militar y
delincuencial y todos ellos comprometen la sustentabilidad del espacio ultraterrestre, lo que podría
tener serias consecuencias para la seguridad internacional dada la divergencia de intereses que cada
uno de estos actores persigue.

For much of the twentieth century, outer space and spaceflight have captured the human imagination and constituted the epitome of modernity. The volumes in this pioneering trilogy – Imagining Outer Space, Limiting Outer Space and Militarizing Outer Space – explore utopian imaginaries, futuristic technologies and extraterrestrial encounters from the turn of the century through the Post-Apollo period and the Cold War, both in Western Europe and beyond. Bringing together cutting-edge scholarship by leading experts, they establish astroculture as an exciting field of transdisciplinary research and break new ground in the historicization of the global Space Age.

Volumes I and II were published in spring 2018, volume III in winter 2021.


"All three volumes are highly recommended to those interested in how space exploration has affected culture and vice versa. I expect astroculture to grow in importance, both as a cultural phenomenon and as an area of study."
– Steven J. Dick, Former NASA Chief Historian and Library of Congress Baruch S. Blumberg Chair

"This ambitious publication program opens up new vistas in the cultural history of the Space Age, moving outward from accounts that prioritize the rivalry between the US and the Soviet Union."
– De Witt Douglas Kilgore, Science Fiction Studies

"Without question, astrocultural investigation is one of the more interesting and original efforts to restructure spaceflight history in the early twentyfirst century."
– Roger D. Launius, Technology and Culture

What happens when we stop and pick up one object
— for instance, the Friendship 7 spaceship with John
Glenn inside? What happens when we put it in a museum,
when we let the museum grow online? Seven topics that become visible, from medieval procession practices to Cold War bodies to online presence of things past. "Materiality" is one chapter in a conceptual volume on memory, memory studies and the elements that constitute the discussion in the field.

Abstract: This essay investigates the emergence of a profusion of lay and specialist
literature in the late 1950s United States advocating on behalf of “gifted”
and “academically talented” students. This call to reform schools around individual
differences in “intelligence” was associated in its moment with the Sputnik
crisis and the passage of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA). The
essay demonstrates, however, that the emergence of intensified interest in education
for the “academically talented” was actually closely coterminous with
Brown v. Board of Education and should also be understood in the context of early
efforts to desegregate the public schools. It holds that a closer look at the NDEA—
and a supporting body of literature working in tandem with it—reveals continuities
in psychometric conceptions of “intelligence” and testing from the interwar
period into the post–World War II era. This essay thus makes contributions to the
historiographies of the Cold War, civil rights, psychometrics, and education in
the 1950s.

The race of two superpowers, the USSR and the USA, for their superiority in conquering the Moon was accomplished in the tacit conviction that the Moon is a no man's land. However, in reality, it is the undivided fiefdom of the people of Heaven, in whose secret power we both abide and the Earth. Therefore, having defeated the Soviet Union in the Lunar race, the United States retreated before the Lunar Lord, who appeared unexpectedly, remaining WITH VICTORY, BUT WITHOUT THE MOON. // Гонка двух сверхдержав, СССР и США, за первенство в покорении Луны вершилась в молчаливом убеждении, что Луна есть ничейная область.  Однако на деле она — безраздельная вотчина народа Неба, в чьей власти, нам тайной, и мы и Земля. Посему, одолев в Лунной гонке Советский Союз, США отступили пред лунным Владыкой, представшим нежданно, оставшись С ПОБЕДОЮ, НО БЕЗ ЛУНЫ.