Presented By, 1) GARAD GANESH SHAHURAJ 2) JADHAV HEMANT SAMPAT

Project Guide :
Mrs. Kasar S.A. Mrs.Kadbane A.S

CERTIFICATE
B.Sc (COMPUTER SCINCE)

This is certify that Mr. GARAD GANESH SHAHURAJ , Mr. JADHAV HEMANT SAMPAT of BATCH-B from FY BCS class satisfactory completed the ELECTRONICS COMMON PROJECT laid by the PUNE University during academic year 2012-2013.

BATCH INCHARGE

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

INTERAL EXAMINER

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

SR. NO.
1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

TITLE
[A] MESURING INSTRUMENT STUDY OF DMM STUDY OF SIGNAL GENERATOR STUDY OF CRO [B] STUDY OF COMPONENT RESISTOR CAPACITOR STUDY OF INDUCTOR STUDY OF BJT STUDY OF UJT STUDY OF DIODE STUDY OF LOGIC GATE STUDY OF PCB STUDY OF CABLE STUDY OF SWITCHES STUDY OF FLIP-FLOP

PAGE NO.
5-8 9-11 12-14 16-18 19-22 23-26 27-29 30-31 32-45 46 47-51 52-57 58-61 62-67

MESURING INSTRUMENT

Digital Multimeter

Multimeter is a combination of a multirange DC voltmeter, multirange AC voltmeter, multirange ammeter, and multirange ohmmeter. An un-amplified analogmultimeter combines a meter movement, range resistors and switches. For an analog meter movement, DC voltage is measured with a series resistor connected between the meter movement and the circuit under test. A set of switches allows greater resistance to be inserted for higher voltage ranges. The product of the basic full-scale deflection current of the movement, and the sum of the series resistance and the movement's own resistance, gives the full-scale voltage of the range. As an example, a meter movement that required 1 milliampere for full scale deflection, with an internal resistance of 500 ohms, would, on a 10-volt range of the multimeter, have 9,500 ohms of series resistance. For analog current ranges, low-resistance shunts are connected in parallel with the meter movement to divert most of the current around the coil. Again for the case of a hypothetical 1 mA, 500 ohm movement on a 1 Ampere range, the shunt resistance would be just over 0.5 ohms. Moving coil instruments respond only to the average value of the current through them. To measure alternating current, a rectifier diode is inserted in the circuit so that the average value of current is nonzero. Since the average value and the root-mean-square value of a waveform need not be the same, simple rectifier-type circuits may only be accurate for sinusoidal waveforms. Other wave shapes require a different calibration factor to relate RMS and average value. Since practical rectifiers have non-zero voltage drop, accuracy and sensitivity is poor at low values. To measure resistance, a small battery within the instrument passes a current through the device under test and the meter coil. Since the current available depends on the state of charge of the battery, a multimeter usually has an adjustment for the ohms scale to zero it. In the usual circuit found in analogmultimeters, the meter deflection is inversely proportional to the resistance; so full-scale is 0 ohms, and high resistance corresponds to smaller deflections. The ohms scale is compressed, so resolution is better at lower resistance values.

ADVANTAGES
1They are more accurate than analog multimeters. 2They reduce reading and interpolation errors. 3The auto-polarity function can prevent problems from connecting the meter to a test circuit with the wrong polarity.

4Parallax errors are eliminated. If the pointer of an analog multimeter is viewed from a different angle, you will see a different value. This is parallax error. A digital multimeters numerical display solves this problem 5Digital multimeter displays have no moving parts. This makes them free from wear and shock failures. 6The reading speed is increased as it is easier to read. 7Unlike analog multimeters, zero adjustment is not required. 8Digital output is suitable for further processing or recording and can be useful in a rapidly increasing range of computer controlled applications. 9With the advent of Integrated circuits, the size, cost and power requirements of digital multimeters has been drastically reduced.

DISADVANTAGES
1The LCD display depends on a battery or external power source. When the battery is low, the display will be dim, making it difficult to read. 2In case of fluctuations or transients, it can record an error. 3Warming of the meter during its use can change its properties leading to errors in measured value. 4The A/D converter has a limitation on word length which can cause quantization noise giving rise to error in measured value. 5There is a voltage limitation. If it is increased beyond the limit, the meter will be damaged. 6The digital nature makes it unsuitable for adjusting tuning circuits or peaking tunable responses. 7They are expensive due to high manufacturing cost.

Quantities measured
Contemporary multimeters can measure many quantities. The common ones are: Voltage, alternating and direct, in volts. Current, alternating and direct, in amperes. The frequency range for which AC measurements are accurate must be specified. Resistance in ohms. Additionally, some multimeters measure: Capacitance in farads. Conductance in siemens. Decibels. Duty cycle as a percentage. Frequency in hertz. Inductance in henrys. Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit, with an appropriate temperature test probe, often a thermocouple. Digital multimeters may also include circuits for: Continuity tester; sounds when a circuit conducts Diodes (measuring forward drop of diode junctions), and transistors (measuring current gain and other parameters) Battery checking for simple 1.5 volt and 9 volt batteries. This is a current loaded voltage scale which simulates in-use voltage measurement. Various sensors can be attached to multimeters to take measurements such as: Light level Acidity/Alkalinity(pH) Wind speed Relative humidity

Analog

Display face of an analogmultimeter

Resolution of analogmultimeters is limited by the width of the scale pointer, parallax, vibration of the pointer, the accuracy of printing of scales, zero calibration, number of ranges, and errors due to nonhorizontal use of the mechanical display. Accuracy of readings obtained is also often compromised by miscounting division markings, errors in mental arithmetic, parallax observation errors, and less than perfect eyesight. Mirrored scales and larger meter movements are used to improve resolution; two and a half to three digits equivalent resolution is usual (and is usually adequate for the limited precision needed for most measurements). Resistance measurements, in particular, are of low precision due to the typical resistance measurement circuit which compresses the scale heavily at the higher resistance values. Inexpensive analog meters may have only a single resistance scale, seriously restricting the range of precise measurements. Typically an analog meter will have a panel adjustment to set the zero-ohms calibration of the meter, to compensate for the varying voltage of the meter battery.

Signal generator
Signal generators, also known variously as function generators, RF and microwave signal generators, pitch generators, arbitrary waveform generators, digital pattern generators or frequency generators are electronic devices that generate repeating or non-repeating electronic signals (in either the analog or digital domains). They are generally used in designing, testing, troubleshooting, and repairing electronic or electroacoustic devices; though they often have artistic uses as well. There are many different types of signal generators, with different purposes and applications (and at varying levels of expense); in general, no device is suitable for all possible applications. Traditionally, signal generators have been embedded hardware units, but since the age of multimedia-PCs, flexible, programmable software tone generators have also been available.

General purpose signal generators

Function generators

Leader Instruments LSG-15 signal generator A function generator is a device which produces simple repetitive waveforms. Such devices contain an electronic oscillator, a circuit that is capable of creating a repetitive waveform. (Modern devices may use digital signal processing to synthesize waveforms, followed by a digital to analog converter, or DAC, to produce an analog output). The most common waveform is a sine wave, but sawtooth, step (pulse), square, and triangular waveform oscillators are commonly available as are arbitrary waveform generators (AWGs). If the oscillator operates above the audio frequency range (>20 kHz), the generator will often include some sort of modulation function such as amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), or phase modulation (PM) as well as a second oscillator that provides an audio frequency modulation waveform.

Analog signal generators

An analog RF signal generator Analog signal generators based on a sinewave oscillator were common before the inception of digital electronics, and are still used. There was a sharp distinction in purpose and design of radiofrequency and audio-frequency signal generators. RF RF signal generators are capable of producing CW (continuous wave) tones. The output frequency can usually be tuned anywhere in their frequency range. Many models offer various types of analog modulation, either as standard equipment or as an optional capability to the base unit. This could include AM, FM, M (phase modulation) and pulse modulation. Another common feature is a built-in attenuator which makes it possible to vary the signals output power. Depending on the manufacturer and model, output powers can range from -135 to +30 dBm. A wide range of output power is desirable, since different applications require different amounts of signal power. For example, if a signal has to travel through a very long cable out to an antenna, a high output signal may be needed to overcome the losses through the cable and still have sufficient power at the antenna. But when testing receiver sensitivity, a low signal level is required to see how the receiver behaves under low signal-to-noise conditions. RF signal generators are available as benchtop instruments, rackmount instruments, embeddable modules and in card-level formats. Mobile, field-testing and airborne applications benefit from lighter, battery-operated platforms. In automated and production testing, web-browser access, which allows multisource control, and faster frequency switching speeds improve test times and throughput. RF signal generators are required for servicing and setting up analogradio receivers, and are used for professional RF applications. AF Audio-frequency signal generators generate signals in the audio-frequency range and above. An early example was the HP200A Audio Oscillator, the first product sold by the Hewlett-Packard Company in 1939. Applications include checking frequency response of audio equipment, and many uses in the electronic laboratory. Equipment distortion can be measured using a very-low-distortion audio generator as the signal source, with appropriate equipment to measure output distortion harmonic-by-harmonic with a wave analyser, or simply total harmonic distortion. A distortion of 0.0001% can be achieved by an audio signal generator with a relatively simple circuit.[1]

10

Vector signal generators

A vector signal generator With the advent of digital communications systems, it is no longer possible to adequately test these systems with traditional analog signal generators. This has led to the development of vector signal generators, also known as digital signal generators. These signal generators are capable of generating digitally-modulated radio signals that may use any of a large number of digital modulation formats such as QAM, QPSK, FSK, BPSK, and OFDM. In addition, since modern commercial digital communication systems are almost all based on well-defined industry standards, many vector signal generators can generate signals based on these standards. Examples include GSM, W-CDMA (UMTS), CDMA2000, LTE, Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), and WiMAX (IEEE 802.16). In contrast, military communication systems such as JTRS, which place a great deal of importance on robustness and information security, typically use very proprietary methods. To test these types of communication systems, users will often create their own custom waveforms and download them into the vector signal generator to create the desired test signal.

11

Oscilloscope

Illustration showing the interior of a cathode-ray tube for use in an oscilloscope. Numbers in the picture indicate: 1. Deflection voltage electrode; 2. Electron gun; 3. Electron beam; 4. Focusing coil; 5. Phosphor-coated inner side of the screen

A Tektronix model 475A portable analog oscilloscope, a very typical instrument of the late 1970s

An oscilloscope, previously called an oscillograph,[1][2] and informally known as a scope, CRO (for cathode-ray oscilloscope), or DSO (for the more modern digital storage oscilloscope), is a type of electronic test instrument that allows observation of constantly varying signal voltages, usually as a twodimensional graph of one or more electrical potential differences using the vertical or y-axis, plotted as a function of time (horizontal or x-axis). Many signals can be converted to voltages and displayed this way. Signals are often periodic and repeat constantly, so that multiple samples of a signal which is actually varying with time are displayed as a steady picture. Many oscilloscopes (storage oscilloscopes) can also capture non-repeating waveforms for a specified time, and show a steady display of the captured segment. Oscilloscopes are commonly used to observe the exact wave shape of an electrical signal. Oscilloscopes are usually calibrated so that voltage and time can be read as well as possible by the eye. This allows the measurement of peak-to-peak voltage of a waveform, the frequency of periodic signals, the time between pulses, the time taken for a signal to rise to full amplitude (rise time), and relative timing of several related signals.[3]

Features and uses

Basic oscilloscope Description Display and general external appearance

The basic oscilloscope, as shown in the illustration, is typically divided into four sections: the display, vertical controls, horizontal controls and trigger controls. The display is usually a CRT or LCD panel which is laid out with both horizontal and vertical reference lines referred to as the graticule. In

12

addition to the screen, most display sections are equipped with three basic controls, a focus knob, an intensity knob and a beam finder button. The vertical section controls the amplitude of the displayed signal. This section carries a Volts-perDivision (Volts/Div) selector knob, an AC/DC/Ground selector switch and the vertical (primary) input for the instrument. Additionally, this section is typically equipped with the vertical beam position knob. The horizontal section controls the time base or sweep of the instrument. The primary control is the Seconds-per-Division (Sec/Div) selector switch. Also included is a horizontal input for plotting dual X-Y axis signals. The horizontal beam position knob is generally located in this section. The trigger section controls the start event of the sweep. The trigger can be set to automatically restart after each sweep or it can be configured to respond to an internal or external event. The principal controls of this section will be the source and coupling selector switches. An external trigger input (EXT Input) and level adjustment will also be included. In addition to the basic instrument, most oscilloscopes are supplied with a probe as shown. The probe will connect to any input on the instrument and typically has a resistor of ten times the oscilloscope's input impedance. This results in a .1 (-10X) attenuation factor, but helps to isolate the capacitive load presented by the probe cable from the signal being measured. Some probes have a switch allowing the operator to bypass the resistor when appropriate.[3] Size and portability Most modern oscilloscopes are lightweight, portable instruments that are compact enough to be easily carried by a single person. In addition to the portable units, the market offers a number of miniature battery-powered instruments for field service applications. Laboratory grade oscilloscopes, especially older units which use vacuum tubes, are generally bench-top devices or may be mounted into dedicated carts. Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be rack-mounted or permanently mounted into a custom instrument housing.

Types and models Cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO)

Example of an analog oscilloscope Lissajous figure, showing a harmonic relationship of 1 horizontal oscillation cycle to 3 vertical oscillation cycles.

For analog television, an analog oscilloscope can be used as a vectorscope to analyze complex signal properties, such as this display of SMPTE color bars.

