Firdaus

WeekAli
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CHAPTER 1:
SEMICONDUCTOR

phyrdows@yahoo.com
0 Describe the general knowledge on semiconductor and
the theory of its
operational together with the development of P-Type and N-Type
semiconductor

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1.0

INTRODUCTION

This unit is the unit for this module which consists of 11 units in total.
Hopefully, you can understand the whole units gradually.
In this unit, we will discuss about the features and electrical properties of
semiconductors as it is widely used in electronic circuits and are often
concerned with daily life.
The structure of the atom is the smallest element of a substance. Atomic
structure model was introduced by Niels Bohr in 1913. According to this model,
the negatively charged elements moving in a circle or ellipse around a positively
charged nucleus. (See Figure 1.0a):

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1.1

WHAT IS SEMICONDUCTOR AND ITS EXAMPLE:

To help us identify the nature of the semiconductor, we have to study
the atomic structure of the material in advance.

1.1.1 Atomic Structure

In the atom, there is a maximum of 7 layers orbit (or shell). Each
layer in known as the K, L, M, N, O, P and Q (or 17). The maximum
number of electron in the orbit determined by the formula:

2 x n2

n is the number of positions.

So.the maximum number of electrons in each layer are:

Layer K ( 1 )
Layer L ( 2 )
Layer M ( 3 )
Layer N ( 4 )
Layer O ( 5 )
Layer P ( 6 )
Layer Q ( 7 )

: 2 x 12
: 2 x 22
: 2 x 32
: 2 x 42
: 2 x 52
: 2x 62
: 2 x 72

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

2
8
18
32
50
72
98

Example 1:
Aluminium containing 13 electrons, so determine the number of
electrons present in each layer:
Layer K : 2 electrons
+13

Layer L : 8 electrons

2 + 8 + 3 = 13

Layer M: 3 electrons
(The maximum number of electrons
that can be filled in this layer is 18 but
due to the remaining electron left is 3
so the electrons present in this layer
only 3)

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The outermost layer of one atomic layer called valence electrons

in the layer and is known as valence electrons (it is the current carrier).
This layer will not accommodate more than 8 valence electrons. The
number of electrons vales is what will determine the electrical
properties of a material. (Refer Figure 1.0 ) :
Contain
1 - 3 electron
valens

5 8 electron
valens

4 electron valens

Material
Properties
Conductor

Insulator

Semiconductor

Notes

Be able to conduct electricity.

Have low resistance to facilitate

the flow of current
Atoms tend to release valence
electrons and become free
electrons move from one atom to
another.

Do not conduct electric current.

Have a high resistivity.

Atoms tend to receive electrons

from other atoms vales to fill the
valence layer and make it as
stable atom and capable of
avoiding any electrical or
chemical activity.

The situation is intermediate

between conductors and
insulators.
It is not easy to remove /
receive valence electrons from
other atoms.

1.1.2 Silicon and Germanium as Example for Semiconductor.

After this, we will see more about semiconductors as it is widely
used in the manufacture of electronic components (eg. diodes,
transistors and integrated circuits).
In manufacturing, the semiconductor material that is often used
is Silicon and Germanium.
Let's look at the atomic structure of silicon and germanium.
(Refer to Figure 1.2 and 1.3).
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Valence layer that contains 4 electron valens.

32
14

Figure 1.2: Atomic Structure for Silicon

Figure 1.3: Atomic Structure for Germanium

Based on the diagram, we can see the final layer (layer valence)
both contain 4 next atom valence electrons. For your information, the
valence electrons are the current carriers.
If one atom has four valence electrons it is considered unstable.
It will try to complete the valence electrons from 4 to 8 valence
electrons by atoms and electrons share. Sharing of electrons is called
"covalent bonds".

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1.1.2.1

Covalents Bond:
Figure 1.4 shows the arrangement of atoms of
silicon atoms. (Since conditions that determine the nature
of semiconductor or not is dependent on the valence
electrons in the valence layer only, then we summarize by
simply drawing a diagram of the outer lining only)

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Figure 1.4: Covalent Bond

Try to say the number of electrons present in

silicon atoms in the central part of which has been
occupying all the electrons with neighboring atoms.
You will find that it looks as if has 8 valence electrons.
This makes each individual atom is stable and
strong ties. It will behave as if the insulation at room
temperature. But there are several factors that can
destabilize the atom is the factor of heat, the
temperature rises, the potential difference and the
absorption process.
If a small voltage is supplied through this material,
only a small current will be built (few free electrons).
Suddenly the temperature rises, electrons will leave
the fold. At the same time, there is still a small voltage
applied, this will cause no current flows (the movement
of free electrons). At this time it will be as if a
conductor.

