There are two families of dopamine (DA) receptors, called D1 and D2, respectively. The D1 family consists of D1- and D5-receptor subtypes and the D2 family consists of D2-, D3-, and D4-receptor subtypes. The amino acid sequences of these... more
There are two families of dopamine (DA) receptors, called D1 and D2, respectively. The D1 family consists of D1- and D5-receptor subtypes and the D2 family consists of D2-, D3-, and D4-receptor subtypes. The amino acid sequences of these receptors show that they all belong to a large superfamily of receptors with seven transmembrane domains, which are coupled to their
Male reproductive system is immunoprivileged and has special immune microenvironment to protect the testicular cells including the germ cells. A wide range of microorganisms are identified that can infect male reproductive tissues via... more
Male reproductive system is immunoprivileged and has special immune microenvironment to protect the testicular cells including the germ cells. A wide range of microorganisms are identified that can infect male reproductive tissues via hematogenous dissemination as well as male genitourinary tract, and severely impair reproductive functions. Testis is equipped with unique innate immune system to overcome its immunoprivileged state in case of testicular microbial infection. The testicular cells, mainly the Leydig cells, Sertoli cells and germ cells reportedly express components of innate immune system and their counteracting regulatory system. The innate immune responses are mostly mediated by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), among which the toll-like receptors (TLRs) have crucial role in the testis. Various TLRs have been shown to express in the testicular cells, especially in Leydig and Sertoli cells and initiate appropriate innate immune responses. If the intricate balance of immune responsiveness and suppression in the testicular tissue is disrupted, it may result in inflammation which is an essential etiological factor of male infertility. Since the concept on the association of TLRs with male infertility is unclear, the present review article aims to synthesize a concise overview on the expression, functions and signalling pathways of testicular TLRs and their impact upon male fertility.
The discovery of carboxylic acid metabolites of the cannabinoids (CBs) dates back more than three decades. Their lack of psychotropic activity was noted early on, and this resulted in a total absence of further research on their possible... more
The discovery of carboxylic acid metabolites of the cannabinoids (CBs) dates back more than three decades. Their lack of psychotropic activity was noted early on, and this resulted in a total absence of further research on their possible role in the actions of the CBs. More recent studies have revealed that the acids possess both analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties and may contribute to the actions of the parent drug. A synthetic analog showed similar actions at considerably lower doses. In this review, a brief survey of the extensive literature on metabolism of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol to the acids is presented, while more emphasis is given to the recent findings on the biological actions of this class of CBs. A possible mechanism involving effects on eicosanoids for some of these actions is also suggested. Finally, an analogy with a putative metabolite of anandamide, an endogenous CB, is discussed.
Heavy cannabis use has been frequently associated with increased rates of mental illness and cognitive impairment, particularly amongst adolescent users. However, the neurobiological processes that underlie these associations are still... more
Heavy cannabis use has been frequently associated with increased rates of mental illness and cognitive impairment, particularly amongst adolescent users. However, the neurobiological processes that underlie these associations are still not well understood. In this review, we discuss the findings of studies examining the acute and chronic effects of cannabis use on the brain, with a particular focus on the impact of commencing use during adolescence. Accumulating evidence from both animal and human studies suggests that regular heavy use during this period is associated with more severe and persistent negative outcomes than use during adulthood, suggesting that the adolescent brain may be particularly vulnerable to the effects of cannabis exposure. As the endocannabinoid system plays an important role in brain development, it is plausible that prolonged use during adolescence results in a disruption in the normative neuromaturational processes that occur during this period. We identi...
Objective structured practical examination (OSPE) a new assessment tool has been implemented in a few medical colleges. This method of assessment was planned to be implemented in our medical college, before which the authors planned to... more
Objective structured practical examination (OSPE) a new
assessment tool has been implemented in a few medical colleges.
This method of assessment was planned to be implemented in our
medical college, before which the authors planned to compare the
scores obtained by the students by conventional method of
examination and OSPE. The marks obtained by the two methods
of examination were compared and a feedback was collected from
students to study their perspective towards OSPE. There was
statistically significant difference in the mean of the scores
obtained by conventional method and that of OSPE. The students’
perception about OSPE was good. This study enabled the authors
to standardize the pattern of OSPE and implement it.
Reactive metabolites from carcinogens and oxidative stress can drive genetic mutations, genomic instability, neoplastic transformation, and ultimately carcinogenesis. Numerous dietary phytochemicals in vegetables/fruits have been shown to... more
Reactive metabolites from carcinogens and oxidative stress can drive genetic mutations, genomic instability, neoplastic transformation, and ultimately carcinogenesis. Numerous dietary phytochemicals in vegetables/fruits have been shown to possess cancer chemopreventive effects in both preclinical animal models and human epidemiological studies. These phytochemicals could prevent the initiation of carcinogenesis via either direct scavenging of reactive oxygen species/reactive nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) or, more importantly, the induction of cellular defense detoxifying/antioxidant enzymes. These defense enzymes mediated by Nrf2-antioxidative stress and anti-inflammatory signaling pathways can contribute to cellular protection against ROS/RNS and reactive metabolites of carcinogens. In addition, these compounds would kill initiated/transformed cancer cells in vitro and in in vivo xenografts via diverse anti-cancer mechanisms. These mechanisms include the activation of signaling kinase...
Over the past recent years, a great number of studies have been directed toward the evaluation of the human host-gut microbiota interaction, with the goal to progress the understanding of the etiology of several complex diseases.... more
Over the past recent years, a great number of studies have been directed toward the evaluation of the human host-gut microbiota interaction, with the goal to progress the understanding of the etiology of several complex diseases. Alterations in the intestinal microbiota associated with inflammatory bowel disease are well supported by literature data and have been widely accepted by the research community. The concomitant implementation of high-throughput sequencing techniques to analyze and characterize the composition of the intestinal microbiota has reinforced the view that inflammatory bowel disease results from altered interactions between gut microbes and the mucosal immune system and has raised the possibility that some form of modulation of the intestinal microbiota may constitute a potential therapeutic basis for the disease. The aim of this review is to describe the changes of gut microbiota in inflammatory bowel disease, focusing the attention on its involvement in the pat...