13

The earliest and simplest type of oscilloscope consisted of a cathode ray tube, a vertical amplifier, a timebase, a horizontal amplifier and a power supply. These are now called "analog" scopes to distinguish them from the "digital" scopes that became common in the 1990s and 2000s.

Digital oscilloscopes

A Rigol DS2000 Series Oscilloscope. A modern low cost DSO.

While analog devices make use of continually varying voltages, digital devices employ binary numbers which correspond to samples of the voltage. In the case of digital oscilloscopes, an analog-todigital converter (ADC) is used to change the measured voltages into digital information.

Mixed-domain oscilloscopes

A Tektronix MDO4000 Mixed Domain Oscilloscope

A mixed-domain oscilloscope (or MDO) has three kinds of inputs, a small number (typically two or four) analog channels, a larger number (typically sixteen) digital channels, and one RF channel. It provides the ability to accurately time-correlate analog, digital, and RF signals with each other, and allows the user to see how the RF spectrum changes over time. Tektronix invented the MDO, and are currently the only company to offer a mixed-domain oscilloscope.

14

STUDY OF COMPONENT

15

Resistor
Resistor

A typical axial-lead resistor

Axial-lead resistors on tape. The tape is removed during assembly before the leads are formed and the part is inserted into the board. In automated assembly the leads are cut and formed.

A resistor is a passivetwo-terminalelectrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:

Where Iis the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms.

Units
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 103 ), kilohm (1 k = 103 ), and megohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage. The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in siemens (SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Hence, siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: . Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

Electronic symbols and notation

The symbol used for a resistor in a circuit diagram varies from standard to standard and country to country. Two typical symbols are as follows;

American-style symbols. (a) resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor), and (c) potentiometer

16

IEC-style resistor symbol The notation to state a resistor's value in a circuit diagram varies, too. The European notation avoids using a decimal separator, and replaces the decimal separator with the SI prefix symbol for the particular value. For example, 8k2 in a circuit diagram indicates a resistor value of 8.2 k. Additional zeros imply tighter tolerance, for example 15M0. When the value can be expressed without the need for an SI prefix, an 'R' is used instead of the decimal separator. For example, 1R2 indicates 1.2 , and 18R indicates 18 . The use of a SI prefix symbol or the letter 'R' circumvents the problem that decimal separators tend to 'disappear' when photocopying a printed circuit diagram. [edit]Theory of operation

The hydraulic analogy compares electric current flowing through circuits to water flowing through pipes. When a pipe (left) is filled with hair (right), it takes a larger pressure to achieve the same flow of water. Pushing electric current through a large resistance is like pushing water through a pipe clogged with hair: It requires a larger push (voltage drop) to drive the same flow (electric current).

Resistor colour coding

A 0 resistor, marked with a single black band.

A 2.26 kilo-ohm, 1% precision resistor with 5 color bands (E96 series), from top 2-2-6-1-1; the last two brown bands indicate the multiplier (x10), and the 1% tolerance. To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands. band A is first significant figure of component value (left side) bandB is the second significant figure (Some precision resistors have a third significant figure, and thus five bands.) band C is the decimal multiplier bandD if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means 20%)

17

Fixed resistor types

There are a number of different types of fixed resistor: Carbon composition: These types were once very common, but are now seldom used. They are formed by mixing carbon granules with a binder which was then made into a small rod. This type of resistor was large by today's standards and suffered from a large negative temperature coefficient. The resistors also suffered from a large and erratic irreversible changes in resistance as a result of heat or age. In addition to this the granular nature of the carbon and binder lead to high levels of noise being generated when current flowed. Carbon film: This resistor type is formed by "cracking" a hydrocarbon onto a ceramic former. The resulting deposited film had its resistance set by cutting a helix into the film. This made these resistors highly inductive and of little use for many RF applications. They exhibited a temperature coefficient of between -100 and -900 ppm / Celcius. The carbon film is protected either by a conformal epoxy coating or a ceramic tube. Metal film / metal oxide: This type of resistor is now the most widely used form of resistor. Rather than using a carbon film, this resistor type uses a metal film deposited on a ceramic rod. Metals such as nickel alloy, or a metal oxide such as tin oxide are deposited onto the ceramic rod. The resistance of the component is adjusted in two ways. First the thickness of the deposited layer is controlled during the initial manufacturing stages. Then it can be more accurately adjusted by cutting a helical grove in the film. Again the film is protected using a conformal epoxy coating. Wire wound: This resistor type is generally reserved for high power applications. These resistors are made by winding wire with a higher than normal resistance (resistance wire) on a former. The more expensive varieties are wound on a ceramic former and they may be covered by a vitreous or silicone enamel. This resistor type is suited to high powers and exhibits a high level of reliability at high powers along with a comparatively low level of temperature coefficient, although this will depend on a number of factors including the former, wire used, etc.. Thin film: Thin film technology is used for most of the surface mount types of resistor. As these are used in their billions these days, this makes this form of resistor technology one of the most widely used

18

Capacitor

Miniature low-voltage capacitors, by a cm ruler

A typical electrolytic capacitor

A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passivetwo-terminalelectrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Electrolytic capacitor properties

There are a number of parameters of importance beyond the basic capacitance and capacitive reactance when using electrolytic capacitors. When designing circuits using electrolytic capacitors it is necessary to take these additional parameters into consideration for some designs, and to be aware of them when using electrolytic capacitors. 1. ESR Equivalent series resistance: Electrolytic capacitors are often used in circuits where current levels are relatively high. Also under some circumstances and current sourced from them needs to have a low source impedance, for example when the capacitor is being used in a power supply circuit as a reservoir capacitor. Under these conditions it is necessary to consult the manufacturers datasheets to discover whether the electrolytic capacitor chosen will meet the requirements for the circuit. If the ESR is high, then it will not be able to deliver the required amount

19

2.

3.

4.

5.

of current in the circuit, without a voltage drop resulting from the ESR which will be seen as a source resistance. Frequency response: One of the problems with electrolytic capacitors is that they have a limited frequency response. It is found that their ESR rises with frequency and this generally limits their use to frequencies below about 100 kHz. This is particularly true for large capacitors, and even the smaller electrolytic capacitors should not be relied upon at high frequencies. To gain exact details it is necessary to consult the manufacturers data for a given part. Leakage: Although electrolytic capacitors have much higher levels of capacitance for a given volume than most other capacitor technologies, they can also have a higher level of leakage. This is not a problem for most applications, such as when they are used in power supplies. However under some circumstances they are not suitable. For example they should not be used around the input circuitry of an operational amplifier. Here even a small amount of leakage can cause problems because of the high input impedance levels of the op-amp. It is also worth noting that the levels of leakage are considerably higher in the reverse direction. Ripple current: When using electrolytic capacitors in high current applications such as the reservoir capacitor of a power supply, it is necessary to consider the ripple current it is likely to experience. Capacitors have a maximum ripple current they can supply. Above this they can become too hot which will reduce their life. In extreme cases it can cause the capacitor to fail. Accordingly it is necessary to calculate the expected ripple current and check that it is within the manufacturers maximum ratings. Tolerance: Electrolytic capacitors have a very wide tolerance. Typically this may be -50% + 100%. This is not normally a problem in applications such as decoupling or power supply smoothing, etc. However they should not be used in circuits where the exact value is of importance.

Polarisation
Unlike many other types of capacitor, electrolytic capacitors are polarised and must be connected within a circuit so that they only see a voltage across them in a particular way. The capacitors themselves are marked so that polarity can easily be seen. In addition to this it is common for the can of the capacitor to be connected to the negative terminal. It is absolutely necessary to ensure that any electrolytic capacitors are connected within a circuit with the correct polarity. A reverse bias voltage will cause the centre oxide layer forming the dielectric to be destroyed as a result of electrochemical reduction. If this occurs a short circuit will appear and excessive current can cause the capacitor to become very hot. If this occurs the component may leak the electrolyte, but under some circumstances they can explode. As this is not uncommon, it is very wise to take precautions and ensure the capacitor is fitted correctly, especially in applications where high current capability exists.

Electrolytic capacitors rating and anticipated life

Great care should be taken not to exceed the rated working voltage of an electrolytic capacitor. Normally they should be operated well below their stated working value. Also in power supply applications significant amounts of current may be drawn from them. Accordingly electrolytic capacitors intended for these applications have a ripple current rating which should also not be exceeded. If it is, then the electronic component may become excessively hot and fail. It is also worth noting that these components have a limited life. It can be as little as 1000 hours at the maximum rating. This may be considerably extended if the component is run well below its maximum rating.

Electrolytic SMD capacitors

Electrolytic capacitors are now being used increasingly in SMD designs. Their very high levels of capacitance combined with their low cost make them particularly useful in many areas. Originally they were not used in particularly high quantities because they were not able to withstand some of the soldering processes. Now improved capacitor design along with the use of reflow techniques instead of wave soldering enables electrolytic capacitors to be used more widely in surface mount format.

20

Capacitor color coding

Capacitors may be marked with 3 or more colored bands or dots. The colors encode the first and second most significant digits of the value, and the third color the decimal multiplier in picofarads. Additional bands have meanings which may vary from one type to another. Low-tolerance capacitors may begin with the first 3 (rather than 2) digits of the value. It is usually, but not always, possible to work out what scheme is used by the particular colors used. Cylindrical capacitors marked with bands may look like resistors. DC Significant Capacitance Operating Color Multiplier Characteristic working EIA/vibration digits tolerance temperature voltage 55 C to +70 Black 0 1 20% 10 to 55 Hz C Brown 1 10 1% B 100 55 C to +85 Red 2 100 2% C C Orange 3 1000 D 300 55 C to +125 10 to Yellow 4 10000 E C 2000 Hz Green 5 0.5% F 500 55 C to +150 Blue 6 C Violet 7 Grey 8 White 9 EIA Gold 5%* 1000 Silver 10% *or 0.5 pF, whichever is greater.

21

Applications of capacitors
Energy storage
A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be used like a temporary battery. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to maintain power supply while batteries are being changed. (This prevents loss of information in volatile memory.) Conventional electrostatic capacitors provide less than 360 joules per kilogram of energy density, while capacitors using developing technology can provide more than 2.52 kilojoules per kilogram.[1] In car audio systems, large capacitors store energy for the amplifier to use on demand.

Vintage paper in wax capacitor often found in antique tube radio circuits. An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) can be equipped with maintenance-free capacitors to extend service life.[2]

Pulsed power and weapons

Groups of large, specially constructed, low-inductance high-voltage capacitors (capacitor banks) are used to supply huge pulses of current for manypulsed power applications. These include electromagnetic forming, Marx generators, pulsed lasers (especially TEA lasers), pulse forming networks,radar, fusion research, and particle accelerators. Large capacitor banks(Reservoir) are used as energy sources for the exploding-bridgewire detonators or slapper detonators in nuclear weapons and other specialty weapons. Experimental work is under way using banks of capacitors as power sources for electromagnetic armour and electromagneticrailguns or coilguns.

Power conditioning
Reservoir capacitors are used in power supplies where they smooth the output of a full or half wave rectifier. They can also be used in charge pump circuits as the energy storage element in the generation of higher voltages than the input voltage. Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. This is used in car audio applications, when a stiffening capacitor compensates for the inductance and resistance of the leads to the lead-acid car battery.

Power factor correction

In electric power distribution, capacitors are used for power factor correction. Such capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a three phase load. Usually, the values of these capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a reactive power in volt-amperes reactive (VAr). The purpose is to counteract inductive loading from devices like electric motors and transmission lines to make the load appear to be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp loads may have capacitors for power factor correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually with automatic switching devices) may be installed at a load center within a building or in a large utility substation.

22

Inductor
Inductor

A selection of low-value inductors Type Passive Working principle Electromagnetic induction First production Michael Faraday (1831) Electronic symbol An inductor (also choke, coil, or reactor) is a passivetwo-terminalelectrical component that stores energy in its magnetic field. For comparison, a capacitor stores energy in an electric field, and a resistor does not store energy but rather dissipates energy as heat. Any conductor has inductance. An inductor is typically made of a wire or other conductor wound into a coil, to increase the magnetic field. When the current flowing through an inductor changes, a time-varying magnetic field is created inside the coil, and a voltage is induced, according to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, which by Lenz's law opposes the change in current that created it. Inductors are one of the basic components used in electronics where current and voltage change with time, due to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents.

Ideal and real inductors

An "ideal inductor" has inductance, but no resistance or capacitance, and does not dissipate or radiate energy. However real inductors have resistance (due to the resistance of the wire and losses in core material), and parasitic capacitance (due to the electric field between the turns of wire which are at slightly different potentials). At high frequencies the capacitance begins to affect the inductor's behavior; at some frequency, real inductors behave as resonant circuits, becoming self-resonant. Above the resonant frequency the capacitive reactance becomes the dominant part of the impedance. Energy is dissipated by the resistance of the wire, and by any losses in the magnetic core due to hysteresis. At high currents, iron core inductors also show gradual departure from ideal behavior due to nonlinearity caused by magnetic saturation. At higher frequencies, resistance and resistive losses in inductors grow due to skin effect in the inductor's winding wires. Core losses also contribute to inductor losses at higher frequencies. Practical inductors work as antennas, radiating a part of energy processed into surrounding space and circuits, and accepting electromagnetic emissions from other circuits, taking part in electromagnetic interference. Circuits and materials close to the inductor will have near-field coupling to the inductor's magnetic field, which may cause additional energy loss. Real-world inductor applications may consider the parasitic parameters as important as the inductance.