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When compared between silicon and germanium, silicon can receive more
heat before it becomes a conductor.
So as the consumer require a power supply input (and can generate heat),
most of the components are made from silicon semiconductor.

Tips:

The maximum number of electrons in one layer is

determined by the following formula:
2 x n2
The valence electrons in the valence layer determines
the properties of a material, whether conductor,
insulator or semiconductor.
- Conductors: 1-3 e.v
- Insulation: 5-8 e.v
- Semi-Conductors: 4 e.v
The nature of the semiconductor located between the
insulation and conductivity properties. It is not easy to
release electrons as conductor and he would not easily
accept electrons such as insulation.
Example: 2 semi-conductor that is often used is Silicon
and Germanium.

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TEST YOURSELF!

Question:
1a-1. What factors distinguish that a substance is a conductor, semiconductor or
insulator?
1a-2. Match customize with your spouse following diagram and descriptions.
Helium has
two electrons.

Carbon has 6
electrons.

L1 : __
L2 : __
L3 : __
L4 : __
L5 : __
L6 : __
L7 : __

L1 : __
L2 : __
L3 : __
L4 : __
L5 : __
L6 : __
L7 : __

32

Conductor

Insulator
Germanium
has 32
electrons.

Phosphorus
has 16
electrons.

L1 : __
L2 : __
L3 : __
L4 : __
L5 : __
L6 : __
L7 : __

L1 : __
L2 : __
L3 : __
L4 : __
L5 : __
L6 : __
L7 : __

Semiconductor

- Its characteristics
are between
conductor and
insulator.
- It is not easy to
throw or receive
the valence
electrons from
other atoms.

- Can drain current.

- Odds low.
- The free electrons
happy regardless
of ties.

- Cannot drain
- Current.
- Higher Odds
- Atom stable

1a-3. __________and ____________ atom contain ____ electron valens and it is

________________. It tries to be stable by ____________ electron with other
atoms.

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Answer:
1a-1. The distinguishing factor between conductors, semiconductors and insulators
is the number of valence electrons in the valence layer.
1a-2.
Helium has
two electrons.

Carbon has 6
electrons.

Germanium
has 32
electrons.

Phosphorus
has 16
electrons.

L1 : _2_
L2 : _-_
L3 : _-_
L4 : _-_
L5 : _-_
L6 : _-_
L7 : _-_
L1 : _2_
L2 : _4_
L3 : _-_
L4 : _-_
L5 : _-_
L6 : _-_
L7 : _-_

32

Conductor
+6

Insulator

L1 : _2_
L2 : _8_
L3 : _4_
L4 : __
L5 : __
L6 : __
L7 : __
L1 : _2
L2 : _8_
L3 : _5_
L4 : __
L5 : __
L6 : __
L7 : __

Semiconductor

- Its characteristics
are between
conductor and
insulator.
- It is not easy to
throw or receive
the valence
electrons from
other atoms.
- Can drain current.
- Odds low.
- The free electrons
happy regardless
of ties.
- Cannot drain
- Current.
- Higher Odds
- Atom stable

+6

1a-3. Germanium and silicon atoms contain 4 valence electrons, and it is not stable.
It tries to be stable by sharing electrons with other atoms.

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1.2

N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR PROPERTIES :

Material type N and P type is formed of germanium and silicon crystals
mixed with impurity atoms.
Before that, for a better understanding of the formation of both these
materials, let us consider first some basic things to be known for the formation
of N and P:

1.2.1 Current Carrier : Free Electron and Hole :

If Covalent disturbed because one of the factors mentioned
earlier, there are electrons that are freed from bondage. (See Figure
1.5)

Hole
Free Electron

Figure 1.5: Electron Carrier Condition

Since the electron is negatively charged, then the free electrons

are known as 'carriers Flow Negative'.
The free electrons will leave an empty space that we call Hole.
This space is positively charged, so it is called 'Carrier Flow Positive'.

1.2.2 Intrinsic Semiconductor:

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Intrinsic Semiconductor is a pure semiconductor and does not

contain any foreign elements in it. For example, crystal and silicon
Germanium.
Intrinsic Semiconductor does not have any privileges.
1.2.3 Extrinsic Semiconductor:
Pure semiconductor material as described above, if mixed with
foreign materials, it would be pure again. In this situation it would be a
lot of uses.
This mixing process is known as the doping process. That is the
process of increasing the current carriers (free electrons or hole) in
semiconductors.
Impurities which used to be known as trivalent (has 3 valence
electrons) or pentavalens (has 5 valence electrons).
Examples of the trivalent impurity is aluminum, boron, gallium
and indium and impurities Pentavalens example is antimony, arsenic
and phosphorus.
Extrinsic semiconductors are widely used in the manufacture of
semiconductor components such as diodes, transistors and integrated
circuits.