23

Applications

An inductor with two 47mH windings, as may be found in a power supply. Inductors are used extensively in analog circuits and signal processing. Inductors in conjunction with capacitors and other components form tuned circuits which can emphasize or filter out specific signal frequencies. Applications range from the use of large inductors in power supplies, which in conjunction with filter capacitors remove residual hums known as the mains hum or other fluctuations from the direct current output, to the small inductance of the ferrite bead or torus installed around a cable to prevent radio frequency interference from being transmitted down the wire. Smaller inductor/capacitor combinations provide tuned circuits used in radio reception and broadcasting, for instance. Two (or more) inductors that have coupled magnetic flux form a transformer, which is a fundamental component of every electric utility power grid. The efficiency of a transformer may decrease as the frequency increases due to eddy currents in the core material and skin effect on the windings. The size of the core can be decreased at higher frequencies and, for this reason, aircraft use 400 hertz alternating current rather than the usual 50 or 60 hertz, allowing a great saving in weight from the use of smaller transformers.[1] The principle of coupled magnetic fluxes between a stationary and a rotating inductor coil is also used to produce mechanical torque in induction motors, which are widely used in appliances and industry. The energy efficiency of induction motors is greatly influenced by the conductivity of the winding material. For more information about the conductivity of the winding material, see: Copper in energy efficient motors#Electrical conductivity in motor coils. An inductor is used as the energy storage device in some switched-mode power supplies. The inductor is energized for a specific fraction of the regulator's switching frequency, and de-energized for the remainder of the cycle. This energy transfer ratio determines the input-voltage to output-voltage ratio. This XL is used in complement with an active semiconductor device to maintain very accurate voltage control. Inductors are also employed in electrical transmission systems, where they are used to depress voltages from lightning strikes and to limit switching currents and fault current. In this field, they are more commonly referred to as reactors. Larger value inductors may be simulated by use of gyrator circuits.

24

Types of inductor
Air core inductor
The term air core coil describes an inductor that does not use a magnetic core made of a ferromagnetic material. The term refers to coils wound on plastic, ceramic, or other nonmagnetic forms, as well as those that have only air inside the windings. Air core coils have lower inductance than ferromagnetic core coils, but are often used at high frequencies because they are free from energy losses called core losses that occur in ferromagnetic cores, which increase with frequency. A side effect that can occur in air core coils in which the winding is not rigidly supported on a form is 'microphony': mechanical vibration of the windings can cause variations in the inductance. Radio frequency inductor At high frequencies, particularly radio frequencies (RF), inductors have higher resistance and other losses. In addition to causing power loss, in resonant circuits this can reduce the Q factor of the circuit, broadening the bandwidth. In RF inductors, which are mostly air core types, specialized construction techniques are used to minimize these losses.

Ferromagnetic core inductor

Ferromagnetic-core or iron-core inductors use a magnetic core made of a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material such as iron or ferrite to increase the inductance. A magnetic core can increase the inductance of a coil by a factor of several thousand, by increasing the magnetic field due to its higher magnetic permeability. However the magnetic properties of the core material cause several side effects which alter the behavior of the inductor and require special construction: Core losses: A time-varying current in a ferromagnetic inductor, which causes a time-varying magnetic field in its core, causes energy losses in the core material that are dissipated as heat For both of these processes, the energy loss per cycle of alternating current is constant, so core losses increase linearly with frequency. Online core loss calculators[2] are available to calculate the energy loss. Using inputs such as input voltage, output voltage, output current, frequency, ambient temperature, and inductance these calculators can predict the losses of the inductors core and AC/DC based on the operating condition of the circuit being used.[3] Nonlinearity: If the current through a ferromagnetic core coil is high enough that the magnetic core saturates, the inductance will not remain constant but will change with the current through the device. This is called nonlinearity and results in distortion of the signal. For example, audio signals can suffer intermodulation distortion in saturated inductors. To prevent this, in linear circuits the current through iron core inductors must be limited below the saturation level. Using a powdered iron core with a distributed air gap allows higher levels of magnetic flux which in turn allows a higher level of direct current through the inductor before it saturates.[4] Laminated core inductor Low-frequency inductors are often made with laminated cores to prevent eddy currents, using construction similar to transformers. The core is made of stacks of thin steel sheets or laminations oriented parallel to the field, with an insulating coating on the surface. The insulation prevents eddy currents between the sheets, so any remaining currents must be within the cross sectional area of the individual laminations, reducing the area of the loop and thus the energy loss greatly. The laminations are made of low-coercivitysilicon steel, to reduce hysteresis losses. Ferrite-core inductor For higher frequencies, inductors are made with cores of ferrite. Ferrite is a ceramic ferrimagnetic material that is nonconductive, so eddy currents cannot flow within it. The formulation of ferrite is xxFe2O4 where xx represents various metals. For inductor cores soft ferrites are used, which have low coercivity and thus low hysteresis losses. Another similar material is powdered iron cemented with a binder. Toroidal core inductor In an inductor wound on a straight rod-shaped core, the magnetic field lines emerging from one end of the core must pass through the air to reenter the core at the other end. This reduces the field, because much of the magnetic field path is in air rather than the higher permeability core material. A higher

25

magnetic field and inductance can be achieved by forming the core in a closed magnetic circuit. The magnetic field lines form closed loops within the core without leaving the core material. The shape often used is a toroidal or doughnut-shaped ferrite core. Because of their symmetry, toroidal cores allow a minimum of the magnetic flux to escape outside the core (called leakage flux), so they radiate less electromagnetic interference than other shapes. Toroidal core coils are manufactured of various materials, primarily ferrite, powdered iron and laminated cores.[5]

Variable inductor
A variable inductor can be constructed by making one of the terminals of the device a sliding spring contact that can move along the surface of the coil, increasing or decreasing the number of turns of the coil included in the circuit. A disadvantage of this type is that the contact usually short-circuits one or more turns. These turns act like a short-circuited transformer secondary winding, with large currents that cause power losses. A more widely-used construction method is to use a moveable ferrite magnetic core, which can be slid in or out of the coil. Moving the core farther into the coil increases the permeability, increasing the inductance. Many inductors used in radio applications (usually less than 100 MHz) use adjustable cores in order to tune such inductors to their desired value, since manufacturing processes have certain tolerances (inaccuracy). Sometimes such cores for frequencies above 100 MHz are made from highly conductive non-magnetic material such as aluminum. They decrease the inductance because the magnetic field must bypass them. Another method to control the inductance without any moving parts requires an additional DC current bias winding which controls the permeability of an easily saturable core material. See Magnetic amplifier.

Q factor
An ideal inductor will be lossless irrespective of the amount of current through the winding. However, typically inductors have winding resistance from the metal wire forming the coils. Since the winding resistance appears as a resistance in series with the inductor, it is often called the series resistance. The inductor's series resistance converts electric current through the coils into heat, thus causing a loss of inductive quality. The quality factor (or Q) of an inductor is the ratio of its inductive reactance to its resistance at a given frequency, and is a measure of its efficiency. The higher the Q factor of the inductor, the closer it approaches the behavior of an ideal, lossless, inductor. The Q factor of an inductor can be found through the following formula, where R is its internal (Series Model) electrical resistance and is the inductive reactance at resonance:

By using a ferromagnetic core, the inductance is greatly increased for the same amount of copper, multiplying up the Q. Cores however also introduce losses that increase with frequency. A grade of core material is chosen for best results for the frequency band. At VHF or higher frequencies an air core is likely to be used. Inductors wound around a ferromagnetic core may saturate at high currents, causing a dramatic decrease in inductance (and Q). This phenomenon can be avoided by using a (physically larger) air core inductor. A well designed air core inductor may have a Q of several hundred.

26

Bipolar junction transistor

"Junction transistor" redirects here. For other uses, see Junction transistor (disambiguation). BJT redirects here. For the Japanese language proficiency test, see Business Japanese Proficiency Test.
PNP

NPN

Schematic symbols for PNP- and NPN-type BJTs. A bipolar junction transistor (BJT or bipolar transistor) is a type of transistor that relies on the contact of two types of semiconductor for its operation. BJTs can be used as amplifiers, switches, or in oscillators. BJTs can be found either as individual discrete components, or in large numbers as parts of integrated circuits. Bipolartransistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes. These two kinds of charge carriers are characteristic of the two kinds of dopedsemiconductor material. In contrast, unipolar transistors such as the field-effect transistors have only one kind of charge carrier. Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of different charge concentrations. The regions of a BJT are called emitter, collector, and base. A discrete transistor has three leads for connection to these regions. By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected from a high-concentration emitter into the base where there are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minoritycarrier devices.

Introduction

NPN BJT with forward-biased EB junction and reverse-biased BC junction BJTs come in two types, or polarities, known as PNP and NPN based on the doping types of the three main terminal regions. An NPN transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin pdoped anode region, and a PNP transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin ndoped cathode region. In typical operation, the baseemitter junction is forward biased, which means that the p-doped side of the junction is at a more positive potential than the n-doped side, and the basecollector junction is reverse biased. In an NPN transistor, when positive bias is applied to the baseemitter junction, the equilibrium is disturbed between the thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the n-doped emitter depletion region. This allows thermally excited electrons to inject from the emitter into the base region. These electrons diffuse through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter towards the region of low concentration near the collector. The electrons in the base are called minority carriers because the base is doped p-type, which makes holes the majority carrier in the base.

27

Voltage, current, and charge control

The collectoremitter current can be viewed as being controlled by the baseemitter current (current control), or by the baseemitter voltage (voltage control). These views are related by the current voltage relation of the baseemitter junction, which is just the usual exponential currentvoltage curve of a p-n junction (diode).[1] The physical explanation for collector current is the amount of minority carriers in the base region. [1][2][3] Due to low level injection (in which there are much fewer excess carriers than normal majority carriers) the ambipolar diffusion rate (in which the excess majority and minority carriers flow at the same rate) is in effect determined by the excess minority carriers. Detailed transistor models of transistor action, such as the GummelPoon model, account for the distribution of this charge explicitly to explain transistor behaviour more exactly.[4] The charge-control view easily handles phototransistors, where minority carriers in the base region are created by the absorption of photons, and handles the dynamics of turn-off, or recovery time, which depends on charge in the base region recombining. However, because base charge is not a signal that is visible at the terminals, the current- and voltage-control views are generally used in circuit design and analysis. In analog circuit design, the current-control view is sometimes used because it is approximately linear. That is, the collector current is approximately times the base current. Some basic circuits can be designed by assuming that the emitterbase voltage is approximately constant, and that collector current is beta times the base current. However, to accurately and reliably design production BJT circuits, the voltage-control (for example, EbersMoll) model is required.

NPN

The symbol of an NPN BJT. The symbol is "not pointing in." NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the base is amplified to produce a large collector and emitter current. That is, when there is a positive potential difference measured from the emitter of an NPN transistor to its base (i.e., when the base is high relative to the emitter) as well as positive potential difference measured from the base to the collector, the transistor becomes active. In this "on" state, current flows between the collector and emitter of the transistor. Most of the current is carried by electrons moving from emitter to collector as minority carriers in the P-type base region. To allow for greater current and faster operation, most bipolar transistors used today are NPN because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility.

PNP

The symbol of a PNP BJT. The symbol "points inproudly." The other type of BJT is the PNP, consisting of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between two layers of P-doped material. A small current leaving the base is amplified in the collector output. That is, a PNP transistor is "on" when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter. The arrows in the NPN and PNP transistor symbols are on the emitter legs and point in the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode. A mnemonic device for the PNP transistor symbol is pointing in (proudly/permanently), based on the arrows in the symbol and the letters in the name.[6]

28

Applications
The BJT remains a device that excels in some applications, such as discrete circuit design, due to the very wide selection of BJT types available, and because of its high transconductance and output resistance compared to MOSFETs. The BJT is also the choice for demanding analog circuits, especially for very-high-frequency applications, such as radio-frequency circuits for wireless systems. Bipolar transistors can be combined with MOSFETs in an integrated circuit by using a BiCMOS process of wafer fabrication to create circuits that take advantage of the application strengths of both types of transistor.

Temperature sensors
Because of the known temperature and current dependence of the forward-biased baseemitter junction voltage, the BJT can be used to measure temperature by subtracting two voltages at two different bias currents in a known ratio [3].

Logarithmic converters
Because baseemitter voltage varies as the log of the baseemitter and collectoremitter currents, a BJT can also be used to compute logarithms and anti-logarithms. A diode can also perform these nonlinear functions, but the transistor provides more circuit flexibility.

Vulnerabilities
Exposure of the transistor to ionizing radiation causes radiation damage. Radiation causes a buildup of 'defects' in the base region that act as recombination centers. The resulting reduction in minority carrier lifetime causes gradual loss of gain of the transistor. Power BJTs are subject to a failure mode called secondary breakdown, in which excessive current and normal imperfections in the silicon die cause portions of the silicon inside the device to become disproportionately hotter than the others. The doped silicon has a negative temperature coefficient, meaning that it conducts more current at higher temperatures. Thus, the hottest part of the die conducts the most current, causing its conductivity to increase, which then causes it to become progressively hotter again, until the device fails internally. The thermal runaway process associated with secondary breakdown, once triggered, occurs almost instantly and may catastrophically damage the transistor package. If the emitter-base junction is reverse biased into avalanche or Zener mode and current flows for a short period of time, the current gain of the BJT will be permanently degraded.

29

Unijunction transistor

Unijunction transistors

Circuit symbol A unijunction transistor (UJT) is an electronicsemiconductor device that has only one junction. The UJT has three terminals: an emitter (E) and two bases (B1 and B2). The base is formed by lightly dopedn-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its ends. The emitter is of ptype and it is heavily doped. The resistance between B1 and B2 when the emitter is open-circuit is called interbase resistance.

Types
There are three types of unijunction transistors: The original unijunction transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is essentially a bar of N type semiconductor material into which P type material has been diffused somewhere along its length, defining the device parameter . The 2N2646 is the most commonly used version of the UJT. The complementary unijunction transistor, or CUJT, that is a bar of P type semiconductor material into which N type material has been diffused somewhere along its length, defining the device parameter . The 2N6114 is one version of the CUJT. The programmable unijunction transistor, or PUT, is a close cousin to the thyristor. Like the thyristor it consists of four P-N layers and has an anode and a cathode connected to the first and the last layer, and a gate connected to one of the inner layers. They are not directly interchangeable with conventional UJTs but perform a similar function. In a proper circuit configuration with two "programming" resistors for setting the parameter , they behave like a conventional UJT. The 2N6027 is an example of such a device.

30

UJT characteristic

Graph of UJT characteristic curve, emitter-base1 voltage as a function of emitter current, showing current controlled negative resistance (downward-sloping region) The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a potential drop along the length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven approximately one diode voltage above the voltage at the point where the P diffusion (emitter) is, current will begin to flow from the emitter into the base region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the additional current (actually charges in the base region) causes conductivity modulation which reduces the resistance of the portion of the base between the emitter junction and the B2 terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the emitter junction is more forward biased, and so even more current is injected. Overall, the effect is a negative resistance at the emitter terminal. This is what makes the UJT useful, especially in simple oscillator circuits. Unijunction transistor circuits were popular in hobbyist electronics circuits in the 1960s and 1970s because they allowed simple oscillators to be built using just one active device. For example, they were used for relaxation oscillators in variable-rate strobe lights.[1] Later, as integrated circuits became more popular, oscillators such as the 555 timer IC became more commonly used. In addition to its use as the active device in relaxation oscillators, one of the most important applications of UJTs or PUTs is to trigger thyristors (SCR, TRIAC, etc.). In fact, a DC voltage can be used to control a UJT or PUT circuit such that the "on-period" increases with an increase in the DC control voltage. This application is important for large AC current control. UJTs can also be used to measure magnetic flux. The hall effect modulates the voltage at the PN junction. This affects the frequency of UJT relaxation oscillators.[2] This only works with UJTs. PUTs do not exhibit this phenomenon.

31

Light-emitting diode
Light-emitting diode

Red, pure green and blue LEDs of the 5mm diffused type Type Working principle Invented First production Passive, optoelectronic Electroluminescence Oleg Losev (1927)[1] Nick Holonyak Jr. (1962)[2] 1968[3] Electronic symbol

Pin configuration

anode and cathode

Parts of an LED. Although not directly labeled, the flat bottom surfaces of the anvil and post embedded inside the epoxy act as anchors, to prevent the conductors from being forcefully pulled out from mechanical strain or vibration.

A modern LED retrofit "bulb" with aluminium heatsink, a light diffusing dome and E27 screw base, using a built-in power supply working on mains voltage

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source.[4] LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,[5] early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infraredwavelengths, with very high brightness. When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. A LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm 2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[6] LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

32

Types
Miniature

Different sized LEDs. 8 mm, 5 mm and 3 mm, with a wooden match-stick for scale These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various sizes from 2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages. They usually do not use a separate heat sink.[93] Typical current ratings ranges from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. The small size sets a natural upper boundary on power consumption due to heat caused by the high current density and need for a heat sink.

A green surface-mount LED mounted on an Arduino circuit board

Mid-range
Medium-power LEDs are often through-hole-mounted and used when an output of a few lumen is needed. They sometimes have the diode mounted to four leads (two cathode leads, two anode leads) for better heat conduction and carry an integrated lens. An example of this is the Superflux package, from Philips Lumileds. These LEDs are most commonly used in light panels, emergency lighting, and automotive tail-lights. Due to the larger amount of metal in the LED, they are able to handle higher currents (around 100 mA). The higher current allows for the higher light output required for tail-lights and emergency lighting.

High-power

High-power light-emitting diodes (Luxeon, Lumileds) High-power LEDs (HPLED) can be driven at currents from hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LEDs. Some can emit over a thousand lumens.[94][95] Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED is not removed, the device will fail in seconds. One HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a powerful LED lamp.

33

Advantages

Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent light bulbs.[106]The efficiency of LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes. Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs. Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2[107]) and are easily attached to printed circuit boards. On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness in under a microsecond.[108] LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times. Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting. Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering the forward current.[109] Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED. Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs.[110]

Disadvantages

High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. As of 2010, the cost per thousand lumens (kilolumen) was about $18. The price is expected to reach $2/kilolumen by 2015.[113]The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed. Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment - or "thermal management" properties. Over-driving an LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. An adequate heat sink is needed to maintain long life. This is especially important in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must operate over a wide range of temperatures, which require low failure rates. Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power supplies.[114] Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism,[115] red surfaces being rendered particularly badly by typical phosphorbased cool-white LEDs. However, the color rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white LEDs. Area light source: Single LEDs do not approximate a point source of light giving a spherical light distribution, but rather a lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to apply to uses needing a spherical light field, however different fields of light can be manipulated by the application of different optics or "lenses". LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few degrees. In contrast, lasers can emit beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.[116] Electrical polarity: Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which illuminate regardless of the electrical polarity, LEDs will only light with correct electrical polarity. To automatically match source polarity to LED devices, rectifiers can be used. Blue hazard: There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications such as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.105: Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems.[117][118]

34

pn junction
A pn junction. The circuit symbol is shown: the triangle corresponds to the p side.

A pn junction is formed at the boundary between a p-type and n-typesemiconductor created in a single crystal of semiconductor by doping, for example by ion implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant). If two separate pieces of material were used, this would introduce a grain boundary between the semiconductors that severely inhibits its utility by scattering the electrons and holes.[citation needed] pn junctions are elementary "building blocks" of most semiconductor electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are the active sites where the electronic action of the device takes place. For example, a common type of transistor, the bipolar junction transistor, consists of two pn junctions in series, in the form npn or pnp. The discovery of the pn junction is usually attributed to American physicist Russell Ohl of Bell Laboratories.[1] A Schottky junction is a special case of a pn junction, where metal serves the role of the p-type semiconductor

Properties of a pn junction
The pn junction possesses some interesting properties that have useful applications in modern electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is relatively conductive. The same is true of an n-doped semiconductor, but the junction between them can become depleted of charge carriers, and hence nonconductive, depending on the relative voltages of the two semiconductor regions. By manipulating this non-conductive layer, pn junctions are commonly used as diodes: circuit elements that allow a flow of electricity in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction. This property is explained in terms of forward bias and reverse bias, where the term bias refers to an application of electric voltage to the pn junction.

Forward bias
In forward bias, the p-type is connected with the positive terminal and the n-type is connected with the negative terminal.

35

PN junction operation in forward-bias mode, showing reducing depletion width. Both p and n junctions are doped at a 1e15/cm3 doping level, leading to built-in potential of ~0.59V. Reducing depletion width can be inferred from the shrinking charge profile, as fewer dopants are exposed with increasing forward bias. With a battery connected this way, the holes in the P-type region and the electrons in the N-type region are pushed toward the junction. This reduces the width of the depletion zone. The positive charge applied to the P-type material repels the holes, while the negative charge applied to the N-type material repels the electrons. As electrons and holes are pushed toward the junction, the distance between them decreases. This lowers the barrier in potential. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the zone's electric field cannot counteract charge carrier motion across the pn junction, as a consequence reducing electrical resistance. The electrons that cross the pn junction into the P-type material (or holes that cross into the N-type material) will diffuse in the near-neutral region. Therefore, the amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that may flow through the diode. Only majority carriers (electrons in N-type material or holes in P-type) can flow through a semiconductor for a macroscopic length. With this in mind, consider the flow of electrons across the junction. The forward bias causes a force on the electrons pushing them from the N side toward the P side. With forward bias, the depletion region is narrow enough that electrons can cross the junction and inject into the P-type material. However, they do not continue to flow through the P-type material indefinitely, because it is energetically favorable for them to recombine with holes. The average length an electron travels through the P-type material before recombining is called the diffusion length, and it is typically on the order of microns.[2] Although the electrons penetrate only a short distance into the P-type material, the electric current continues uninterrupted, because holes (the majority carriers) begin to flow in the opposite direction. The total current (the sum of the electron and hole currents) is constant in space, because any variation would cause charge buildup over time (this is Kirchhoff's current law). The flow of holes from the P-type region into the N-type region is exactly analogous to the flow of electrons from N to P (electrons and holes swap roles and the signs of all currents and voltages are reversed).

Reverse bias

A silicon pn junction in reverse bias. Reverse-bias usually refers to how a diode is used in a circuit. If a diode is reverse-biased, the voltage at the cathode is higher than that at the anode. Therefore, no current will flow until the diode breaks down. Connecting the P-type region to the negative terminal of the battery and the N-type region to the positive terminal corresponds to reverse bias. The connections are illustrated in the following diagram: Because the p-type material is now connected to the negative terminal of the power supply, the 'holes' in the P-type material are pulled away from the junction, causing the width of the depletion zone to increase. Likewise, because the N-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from the junction. Therefore, the depletion region widens, and does so increasingly with increasing reverse-bias voltage. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the pn junction. The increase in resistance of the pn junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator. The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the pn junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either the Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damage.

36

Zener diode

Zener diode Type Working principle First production Passive Zener breakdown Clarence Zener (YYYY) Electronic symbol

Current-voltage characteristic of a zener diode with a breakdown voltage of 17 volts. Notice the change of voltage scale between the forward biased (positive) direction and the reverse biased (negative) direction. A Zener diode is a diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same manner as an ideal diode, but will also permit it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value known as the breakdown voltage, "zener knee voltage" or "zener voltage" or "Avalanche point". The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property. Many diodes described as "zener" diodes rely instead on avalanche breakdown as the mechanism. Both types are used. Common applications include providing a reference voltage for voltage regulators, or to protect other semiconductor devices from momentary voltage pulses.

Operation
A conventional solid-state diode will allow significant current if it is reverse-biased above its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged due to overheating. A zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially designed so as to have a reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional device, a reverse-biased zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow the current to keep the voltage across the zener diode close to the zener breakdown voltage. For example, a diode with a zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of very nearly 3.2 V across a wide range of reverse currents. The zener diode is therefore ideal for applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage), or as a voltage stabilizer for lowcurrent applications.[1]

37

Another mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in the avalanche diode. The two types of diode are in fact constructed the same way and both effects are present in diodes of this type. In silicon diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the zener effect is the predominant effect and shows a marked negative temperature coefficient. Above 5.6 volts, the avalanche effect becomes predominant and exhibits a positive temperature coefficient.[2]
[1]

TC depending on zener voltage In a 5.6 V diode, the two effects occur together and their temperature coefficients nearly cancel each other out, thus the 5.6 V diode is the component of choice in temperature-critical applications. Modern manufacturing techniques have produced devices with voltages lower than 5.6 V with negligible temperature coefficients, but as higher voltage devices are encountered, the temperature coefficient rises dramatically. A 75 V diode has 10 times the coefficient of a 12 V diode. Such diodes, regardless of breakdown voltage, are usually marketed under the umbrella term of "zener diode".

Construction
The zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p-n junction. The depletion region formed in the diode is very thin (<0.000001 m) and the electric field is consequently very high (about 500000 V/m) even for a small reverse bias voltage of about 5 V, allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material. In the atomic scale, this tunneling corresponds to the transport of valence band electrons into the empty conduction band states; as a result of the reduced barrier between these bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relatively high levels of dopings on both sides. [2] The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the doping process. While tolerances within 0.05% are available, the most widely used tolerances are 5% and 10%. Breakdown voltage for commonly available zener diodes can vary widely from 1.2 volts to 200 volts.

Surface Zeners
The emitter-base junction of a bipolar NPN transistor behaves as a zener diode, with breakdown voltage at about 6.8 V for common bipolar processes and about 10 V for lightly doped base regions in BiCMOS processes. Older processes with poor control of doping characteristics had the variation of Zener voltage up to +-1 V, newer processes using ion implantation can achieve no more than +-0.25 V. The NPN transistor structure can be employed as a surface zener diode, with collector and emitter connected together as its cathode and base region as anode. In this approach the base doping profile usually narrows towards the surface, creating a region with intensified electric field where the avalanche breakdown occurs. The hot carriers produced by acceleration in the intense field sometime shoot into the oxide layer above the junction and become trapped there. The accumulation of trapped charges can then cause Zener walkout, a corresponding change of the Zener voltage of the junction. The same effect can be achieved by radiation damage.