1.2.4 N-Type Materials:

It happens when a pure semiconductor (eg. Silicon) embedded
with pentavalent impurity atoms (with 5 valence electrons) (see figure
1.6):

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Ar

Si

Si

Si

Si

Free electron
from arsenic
that do not have
pairs

Figure 1.6: Silicon absorbed with

arsenic.
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Four of the five valence electrons impurity atoms will form a

covalent bond with silicon atoms but there is one more electron that
does not have a partner.
These electrons will escape from its orbit and become free
electrons, ie. negative current carriers. If more pentavalent impurities
doped so much more free electrons (or negative current carriers).
This is why this material is called N-type material.
At very low temperatures the majority current carriers are free
electrons.
At room temperature and the resulting slight hole known as
minority current carriers.

1.2.5 P-Type Materials:

In contrast to the N-type, P-type material is also produced
when pure semiconductor doped with trivalent impurities. (refer to
Figure 1.7)

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

In

Si

Si

Si

Si

Hole

Figure 1.7: Silicons Absorbed with

Indium.

From the figure we can see that three silicon atoms allows the
covalent bonds except one because of lack of valence electrons of
impurities. This led to the formation of vacancy hole, ie. positive current
carriers.

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More trivalent impurity atoms doped, the more positive the

current carrier, which is why it is called P-type material.
At very low temperatures, the current carrier is majority-hole and
at very high temperatures, minority current carriers are electrons.

KEY FACTS:
SEMICONDUCTOR
Doping process

INTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTOR

EXTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTOR

Genuine semiconductor
Ex.: Silicon and Germanium

Normal (Not special)

Trivalens

- Atom contains 3 e.v

- Ex.: Aluminium and Indium
Trivalen +
Genuine
Semiconductor

P-Type Material

Majority current carrier Hole

Minority current carrier - Electron

Genuine semiconductor that

mixed with impurities
2 types of impurities:

Pentavalens

- Atom contains 5 e.v

- Ex.: Antimony and Arsenic
Pentavalen +
Genuine
Semiconductor
N-Type Material

Majority current carrier Electron

Minority current carrier - Hole

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Equality of P-Type and N-Type Materials:

- Both built from same raw material : silicon or germanium
- Both produced through doping process (absorption)
- Both have a free electron and Hole as charge carriers.

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TEST YOURSELF!
Question 1:
Draw a diagram of the atomic structure of:
a) Germanium which has no atom 32.
b) who has no atom of silicon 14.
And state the nature of these materials.
Question 2:
What covalent bonds and draw a diagram to show covalent bonds for Germanium.
Question 3:
Give FOUR (4) factors that allow electrons free from covalent bonds.
Question 4:
To enable the N-type material and the resulting, pure semiconductors need to be
absorbed by impurities. Is it of impurities and explain each one and give an example
diagram that describes a pure semiconductor absorbed by one of the impurities.
Question 5:
Specify the majority and minority current carriers for N and P-type material.

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Answer 1:

32
14

Atomic structure
for germanium

Atomic structure
for silicon

Both materials are semiconductors because both have four valence electrons.
The nature of the material is not easily relinquish it easier electron conductor and it is
also not easily accept electrons easily as insulation.
Answer 2:
Covalent bonds is the process of sharing valence electrons of an atom with
valence electrons to neighboring atoms one atom is in a stable condition.
Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Covalent Bonds

Answer 3:
Factors which allows electrons free from covalent bonds are:
i. Heat
ii. Change Efforts
iii. The rise in temperature
iv. The absorption process.

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Answer 4:
Impurities mean the other atoms that have 5 and 3 valence electrons. We call
it the trivalent impurities (3 ev) and impurities Pentavalens (5 ev)
Examples of the
trivalent impurities are aluminum, boron, gallium, indium.
Examples of impurities Pentavalens is Antimony, Arsenic, Phosphorus.

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

In

Si

Si

Si

Si

Hole

Silicons absorbed with indium.

Answer 5:
Material Type N:
Carrier Flow majority: Free Electron
Minority Carrier Flow: Hole
Material Type P:
Majority Carrier Flow: Hole
Minority Carrier Flow: Free Electron.

Chapter 1: semiconductor | DJM2032 Electronic System