Subsurface Zeners
A subsurface Zener diode, also called buried Zener, is a device similar to the surface Zener, but with the avalanche region located deeper in the structure, typically several micrometers below the oxide. The hot carriers then lose energy by collisions with the semiconductor lattice before reaching the oxide layer and cannot be trapped there. The Zener walkout phenomenon therefore does not occur here, and the buried Zeners have voltage constant over their entire lifetime. Most buried Zeners have breakdown voltage of 5-7 volts. Several different junction structures are used.[4]

38

Uses

Zener diode shown with typical packages.Reverse current is shown. Zener diodes are widely used as voltage references and as shuntregulators to regulate the voltage across small circuits. When connected in parallel with a variable voltage source so that it is reverse biased, a zener diode conducts when the voltage reaches the diode's reverse breakdown voltage. From that point on, the relatively low impedance of the diode keeps the voltage across the diode at that value.[5]

In this circuit, a typical voltage reference or regulator, an input voltage, UIN, is regulated down to a stable output voltage UOUT. The breakdown voltage of diode D is stable over a wide current range and holds UOUT relatively constant even though the input voltage may fluctuate over a fairly wide range. Because of the low impedance of the diode when operated like this, resistor R is used to limit current through the circuit. In the case of this simple reference, the current flowing in the diode is determined using Ohm's law and the known voltage drop across the resistor R; IDiode = (UIN - UOUT) / R The value of R must satisfy two conditions : 1. R must be small enough that the current through D keeps D in reverse breakdown. The value of this current is given in the data sheet for D. For example, the common BZX79C5V6 [6] device, a 5.6 V 0.5 W zener diode, has a recommended reverse current of 5 mA. If insufficient current exists through D, then UOUT will be unregulated, and less than the nominal breakdown voltage (this differs to voltage regulator tubes where the output voltage will be higher than nominal and could rise as high as UIN). When calculating R, allowance must be made for any current through the external load, not shown in this diagram, connected across UOUT. 2. R must be large enough that the current through D does not destroy the device. If the current through D is ID, its breakdown voltage VB and its maximum power dissipation PMAX, then . A load may be placed across the diode in this reference circuit, and as long as the zener stays in reverse breakdown, the diode will provide a stable voltage source to the load. Zener diodes in this configuration are often used as stable references for more advanced voltage regulator circuits. Shunt regulators are simple, but the requirements that the ballast resistor be small enough to avoid excessive voltage drop during worst-case operation (low input voltage concurrent with high load current) tends to leave a lot of current flowing in the diode much of the time, making for a fairly wasteful regulator with high quiescent power dissipation, only suitable for smaller loads.

39

Photodiode

Three Si and one Ge (bottom) photodiodes

Symbol for photodiode.

A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.[1] The common, traditional solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode. Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductordiodes except that they may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for use specifically as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p-n junction, to increase the speed of response. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.[2]

40

Principle of operation
A photodiode is a p-n junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a free electron (and a positively charged electron hole). This mechanism is also known as the inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. This photocurrent is the sum of both the dark current (without light) and the light current, so the dark current must be minimized to enhance the sensitivity of the device. [3]

Photovoltaic mode
When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out of the device is restricted and a voltage builds up. This mode exploits the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis for solar cells a traditional solar cell is just a large area photodiode.

Photoconductive mode
In this mode the diode is often reverse biased (with the cathode positive), dramatically reducing the response time at the expense of increased noise. This increases the width of the depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance resulting in faster response times. The reverse bias induces only a small amount of current (known as saturation or back current) along its direction while the photocurrent remains virtually the same. For a given spectral distribution, the photocurrent is linearly proportional to the illuminance (and to the irradiance).[4] Although this mode is faster, the photoconductive mode tends to exhibit more electronic noise. [citation needed] The leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low (<1 nA) that the JohnsonNyquist noise of the load resistance in a typical circuit often dominates.

Other modes of operation

Avalanche photodiodes have a similar structure to regular photodiodes, but they are operated with much higher reverse bias. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be multiplied by avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which increases the effective responsivity of the device. A phototransistor is in essence a bipolar transistor encased in a transparent case so that light can reach the base-collector junction. It was invented by Dr.John N. Shive (more famous for his wave machine) at Bell Labs in 1948,[5]:205 but it wasn't announced until 1950.[6] The electrons that are generated by photons in the base-collector junction are injected into the base, and this photodiode current is amplified by the transistor's current gain (or hfe). If the emitter is left unconnected, the phototransistor becomes a photodiode. While phototransistors have a higher responsivity for light they are not able to detect low levels of light any better than photodiodes.[citation needed] Phototransistors also have significantly longer response times.

Materials
The material used to make a photodiode is critical to defining its properties, because only photons with sufficient energy to excite electrons across the material's bandgap will produce significant photocurrents. Materials commonly used to produce photodiodes include[7]: Electromagnetic spectrum Material wavelength range (nm) Silicon 1901100 Germanium 4001700 Indium gallium arsenide 8002600 Lead(II) sulfide <10003500 Because of their greater bandgap, silicon-based photodiodes generate less noise than germaniumbased photodiodes.

41

Applications
P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes. They may be used to generate an output which is dependent upon the illumination (analog; for measurement and the like), or to change the state of circuitry (digital; either for control and switching, or digital signal processing). Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke detectors, and the receivers for infrared remote control devices used to control equipment from televisions to air conditioners. For many applications either photodiodes or photoconductors may be used. Either type of photosensor may be used for light measurement, as in camera light meters, or to respond to light levels, as in switching on street lighting after dark. Photosensors of all types may be used to respond to incident light, or to a source of light which is part of the same circuit or system. A photodiode is often combined into a single component with an emitter of light, usually a light-emitting diode (LED), either to detect the presence of a mechanical obstruction to the beam (slotted optical switch), or to couple two digital or analog circuits while maintaining extremely high electrical isolation between them, often for safety (optocoupler). Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and industry. They generally have a more linear response than photoconductors. They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators), instruments to analyze samples (immunoassay), and pulse oximeters. PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than p-n junction diodes, and hence are often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation. P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if high sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser rangefinding.

42

Semiconductor
A semiconductor is a material which has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor such as copper and an insulator such as glass. The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increasing temperature, the opposite behaviour to a metal.[1] Semiconductors can display a range of useful properties such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other. Because the conductive properties of a semiconductor can be modified by controlled addition of impurities or by the application of electrical fields or light, semiconductors are very useful devices for amplification of signals, switching, and energy conversion. Understanding the properties of semiconductors relies on quantum physics to explain the motions of electrons through a lattice of atoms. Current conduction in a semiconductor occurs via free electrons and "holes", collectively known as charge carriers. Adding impurity atoms to a semiconducting material, known as "doping", greatly increases the number of charge carriers within it. When a doped semiconductor contains excess holes it is called "ptype", and when it contains excess free electrons it is known as "n-type". The semiconductor material used in devices is doped under highly controlled conditions to precisely control the location and concentration of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can have multiple p- and n-type regions; the p-n junctions between these regions have many useful electronic properties. Semiconductors are the foundation of modern electronics, including radio, computers, and telephones. Semiconductor-based electronic components include transistors, solar cells, many kinds of diodes including the light-emitting diode (LED), the silicon controlled rectifier, photo-diodes, and digital and analog integrated circuits. Increasing understanding of semiconductor materials and fabrication processes has made possible continuing increases in the complexity and speed of semiconductor devices, an effect known as Moore's Law.

Preparation of semiconductor materials:Semiconductors with predictable, reliable electronic properties are necessary for mass production. The level of chemical purity needed is extremely high because the presence of impurities even in very small proportions can have large effects on the properties of the material. A high degree of crystalline perfection is also required, since faults in crystal structure (such as dislocations, twins, and stacking faults) interfere with the semiconducting properties of the material. Crystalline faults are a major cause of defective semiconductor devices. The larger the crystal, the more difficult it is to achieve the necessary perfection. Current mass production processes use crystal ingots between 100 mm and 300 mm (4 12 inches) in diameter which are grown as cylinders and sliced into wafers. Because of the required level of chemical purity and the perfection of the crystal structure which are needed to make semiconductor devices, special methods have been developed to produce the initial semiconductor material. A technique for achieving high purity includes growing the crystal using the Czochralski process. An additional step that can be used to further increase purity is known as zone refining. In zone refining, part of a solid crystal is melted. The impurities tend to concentrate in the melted region, while the desired material recrystalizes leaving the solid material more pure and with fewer crystalline faults. In manufacturing semiconductor devices involving heterojunctions between different semiconductor materials, the lattice constant, which is the length of the repeating element of the crystal structure, is important for determining the compatibility of materials.

43

Energy bands and electrical conduction

Semiconductors are defined by their unique electric conductive behavior. Metals are good conductors because at their Fermi level, there is a large density of energetically available states that each electron can occupy. Electrons can move quite freely between energy levels without a high energy cost. Metal conductivity decreases with temperature increase because thermal vibrations of crystal lattice disrupt the free motion of electrons. Insulators, by contrast, are very poor conductors of electricity because there is a large difference in energies (called a band gap) between electron-occupied energy levels and empty energy levels that allow for electron motion. Insulator conductivity increases with temperature because heat provides energy to promote electrons across the band gap to the higher electron conduction energy levels (called the conduction band). Semiconductors, on the other hand, have an intermediate level of electric conductivity when compared to metals and insulators. Their band gap is small enough that small increase in temperature promotes sufficient number of electrons (to result in measurable currents) from the lowest energy levels (in the valence band) to the conduction band. This creates electron holes, or unoccupied levels, in the valence band, and very loosely held electrons in the conduction band. [4][5]

A simplified diagram illustrating the energy band levels of an insulator, a semiconductor, and a conductor. Electrons can only exist in certain energy levels. In the classic crystalline semiconductors, electrons can have energies only within certain bands (ranges). The range of energy runs from the ground state, in which electrons are tightly bound to the atom, up to a level where the electron can escape entirely from the material. Each energy band corresponds to a large number of discrete quantum states of the electrons. Most of the states with low energy (closer to the nucleus) are occupied, up to a particular band called the valence band. Semiconductors and insulators are distinguished from metals by the population of electrons in each band. The valence band in any given metal is nearly filled with electrons under usual conditions, and metals have many free electrons with energies in the conduction band. In semiconductors, only a few electrons exist in the conduction band just above the valence band, and an insulator has almost no free electrons. The ease with which electrons in the semiconductor can be excited from the valence band to the conduction band depends on the band gap. The size of this energy gap (bandgap) determines whether a material is semiconductor or an insulator (nominally this dividing line is roughly 4 eV). With covalent bonds, an electron moves by hopping to a neighboring bond. The Pauli exclusion principle requires the electron to be lifted into the higher anti-bonding state of that bond. For delocalized states, for example in one dimension that is in a nanowire, for every energy there is a state with electrons flowing in one direction and another state with the electrons flowing in the other. For a net current to flow, more states for one direction than for the other direction must be occupied. For this to occur, energy is required, as in the semiconductor the next higher states lie above the band gap. Often this is stated as: full bands do not contribute to the electrical conductivity. However, as the temperature of a semiconductor rises above absolute zero, there is more energy in the semiconductor to spend on lattice vibration and on exciting electrons into the conduction band. Electrons excited to the conduction band also leave behind electron holes, i.e. unoccupied states in the valence band. Both the conduction band electrons and the valence band holes contribute to electrical conductivity. The holes themselves don't move, but a neighboring electron can move to fill the hole, leaving a hole at the place it has just come from, and in this way the holes appear to move, and the holes behave as if they were actual positively charged particles. One covalent bond between neighboring atoms in the solid is ten times stronger than the binding of the single electron to the atom, so freeing the electron does not imply destruction of the crystal structure.

44

Doping
The conductivity of semiconductors may easily be modified by introducing impurities into their crystal lattice. The process of adding controlled impurities to a semiconductor is known as doping. The amount of impurity, or dopant, added to an intrinsic (pure) semiconductor varies its level of conductivity. Doped semiconductors are referred to as extrinsic. By adding impurity to pure semiconductors, the electrical conductivity may be varied by factors of thousands or millions. A 1 cm3 specimen of a metal or semiconductor has of the order of 1022 atoms. In a metal, every atom donates at least one free electron for conduction, thus 1 cm3 of metal contains on the order of 1022 free electrons. Whereas a 1 cm3 of sample pure germanium at 20 C, contains about 4.21022 atoms but only 2.51013 free electrons and 2.51013 holes. The addition of 0.001% of arsenic (an impurity) donates an extra 1017 free electrons in the same volume and the electrical conductivity is increased by a factor of 10,000. The materials chosen as suitable dopants depend on the atomic properties of both the dopant and the material to be doped. In general, dopants that produce the desired controlled changes are classified as either electron acceptors or donors. Semiconductors doped with donor impurities are called n-type, while those doped with acceptor impurities are known as p-type. The n and p type designations indicate which charge carrier acts as the material's majority carrier. The opposite carrier is called the minority carrier, which exists due to thermal excitation at a much lower concentration compared to the majority carrier. For example, the pure semiconductor silicon has four valence electrons which bond each silicon atom to its neighbors. In silicon, the most common dopants are group III and group V elements. Group III elements all contain three valence electrons, causing them to function as acceptors when used to dope silicon. When an acceptor atom replaces a silicon atom in the crystal, a vacant state ( an electron "hole") is created, which can move around the lattice and functions as a charge carrier. Group V elements have five valence electrons, which allows them to act as a donor; substitution of these atoms for silicon creates an extra free electron. Therefore, a silicon crystal doped with boron creates a p-type semiconductor whereas one doped with phosphorus results in an n-type material.

45

Logic gate
Type Distinctive shape Rectangular shape Boolean algebra between A & B Truth table INPUT OUTPUT A B A AND B 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 INPUT OUTPUT A B A OR B 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 INPUT OUTPUT A NOT A 0 1 1 0 INPUT OUTPUT A B A NAND B 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 INPUT OUTPUT A B A NOR B 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 INPUT OUTPUT A B A XOR B 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 INPUT OUTPUT A B A XNOR B 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1

AND

OR

NOT

NAND

NOR

XOR

XNOR

or

46

PCB
A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. Printed circuit boards are used in virtually all but the simplest commercially produced electronic devices. A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly (PCA), printed circuit board assembly or PCB Assembly (PCBA). In informal use the term "PCB" is used both for bare and assembled boards, the context clarifying the meaning. Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs must initially be designed and laid out, but become cheaper, faster to make, and potentially more reliable for high-volume production since production and soldering of PCBs can be automated. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards published by the IPC organization

History
Development of the methods used in modern printed circuit boards started early in the 20th century. In 1903, a German inventor, Albert Hanson, described flat foil conductors laminated to an insulating board, in multiple layers. Thomas Edison experimented with chemical methods of plating conductors onto linen paper in 1904. Arthur Berry in 1913 patented a print-and-etch method in Britain, and in the United States Max Schoop obtained a patent[1] to flame-spray metal onto a board through a patterned mask. Charles Durcase in 1927 patented a method of electroplating circuit patterns.[2] The Austrian engineer Paul Eisler invented the printed circuit while working in England around 1936 as part of a radio set. Around 1943 the USA began to use the technology on a large scale to make proximity fuses for use in World War II.[2] After the war, in 1948, the USA released the invention for commercial use. Printed circuits did not become commonplace in consumer electronics until the mid1950s, after the Auto-Sembly process was developed by the United States Army.

A PCB as a design on a computer (left) and realized as a board assembly populated with components (right). The board is double sided, with through-hole plating, green solder resist, and white silkscreen printing. Both surface mount and through-hole components have been used.

A PCB in a computer mouse. The Component Side (left) and the printed side (right).

47

The Component Side of a PCB in a computer mouse; some examples for common components and their reference designations on the silk screen.

Component and solderside

Before printed circuits (and for a while after their invention), point-to-point construction was used. For prototypes, or small production runs, wire wrap or turret board can be more efficient. Predating the printed circuit invention, and similar in spirit, was John Sargrove's 19361947 Electronic Circuit Making Equipment (ECME) which sprayed metal onto a Bakelite plastic board. The ECME could produce 3 radios per minute. During World War II, the development of the anti-aircraft proximity fuse required an electronic circuit that could withstand being fired from a gun, and could be produced in quantity. The Centralab Division of Globe Union submitted a proposal which met the requirements: a ceramic plate would be screenprinted with metallic paint for conductors and carbon material for resistors, with ceramic disc capacitors and subminiature vacuum tubes soldered in place.[3] The technique proved viable, and the resulting patent on the process, which was classified by the U.S. Army, was assigned to Globe Union. It was not until 1984 that the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) awarded Mr. Harry W. Rubinstein, the former head of Globe Union's Centralab Division, its coveted CledoBrunetti Award for early key contributions to the development of printed components and conductors on a common insulating substrate.[4] As well, Mr. Rubinstein was honored in 1984 by his alma mater, the University of WisconsinMadison, for his innovations in the technology of printed electronic circuits and the fabrication of capacitors.[5] Originally, every electronic component had wire leads, and the PCB had holes drilled for each wire of each component. The components' leads were then passed through the holes and soldered to the PCB trace. This method of assembly is called through-hole construction. In 1949, Moe Abramson and Stanislaus F. Danko of the United States Army Signal Corps developed the Auto-Sembly process in which component leads were inserted into a copper foil interconnection pattern and dip soldered. The patent they obtained in 1956 was assigned to the U.S. Army.[6] With the development of board lamination and etching techniques, this concept evolved into the standard printed circuit board fabrication process in use today. Soldering could be done automatically by passing the board over a ripple, or wave, of molten solder in a wave-soldering machine. However, the wires and holes are wasteful since drilling holes is expensive and the protruding wires are merely cut off. From the 1980s small surface mount parts have been used increasingly instead of through-hole components; this has led to smaller boards for a given functionality and lower production costs, but with some additional difficulty in servicing faulty boards.

48

Subtractive processes

The two processing methods used to produce a double-sided PWB with plated through holes. Subtractive methods, that remove copper from an entirely copper-coated board, used for the production of printed circuit boards: 1. Silk screen printing uses etch-resistant inks to protect the copper foil. Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper. Alternatively, the ink may be conductive, printed on a blank (nonconductive) board. The latter technique is also used in the manufacture of hybrid circuits. 2. Photoengraving uses a photomask and developer to selectively remove a photoresist coating. The remaining photoresist protects the copper foil. Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper. The photomask is usually prepared with a photoplotter from data produced by a technician using CAM, or computer-aided manufacturing software. Laser-printed transparencies are typically employed for phototools; however, direct laser imaging techniques are being employed to replace phototools for high-resolution requirements. 3. PCB milling uses a two or three-axis mechanical milling system to mill away the copper foil from the substrate. A PCB milling machine (referred to as a 'PCB Prototyper') operates in a similar way to a plotter, receiving commands from the host software that control the position of the milling head in the x, y, and (if relevant) z axis. Data to drive the Prototyper is extracted from files generated in PCB design software and stored in HPGL or Gerber file format.

49

Additive processes
Additive processes adds desired copper traces to an insulating substrate. In the full additive process the bare laminate is covered with a photosensitive film which is imaged (exposed to light though a mask and then developed which removes the unexposed film). The exposed areas are sensitized in a chemical bath, usually containing palladium and similar to that used for through hole plating which makes the exposed area capable of bonding metal ions. The laminate is then plated with copper in the sensitized areas. When the mask is stripped, you have a finished PCB. The most common is the "semi-additive" process: the unpatterned board has a thin layer of copper already on it. A reverse mask is then applied. (Unlike a subtractive process mask, this mask exposes those parts of the substrate that will eventually become the traces.) Additional copper is then plated onto the board in the unmasked areas; copper may be plated to any desired weight. Tin-lead or other surface platings are then applied. The mask is stripped away and a brief etching step removes the now-exposed bare original copper laminate from the board, isolating the individual traces. Some single-sided boards which have plated-through holes are made in this way. General Electric made consumer radio sets in the late 1960s using additive boards. In 1977 Dr.J.F.Mansfeld (N.V. Philips Gloeilampenfabrieken) presented the PD-R process (Physical Development by Reduction) in a speech at the Hotel International Zurich.[citation
needed]

The additive process is commonly used for multi-layer boards as it facilitates the plating-through of the holes to produce conductive vias in the circuit board.

Circuit properties of the PCB

Each trace consists of a flat, narrow part of the copper foil that remains after etching. The resistance, determined by width and thickness, of the traces must be sufficiently low for the current the conductor will carry. Power and ground traces may need to be wider than signal traces. In a multi-layer board one entire layer may be mostly solid copper to act as a ground plane for shielding and power return. For microwave circuits, transmission lines can be laid out in the form of stripline and microstrip with carefully controlled dimensions to assure a consistent impedance. In radio-frequency and fast switching circuits the inductance and capacitance of the printed circuit board conductors become significant circuit elements, usually undesired; but they can be used as a deliberate part of the circuit design, obviating the need for additional discrete components.

Protection and packaging

PCBs intended for extreme environments often have a conformal coating, which is applied by dipping or spraying after the components have been soldered. The coat prevents corrosion and leakage currents or shorting due to condensation. The earliest conformal coats were wax; modern conformal coats are usually dips of dilute solutions of silicone rubber, polyurethane, acrylic, or epoxy. Another technique for applying a conformal coating is for plastic to be sputtered onto the PCB in a vacuum chamber. The chief disadvantage of conformal coatings is that servicing of the board is rendered extremely difficult.[25] Many assembled PCBs are static sensitive, and therefore must be placed in antistatic bags during transport. When handling these boards, the user must be grounded (earthed). Improper handling techniques might transmit an accumulated static charge through the board, damaging or destroying components. Even bare boards are sometimes static sensitive. Traces have become so fine that it's quite possible to blow an etch off the board (or change its characteristics) with a static charge. This is especially true on non-traditional PCBs such as MCMs and microwave PCBs.

Design
Printed circuit board artwork generation was initially a fully manual process done on clear mylar sheets at a scale of usually 2 or 4 times the desired size. The schematic diagram was first converted into a layout of components pin pads, then traces were routed to provide the required interconnections. Preprinted non-reproducing mylar grids assisted in layout, and rub-on dry transfers of common arrangements of circuit elements (pads, contact fingers, integrated circuit profiles, and so on) helped standardize the layout. Traces between devices were made with self-adhesive tape. The finished layout "artwork" was then photographically reproduced on the resist layers of the blank coated copper-clad boards.

50

Modern practice is less labor intensive since computers can automatically perform many of the layout steps. The general progression for a commercial printed circuit board design would include: 1. Schematic capture through an Electronic design automation tool. 2. Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and case of the PCB. Determine the fixed components and heat sinks if required. 3. Deciding stack layers of the PCB. 1 to 12 layers or more depending on design complexity. Ground plane and power plane are decided. Signal planes where signals are routed are in top layer as well as internal layers.[26] 4. Line impedance determination using dielectric layer thickness, routing copper thickness and tracewidth. Trace separation also taken into account in case of differential signals. Microstrip, stripline or dual stripline can be used to route signals. 5. Placement of the components. Thermal considerations and geometry are taken into account. Vias and lands are marked. 6. Routing the signal traces. For optimal EMI performance high frequency signals are routed in internal layers between power or ground planes as power planes behave as ground for AC. 7. Gerber file generation for manufacturing. In the design of the PCB artwork, a power plane is the counterpart to the ground plane and behaves as an AC signal ground, while providing DC voltage for powering circuits mounted on the PCB. In electronic design automation (EDA) design tools, power planes (and ground planes) are usually drawn automatically as a negative layer, with clearances or connections to the plane created automatically.

Types of Printed Circuit Boards

Single Sided Board
This is the least complex of the Printed Circuit Boards, since there is only a single layer of substrate. All electrical parts and components are fixed on one side and copper traces are on the other side.

Double Sided Board

This is the most common type of board, where parts and components are attached to both sides of the substrate. In such cases, double-sided PCBs that have connecting traces on both the sides are used. Double-sided Printed Circuit Boards usually use through-hole construction for assembly of components.

Multi Layered Board

Multi layered PCB consists of several layers of substrate separated by insulation. Most common multilayer boards are: 4 layers, 6 layers, 8 layers, and 10 layers. However, the total number of layers that can be manufactured can exceed over 42 layers. These types of boards are used in extremely complex electronic circuits.

51

Cable
500,000 circular mil (254 mm2) single conductor power cable A cable is most often two or more wires running side by side and bonded, twisted or braided together to form a single assembly, but can also refer to a heavy strong rope. In mechanics cables, otherwise known as wire ropes, are used for lifting, hauling and towing or conveying force through tension. In electrical engineering cables are used to carry electric currents. An optical cable contains one or more optical fibers in a protective jacket that supports the fibers. Electric cables discussed here are mainly meant for installation in buildings and industrial sites. For power transmission at distances greater than a few kilometres see high-voltage cable, power cables and HVDC.

Electrical cables

Electrical cable cross section Electrical cables may be made more flexible by stranding the wires. In this process, smaller individual wires are twisted or braided together to produce larger wires that are more flexible than solid wires of similar size. Bunching small wires before concentric stranding adds the most flexibility. Copper wires in a cable may be bare, or they may be plated with a thin layer of another metal, most often tin but sometimes gold, silver or some other material. Tin, gold, and silver are much less prone to oxidation than copper, which may lengthen wire life, and makes soldering easier. Tinning is also used to provide lubrication between strands. Tinning was used to help removal of rubber insulation. Tight lays during stranding makes the cable extensible (CBA as in telephone handset cords). Cables can be securely fastened and organized, such as by using trunking, cable trays, cable ties or cable lacing. Continuous-flex or flexible cables used in moving applications within cable carriers can be secured using strain relief devices or cable ties. At high frequencies, current tends to run along the surface of the conductor. This is known as the skin effect.

52

Optical fibre cable tutorial

In recent years, optical fibres, and fibre optic cabling has fallen in cost, making it fall within the economic reach of many more telecommunications and data networking applications. As a result fibre optics are now in widespread use, and form the backbone of most telecommunications networks and many local area data networks. While there are many components used in building up a fibre optic link, the fibre optic cabling is obviously the key element.

Optical fibre construction

Fibre optic technology relies on the fact that it is possible to send a light beam along a thin fibre suitably constructed. A fibre optic cable consists of a glass or silica core. The core of the optical fibre is surrounded by a similar material, i.e. glass or silica, called the cladding, that has a refractive index that is slightly lower than that of the core. It is found that even when the cladding has a slightly higher refractive index, the light passing down the core undergoes total internal reflection, and it is thereby contained within the core of the optical fibre. The Outside the cladding there is placed a plastic jacket. This is used to provide protection to the optical fibre itself. In addition to this, optical fibres are usually grouped together in bundles and these are protected by an overall outer sheath. This not only provides further protection but also serves to keep the optical fibres together.

Optical fibre types

There is a variety of different types of fibre optic cable that can be used, and there are a number of ways in which types may be differentiated. There are two major categories: Step index fibre optic cabling Graded index fibre optic cabling The step index cable refers to cable in which there is a step change in the refractive index between the core and the cladding. This type is the more commonly used. The other type, as indicated by the name, changes more gradually over the diameter of the fibre. Using this type of cable, the light is refracted towards the centre of the cable. Optical fibres or optical fibers can also be split into single mode fibre, and multimode fibre. Mention of both single mode fiber and multi-mode fiber is often seen in the literature. Single mode fiber : This form of optical fibre is the type that is virtually exclusively used these days. It is found that if the diameter of the optical fibre is reduced to a few wavelengths of light, then the light can only propagate in a straight line and does not bounce from side to side of the fibre. As the light can only travel in this single mode, this type of cable is called a single mode fibre. Typically single mode fibre core are around eight to ten microns in diameter, much smaller than a hair. Single mode fiber does not suffer from multi-modal dispersion and this means that it has a much wider bandwidth. The main limitation to the bandwidth is what is termed chromatic dispersion where different colours, i.e. Wavelengths propagate at different speeds. Chromatic dispersion of the optical fibre cable occurs within the centre of the fibre itself. It is found that it is negative for short wavelengths and changes to become positive at longer wavelengths. As a result there is a wavelength for single mode fiber where the dispersions is zero. This generally occurs at a wavelength of around 1310 nm and this is the reason why this wavelength is widely used. Multimode fiber: This form of fibre has a greater diameter than single mode fibre, being typically around 50 microns in diameter, and this makes them easier to manufacture than the single mode fibres. Multimode optical fiber has a number of advantages. As it has a wider diameter than single mode fibre it can capture light from the light source and pass it to the receiver with a high level of efficiency. As a result it can be used with low cost light emitting diodes. In addition to this the greater diameter means that high precision connectors are not required. However this form of optical fibre cabling suffers from a higher level of loss than single mode fibre and in view of this its use is more costly than might be expected at first sight. It also suffers from multi-mode modal dispersion and this severely limits the usable bandwidth. As a result it has not been widely used since the mid 1980s. Single mode fiber cable is the preferred type.

53

Coaxial cable.

RG-59flexible coaxial cable composed of: 1. 2. 3. 4. Outer plastic sheath Woven copper shield Inner dielectric insulator Copper core

Coaxial cable, or coax (pronounced 'ko.aks), is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many coaxial cables also have an insulating outer sheath or jacket. The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing a geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and mathematician Oliver Heaviside, who patented the design in 1880.[1] Coaxial cable differs from other shielded cable used for carrying lower-frequency signals, such as audio signals, in that the dimensions of the cable are controlled to give a precise, constant conductor spacing, which is needed for it to function efficiently as a radio frequencytransmission line.

Applications
Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. Its applications include feedlines connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas, computer network (Internet) connections, and distributing cable television signals. One advantage of coax over other types of radio transmission line is that in an ideal coaxial cable the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only in the space between the inner and outer conductors. This allows coaxial cable runs to be installed next to metal objects such as gutters without the power losses that occur in other types of transmission lines. Coaxial cable also provides protection of the signal from external electromagnetic interference.

54

Triaxial cable
Triaxial cable or triax is coaxial cable with a third layer of shielding, insulation and sheathing. The outer shield, which is earthed (grounded), protects the inner shield from electromagnetic interference from outside sources.

Twin-axial cable
Twin-axial cable or twinax is a balanced, twisted pair within a cylindrical shield. It allows a nearly perfect differential signal which is both shielded and balanced to pass through. Multi-conductor coaxial cable is also sometimes used.

Biaxial cable
Biaxial cable, biax or Twin-Lead is a figure-8 configuration of two 50 coaxial cables, externally resembling that of lamp cord, or speaker wire. Biax is used in some proprietary computer networks. Others may be familiar with 75 biax which at one time was popular on many cable TV services.

Semi-rigid
Semi-rigid cable is a coaxial form using a solid copper outer sheath. This type of coax offers superior screening compared to cables with a braided outer conductor, especially at higher frequencies. The major disadvantage is that the cable, as its name implies, is not very flexible, and is not intended to be flexed after initial forming. (See "hard line") Conformable cable is a flexible reformable alternative to semi-rigid coaxial cable used where flexibility is required. Conformable cable can be stripped and formed by hand withouth the need for specialist tools, similar to standard coaxial cable.

Rigid line

Rigid line Rigid line is a coaxial line formed by two copper tubes maintained concentric every other meter using PTFE-supports. Rigid lines can not be bent, so they often need elbows. Interconnection with rigid line is done with an inner bullet/inner support and a flange or connection kit. Typically rigid lines are connected using standardisedEIA RF Connectors whose bullet and flange sizes match the standard line diameters, for each outer diameter either 75 or 50ohm inner tubes can be obtained. Rigid line is commonly used indoors for interconnection between high power transmitters and other RF-components, but more rugged rigid line with weatherproof flanges is used outdoors on antenna masts, etc. In the interests of saving weight and costs, on masts and similar structures the outer line is often aluminium, and special care must be taken to prevent corrosion. With a flange connector it is also possible to go from rigid line to hard line. Many broadcasting antennas and antenna splitters use the flanged rigid line interface even when connecting to flexible coaxial cables and hard line.

55

Rigid line parts Rigid line is produced in a number of different sizes: Outer conductor Inner conductor Size Outer diameter (not flanged) Inner diameter Outer diameter Inner diameter 7/8" 22.2 mm 20 mm 8.7 mm 7.4 mm 1 5/8" 41.3 mm 38.8 mm 16.9 mm 15.0 mm 3 1/8" 79.4 mm 76.9 mm 33.4 mm 42.6 mm 4 1/2" 106 mm 103 mm 44.8 mm 42.8 mm 6 1/8" 155.6 mm 151.9 mm 66.0 mm 64.0 mm

Ribbon cable

Left: 20-way grey ribbon cable with wire no. 1 marked red, insulation partly stripped. Right: 16-way rainbow ribbon with IDC connector. A Ribbon cable (also known as multi-wire planar cable) is a cable with many conducting wires running parallel to each other on the same flat plane. As a result the cable is wide and flat. Its name comes from the resemblance of the cable to a piece of ribbon. Ribbon cables are usually seen for internal peripherals in computers, such as hard drives, CD drives and floppy drives. On some older computer systems (such as the BBC Micro and Apple II series) they were used for external connections as well. Unfortunately the ribbon-like shape interferes with computer cooling by disrupting airflow within the case and also makes the cables awkward to handle, especially when there are a lot of them; round cables have almost entirely replaced ribbon cables for external connections and are increasingly being used internally as well.

56

Copper wire and cable

Coaxial cable made from copper. Copper has been used in electric wiring since the invention of the electromagnet and the telegraph in the 1820s.[1][2] The invention of the telephone in 1876 created further demand for copper wire as an electrical conductor.[3] Today, despite competition from other materials, copper remains the preferred electrical conductor in nearly all categories of electrical wiring.[4][5] For example, copper wire is used in power generation, power transmission, power distribution, telecommunications, electronics circuitry, and countless types of electrical equipment.[6] Aside from electrical conductors, other important electrical applications for copper include electrical contacts and resistors. Electrical wiring in buildings is the most important market for the copper industry. [7] Roughly half of all copper mined is used to manufacture electrical wire and cable conductors.[8]

57

Switch

Electrical switches. Top, left to right: circuit breaker, mercury switch, wafer switch, DIP switch, surface mount switch, reed switch. Bottom, left to right: wall switch (U.S. style), miniature toggle switch, in-line switch, push-button switch, rocker switch, microswitch. In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.[1][2] The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to external circuits. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either "closed" meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or "open", meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is nonconducting. The mechanism actuating the transition between these two states (open or closed) can be either a "toggle" (flip switch for continuous "on" or "off") or "momentary" (push-for "on" or push-for "off") type. A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light switch. Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine tool is in a position to accept another workpiece. Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to automatically control a system. For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate electric power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that can be padlocked if necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to prevent electric shock. An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and would have no limits on voltage or current rating. It would have zero rise time and fall time during state changes, and would change state without "bouncing" between on and off positions. Practical switches fall short of this ideal; they have resistance, limits on the current and voltage they can handle, finite switching time, etc. The ideal switch is often used in circuit analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of equations to be solved, however this can lead to a less accurate solution. Theoretical treatment of the effects of non-ideal properties is required in the design of large networks of switches, as for example used in telephone exchanges.

58

TYPES OF SWITCHES
Biased switches
The momentary push-button switch is a type of biased switch. The most common type is a "push-tomake" (or normally-open or NO) switch, which makes contact when the button is pressed and breaks when the button is released. Each key of a computer keyboard, for example, is a normally-open "push-to-make" switch. A "push-to-break" (or normally-closed or NC) switch, on the other hand, breaks contact when the button is pressed and makes contact when it is released. An example of a push-to-break switch is a button used to release a door held open by an electromagnet. The interior lamp of a household refrigerator is controlled by a switch that is held open when the door is closed.

Rotary switch
Main article: Rotary switch A rotary swtich operates with a twisting motion of the operating handle with at least two positions. One or more positions of the switch may be momentary (biased with a spring), requiring the operator to hold the switch in the position. Other postions may have a detent to hold the position when released. A rotary switch may have multiple levels or "decks" so that it can control multiple circuits.

A three-deck stacked rotary switch. Any number of switching elements may be stacked in this manner, by using a longer shaft and additional spacing standoffs between each switching element. One form of rotary switch consists of a spindle or "rotor" that has a contact arm or "spoke" which projects from its surface like a cam. It has an array of terminals, arranged in a circle around the rotor, each of which serves as a contact for the "spoke" through which any one of a number of different electrical circuits can be connected to the rotor. The switch is layered to allow the use of multiple poles, each layer is equivalent to one pole. Usually such a switch has a detent mechanism so it "clicks" from one active position to another rather than stalls in an intermediate position. Thus a rotary switch provides greater pole and throw capabilities than simpler switches do. Other types use a cam mechanism to operate multiple independent sets of contacts.

Toggle switch

Large toggle switch, depicted in circuit "open" position, electrical contacts to left; background is 1/4" square graph paper A toggle switch is a class of electrical switches that are manually actuated by a mechanical lever, handle, or rocking mechanism. Toggle switches are available in many different styles and sizes, and are used in countless applications. Many are designed to provide the simultaneous actuation of multiple sets of electrical contacts, or the control of large amounts of electric current or mains voltages.

59

The word "toggle" is a reference to a kind of mechanism or joint consisting of two arms, which are almost in line with each other, connected with an elbow-like pivot. However, the phrase "toggle switch" is applied to a switch with a short handle and a positive snap-action, whether it actually contains a toggle mechanism or not. Similarly, a switch where a definitive click is heard, is called a "positive on-off switch".[11]

Bank of toggle switches on a Data General Novaminicomputer front panel.

Special types

Opened float switch of a dirty water pump Switches can be designed to respond to any type of mechanical stimulus: for example, vibration (the trembler switch), tilt, air pressure, fluid level (a float switch), the turning of a key (key switch), linear or rotary movement (a limit switch or microswitch), or presence of a magnetic field (the reed switch). Many switches are operated automatically by changes in some environmental condition or by motion of machinery. A limit switch is used, for example, in machine tools to interlock operation with the proper position of tools. In heating or cooling systems a sail switch ensures that air flow is adequate in a duct. Pressure switches respond to fluid pressure.

Mercury tilt switch

The mercury switch consists of a drop of mercury inside a glass bulb with 2 or more contacts. The two contacts pass through the glass, and are connected by the mercury when the bulb is tilted to make the mercury roll on to them. This type of switch performs much better than the ball tilt switch, as the liquid metal connection is unaffected by dirt, debris and oxidation, it wets the contacts ensuring a very low resistance bounce-free connection, and movement and vibration do not produce a poor contact. These types can be used for precision works. It can also be used where arcing is dangerous (such as in the presence of explosive vapour) as the entire unit is sealed.

Knife switch
Knife switches consist of a flat metal blade, hinged at one end, with an insulating handle for operation, and a fixed contact. When the switch is closed, current flows through the hinged pivot and blade and through the fixed contact. Such switches are usually not enclosed. The knife and contacts are typically formed of copper, steel, or brass, depending on the application. Fixed contacts may be backed up with a spring. Several parallel blades can be operated at the same time by one handle. The parts may be mounted on an insulating base with terminals for wiring, or may be directly bolted to an insulated switch board in a large assembly. Since the electrical contacts are exposed, the switch is used only where people cannot accidentally come in contact with the switch or where the voltage is so low as to not present a hazard. Knife switches are made in many sizes from miniature switches to large devices used to carry thousands of amperes. In electrical transmission and distribution, gang-operated switches are used in circuits up to the highest voltages.

60

The disadvantages of the knife switch are the slow opening speed and the proximity of the operator to exposed live parts. Metal-enclosed safety disconnect switches are used for isolation of circuits in industrial power distribution. Sometimes spring-loaded auxiliary blades are fitted which momentarily carry the full current during opening, then quickly part to rapidly extinguish the arc.

Footswitch
A footswitch is a rugged switch which is operated by foot pressure. An example of use is for the control of a machine tool so that the operator has both hands free to manipulate the workpiece. The foot control of an electric guitar is also a switch.

Reversing switch
A DPDT switch has six connections, but since polarity reversal is a very common usage of DPDT switches, some variations of the DPDT switch are internally wired specifically for polarity reversal. These crossover switches only have four terminals rather than six. Two of the terminals are inputs and two are outputs. When connected to a battery or other DC source, the 4-way switch selects from either normal or reversed polarity. Such switches can also be used as intermediate switches in a multiway switching system for control of lamps by more than two switches.

Light switches
Light switchIn building wiring, light switches are installed at convenient locations to control lighting and occasionally other circuits. By use of multiple-pole switches, multiway switching control of a lamp can be obtained from two or more places, such as the ends of a corridor or stairwell. A wireless light switch allows remote control of lamps for convenience; some lamps include a touch switch which electronically controls the lamp if touched anywhere. In public buildings several types of vandal resistant switch are used to prevent unauthorized use.

Three pushbutton switches (Tactile Switches). Major scale is inches.

Electronic switches
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switchingoften a siliconcontrolled rectifier or triac. The analogue switch uses two MOSFET transistors in a transmission gate arrangement as a switch that works much like a relay, with some advantages and several limitations compared to an electromechanical relay. The power transistor(s) in a switching voltage regulator, such as a power supply unit, are used like a switch to alternately let power flow and block power from flowing. Many people use metonymy to call a variety of devices "switches" that conceptually connect or disconnect signals and communication paths between electrical devices, analogous to the way mechanical switches connect and disconnect paths for electrons to flow between two conductors. Early telephone systems used an automatically operated Strowger switch to connect telephone callers; telephone exchanges contain one or more crossbar switches today.

61

Flip-flop
In electronics, a flip-flop or latch is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to store state information. Flip Flop is a bistablemultivibrator. The circuit can be made to change state by signals applied to one or more control inputs and will have one or two outputs. It is the basic storage element in sequential logic. Flip-flops and latches are a fundamental building block of digital electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other types of systems. Flip-flops and latches are used as data storage elements. Such data storage can be used for storage of state, and such a circuit is described as sequential logic. When used in a finite-state machine, the output and next state depend not only on its current input, but also on its current state (and hence, previous inputs). It can also be used for counting of pulses, and for synchronizing variably-timed input signals to some reference timing signal. Flip-flops can be either simple (transparent or opaque) or clocked (synchronous or edge-triggered); the simple ones are commonly called latches.[1] The word latch is mainly used for storage elements, while clocked devices are described as flip-flops.[2]

Flip-flop types
Flip-flops can be divided into common types: the SR ("set-reset"), D ("data" or "delay"[16]), T ("toggle"), and JK types are the common ones. The behavior of a particular type can be described by what is termed the characteristic equation, which derives the "next" (i.e., after the next clock pulse) output, , in terms of the input signal(s) and/or the current output, .

Simple set-reset latches

SR NOR latch SR latch operation[17] Characteristic table R Qnext Action Q 0 Q hold state 0 1 0 reset 0 0 1 set 1 1 X not allowed 1

S 0 0 1 1

Excitat Qnext 0 1 0 1

An SR latch, constructed from a pair of cross-coupled NORgates (an animated picture). Red and black mean logical '1' and '0', respectively. When using static gates as building blocks, the most fundamental latch is the simple SR latch, where S and R stand for set and reset. It can be constructed from a pair of cross-coupled NORlogic gates. The stored bit is present on the output marked Q. While the S and R inputs are both low, feedback maintains the Q and Q outputs in a constant state, with Q the complement of Q. If S (Set) is pulsed high while R (Reset) is held low, then the Q output is forced high, and stays high when S returns to low; similarly, if R is pulsed high while S is held low, then the Q output is forced low, and stays low when R returns to low. The R = S = 1 combination is called a restricted combination or a forbidden state because, as both NOR gates then output zeros, it breaks the logical equation Q = not Q. The combination is also inappropriate in circuits where both inputs may go low simultaneously (i.e. a transition from restricted to keep). The output would lock at either 1 or 0 depending on the propagation time relations between the gates (a race condition). In certain implementations, it could also lead to longer ringings (damped oscillations) before the output settles, and thereby result in undetermined values (errors) in high-frequency digital circuits. Although this condition is usually avoided, it can be useful in some applications. [citation needed] To overcome the restricted combination, one can add gates to the inputs that would convert (S,R) = (1,1) to one of the non-restricted combinations. That can be: Q = 1 (1,0) referred to as an S-latch Q = 0 (0,1) referred to as an R-latch Keep state (0,0) referred to as an E-latch Alternatively, the restricted combination can be made to toggle the output. The result is the JK latch. Characteristic: Q+ = R'Q + R'S or Q+ = R'Q + S.[18]

62

SR NAND latch

An SR latch This is an alternate model of the simple SR latch which is built with NAND (not AND) logic gates. Set and reset now become active low signals, denoted S and R respectively. Otherwise, operation is identical to that of the SR latch. Historically, SR-latches have been predominant despite the notational inconvenience of active-low inputs.[citation needed] SR latch operation SR Action 0 0 Restricted combination 0 1 Q=1 1 0 Q=0 1 1 No Change

Symbol for an SR NAND latch

Gated latches and conditional transparency

Latches are designed to be transparent. That is, input signal changes cause immediate changes in output; when several transparent latches follow each other, using the same clock signal, signals can propagate through all of them at once. Alternatively, additional logic can be added to a simple transparent latch to make it non-transparent or opaque when another input (an "enable" input) is not asserted. By following a transparent-high latch with a transparent-low (or opaque-high) latch, a masterslave flip-flop is implemented. Gated SR latch

A gated SR latch circuit diagram constructed from NOR gates. A synchronous SR latch (sometimes clocked SR flip-flop) can be made by adding a second level of NAND gates to the inverted SR latch (or a second level of AND gates to the direct SR latch). The extra gates further invert the inputs so the simple SR latch becomes a gated SR latch (and a simple SR latch would transform into a gated SR latch with inverted enable). With E high (enable true), the signals can pass through the input gates to the encapsulated latch; all signal combinations except for (0,0) = hold then immediately reproduce on the (Q,Q) output, i.e. the latch is transparent. With E low (enable false) the latch is closed (opaque) and remains in the state it was left the last time E was high. The enable input is sometimes a clock signal, but more often a read or write strobe.

63

Gated SR latch operation E/C Action 0 No action (keep state) 1 The same as non-clocked SR latch Symbol for a gated SR latch JK latch The JK latch is much less used than the JK flip-flop. The JK latch follows the following state table: Hence, the JK latch is an SR latch that is made to toggle its output when passed the restricted combination of 11. Unlike the JK flip-flop, the 11 input combination for the SR latch is not useful because there is no clock that directs toggling.[19] JK latch truth table JK flip-flop J K Qnext Comment 00 Q No change 01 0 Reset 10 1 Set 11 Q Toggle A circuit symbol for a positive-edge-triggered JK flip-flop

JK flip-flop timing diagram The JK flip-flop augments the behavior of the SR flip-flop (J=Set, K=Reset) by interpreting the S = R = 1 condition as a "flip" or toggle command. Specifically, the combination J = 1, K = 0 is a command to set the flip-flop; the combination J = 0, K = 1 is a command to reset the flip-flop; and the combination J = K = 1 is a command to toggle the flip-flop, i.e., change its output to the logical complement of its current value. Setting J = K = 0 does NOT result in a D flip-flop, but rather, will hold the current state. To synthesize a D flip-flop, simply set K equal to the complement of J. Similarly, to synthesize a T flip-flop, set K equal to J. The JK flip-flop is therefore a universal flip-flop, because it can be configured to work as an SR flip-flop, a D flip-flop, or a T flip-flop. The characteristic equation of the JK flip-flop is: and the corresponding truth table is: JK flip-flop operation[28] Characteristic table Excitation table J K Qnext Comment Q Qnext J K Comment 0 0 Q hold state 0 0 0 X No change 01 0 Reset 0 1 1X Set 10 1 Set 1 0 X 1 Reset 11 Q Toggle 1 1 X 0 No change

64

Gated D latch

A D-type transparent latch based on an SR NAND latch

A gated D latch based on an SR NOR latch This latch exploits the fact that, in the two active input combinations (01 and 10) of a gated SR latch, R is the complement of S. The input NAND stage converts the two D input states (0 and 1) to these two input combinations for the next SR latch by inverting the data input signal. The low state of the enable signal produces the inactive "11" combination. Thus a gated D-latch may be considered as a one-input synchronous SR latch. This configuration prevents application of the restricted input combination. It is also known as transparent latch, data latch, or simply gated latch. It has a data input and an enable signal (sometimes named clock, or control). The word transparent comes from the fact that, when the enable input is on, the signal propagates directly through the circuit, from the input D to the output Q. Transparent latches are typically used as I/O ports or in asynchronous systems, or in synchronous two-phase systems (synchronous systems that use a two-phase clock), where two latches operating on different clock phases prevent data transparency as in a masterslave flip-flop. Latches are available as integrated circuits, usually with multiple latches per chip. For example, 74HC75 is a quadruple transparent latch in the 7400 series. Gated D latch truth table E/C D Q Q Comment 0 X Qprev Qprev No change 1 0 0 1 Reset 1 1 1 0 Set Symbol for a gated D latch The truth table shows that when the enable/clock input is 0, the D input has no effect on the output. When E/C is high, the output equals D.

D flip-flop
Clock D Qnext Rising edge 0 0 Rising edge 1 1 Non-Rising X Q D flip-flop symbol The D ip-op is widely used. It is also known as a data or delay flip-flop. The D flip-flop captures the value of the D-input at a definite portion of the clock cycle (such as the rising edge of the clock). That captured value becomes the Q output. At other times, the output Q does not change.[25][26] The D flip-flop can be viewed as a memory cell, a zero-order hold, or a delay line.[citation needed] Truth table:

65

('X' denotes a Don't care condition, meaning the signal is irrelevant) Most D-type flip-flops in ICs have the capability to be forced to the set or reset state (which ignores the D and clock inputs), much like an SR flip-flop. Usually, the illegal S = R = 1 condition is resolved in Dtype flip-flops. By setting S = R = 0, the flip-flop can be used as described above. Here is the truth table for the others S and R possible configurations: Inputs Outputs S R D > Q Q' 0 1 X X 0 1 1 0 X X 1 0 1 1 X X 1 1 4-bit serial-in, parallel-out (SIPO) shift register These flip-flops are very useful, as they form the basis for shift registers, which are an essential part of many electronic devices. The advantage of the D flip-flop over the D-type "transparent latch" is that the signal on the D input pin is captured the moment the flip-flop is clocked, and subsequent changes on the D input will be ignored until the next clock event. An exception is that some flip-flops have a "reset" signal input, which will reset Q (to zero), and may be either asynchronous or synchronous with the clock. The above circuit shifts the contents of the register to the right, one bit position on each active transition of the clock. The input X is shifted into the leftmost bit position. Masterslave edge-triggered D flip-flop A masterslave D flip-flop is created by connecting two gated D latches in series, and inverting the enable input to one of them. It is called masterslave because the second latch in the series only changes in response to a change in the first (master) latch.

A masterslave D flip-flop. It responds on the negative edge of the enable input (usually a clock) An implementation of a masterslave D flip-flop that is triggered on the positive edge of the clock For a positive-edge triggered masterslave D flip-flop, when the clock signal is low (logical 0) the "enable" seen by the first or "master" D latch (the inverted clock signal) is high (logical 1). This allows the "master" latch to store the input value when the clock signal transitions from low to high. As the clock signal goes high (0 to 1) the inverted "enable" of the first latch goes low (1 to 0) and the value seen at the input to the master latch is "locked". Nearly simultaneously, the twice inverted "enable" of the second or "slave" D latch transitions from low to high (0 to 1) with the clock signal. This allows the signal captured at the rising edge of the clock by the now "locked" master latch to pass through the "slave" latch. When the clock signal returns to low (1 to 0), the output of the "slave" latch is "locked", and the value seen at the last rising edge of the clock is held while the "master" latch begins to accept new values in preparation for the next rising clock edge.

66

T flip-flop

A circuit symbol for a T-type flip-flop If the T input is high, the T flip-flop changes state ("toggles") whenever the clock input is strobed. If the T input is low, the flip-flop holds the previous value. This behavior is described by the characteristic equation: (expanding the XOR operator) and can be described in a truth table: T flip-flop operation[28] Characteristic table Excitation table Comment Comment 0 0 hold state (no clk) 0 0 0 No change 1 1 hold state (no clk) 1 1 0 No change 0 1 Toggle 0 1 1 Complement 1 0 Toggle 1 0 1 Complement

0 0 1 1

When T is held high, the toggle flip-flop divides the clock frequency by two; that is, if clock frequency is 4 MHz, the output frequency obtained from the flip-flop will be 2 MHz. This "divide by" feature has application in various types of digital counters. A T flip-flop can also be built using a JK flip-flop (J & K pins are connected together and act as T) or D flip-flop (T input and Qprevious is connected to the D input through an XOR gate).

67

REFERENCES
Digital Multimeter
o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/multimeter o histest.com/blog/?p=265 o ehow.com

Resistor
o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/resistor o histest.com/blog/?p=2675 o ehow.com

Oscilloscope
o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/oscilloscope o histest.com/blog/?p=999 o ehow.com

Capacitor
o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/capacitor o histest.com/blog/?p=451 o ehow.com

Light Emitting Diode

o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/l e d o histest.com/blog/?p=8542 o ehow.com

P-n Junction
o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/p-n junction o histest.com/blog/?p=267 o ehow.com

Bipolar Junction Transistor

o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/b j t o histest.com/blog/?p=6652 o ehow.com

Zener Diode
o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/zener d o histest.com/blog/?p=365 o ehow.com

Logic Gates
o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/logicgates o histest.com/blog/?p=254 o ehow.com

68