Chapter4.

Performanceadjustmentofpumps
Secticn 4.1: Adjusting pump perfcrmance
4.1.1 1hroIIle conIrol
4.1.2 8ypass conIrol
4.1.3 ModiIying impeller diameIer
4.1.4 Speed conIrol
4.1.S Comparison oI ad|usImenI meIhods
4.1.6 Overall eIhciency oI Ihe pump sysIem
4.1.7 Lxample. kelaIive power consumpIion when Ihe ow
is reduced by 20
Secticn 4.2: Speed-ccntrcIIed pump scIuticns
4.2.1 ConsIanI pressure conIrol
4.2.2 ConsIanI IemperaIure conIrol
4.2.3 ConsIanI diIIerenIial pressure in a circulaIing sysIem
4.2.4 llow-compensaIed diIIerenIial pressure conIrol
Secticn 4.3: Advantages cf speed ccntrcI
Secticn 4.4: Advantages cf pumps with integrated
frequency ccnverter
4.4.1 PerIormance curves oI speed-conIrolled pumps
4.4.2 Speed-conIrolled pumps in diIIerenI sysIems
Secticn 4.5: frequency ccnverter
4.S.1 8asic IuncIion and characIerisIics
4.S.2 ComponenIs oI Ihe Irequency converIer
4.S.3 Special condiIions regarding Irequency converIers
5ection4.1
Adjustingpumpperformance
When selecIing a pump Ior a given applicaIion iI is
imporIanI Io choose one where Ihe duIy poinI is in Ihe
high-eIIiciency area oI Ihe pump. OIherwise, Ihe power
consumpIion oI Ihe pump is unnecessarily high - see Iigure
4.1.1.
Rowever, someIimes iI is noI possible Io selecI a pump IhaI
IiIs Ihe opIimum duIy poinI because Ihe requiremenIs oI
Ihe sysIem change or Ihe sysIem curve changes over Iime.
1hereIore, iI can be necessary Io ad|usI Ihe pump
perIormance so IhaI iI meeIs Ihe changed requiremenIs.
1he mosI common meIhods oI changing pump
perIormance are.
1hroIIle conIrol
8ypass conIrol
ModiIying impeller diameIer
Speed conIrol
Choosing a meIhod oI ad|usIing Ihe pump perIormance is
based on an evaluaIion oI Ihe iniIial invesImenI IogeIher
wiIh Ihe operaIing cosIs oI Ihe pump. All meIhods can be
carried ouI conIinuously during operaIion aparI Irom Ihe
modiIying impeller diameIer-meIhod. OIIen, oversized
pumps are selecIed Ior Ihe sysIem and IhereIore iI is
necessary Io limiI Ihe perIormance - IirsI oI all, Ihe Ilow
raIe and in some applicaIions Ihe maximum head.
On Ihe Iollowing pages you can read abouI Ihe Iour
ad|usIing meIhods.
lig.. 4.1.1. When selecIing a pump iI is imporIanI Io choose a pump
where Ihe duIy poinI is wiIhin Ihe high eIhciency area.
H
[m]
50
40
30
20
10
40
20
30
10
0
60
70
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 D [m
3
Jh]
106
S
xx
4.1.11hrottIecontroI
A IhroIIle valve is placed in series wiIh Ihe pump making iI
possible Io ad|usI Ihe duIy poinI. 1he IhroIIling resulIs in a
reducIion oI Ilow, see Iigure 4.1.2. 1he IhroIIle valve adds
resisIance Io Ihe sysIem and raises Ihe sysIem curve Io a
higher posiIion. WiIhouI Ihe IhroIIle valve, Ihe Ilow is O
2
.

WiIh Ihe IhroIIle valve connecIed in series wiIh Ihe pump,
Ihe Ilow is reduced Io O
1
.
1hroIIle valves can be used Io limiI Ihe maximum Ilow. 8y
adding Ihe valve, Ihe maximum possible Ilow in Ihe sysIem
is limiIed. ln Ihe example, Ihe Ilow will never be higher Ihan
O
3
, even iI Ihe sysIem curve is compleIely IlaI - meaning no
resisIance aI all in Ihe sysIem. When Ihe pump perIormance
is ad|usIed by Ihe IhroIIling meIhod, Ihe pump will deliver a
higher head Ihan necessary Ior IhaI parIicular sysIem.
lI Ihe pump and Ihe IhroIIle valve are replaced by a smaller
pump, Ihe pump will be able Io meeI Ihe wanIed Ilow O
1
,
buI aI a lower pump head and consequenIly a lower power
consumpIion, see hgure 4.1.2.
4.1.28ypasscontroI
lnsIead oI connecIing a valve in series wiIh Ihe pump, a
bypass valve across Ihe pump can be used Io ad|usI Ihe
pump perIormance, see Iigure 4.1.3.
Compared Io Ihe IhroIIle valve, insIalling a bypass valve
will resulI in a cerIain minimum Ilow O
8P
in Ihe pump,
independenI on Ihe sysIem characIerisIics. 1he Ilow O
P
is
Ihe sum oI Ihe Ilow in Ihe sysIem O
S
and Ihe Ilow in Ihe
bypass valve O
8P.


1he bypass valve will inIroduce a maximum limiI oI head
supplied Io Ihe sysIem R
max
, see Iigure 4.1.3. Lven when
Ihe required Ilow in Ihe sysIem is zero, Ihe pump will never
run againsI a closed valve. Like iI was in Ihe case wiIh
Ihe IhroIIling valve, Ihe required Ilow O
S
can be meI by a
smaller pump and no bypass valve, Ihe resulI being a lower
Ilow and consequenIly a lower energy consumpIion.
lig.. 4.1.2. 1he IhroIIle valve increases Ihe resisIance in Ihe sysIem
and consequenIly reduces Ihe ow.
R
Q
1
Q
2
Q
3
Q

Pump
Smaller pump
kesulIing characIerisIic
SysIem
1hroIIle valve
R
v
R
s
R
Q
8P
Q
S
Q
P
R
max
R
P
Q

Pump
Smaller
pump
kesulIing characIerisIic
SysIem
8ypass valve
Q
s
Q
8P
SysIem
1hroIIle valve
R
p
R
v
R
s
SysIem
8ypass valve
Q
8P
Q
S
Q
P
R
P
lig.. 4.1.3. 1he bypass valve bypasses parI oI Ihe ow Irom Ihe pump
and Ihereby reduces Ihe ow in Ihe sysIem
107
4.1.3ModifyingimpeIIerdiameter
AnoIher way oI ad|usIing Ihe perIormance oI a cenIriIugal
pump is by modiIying Ihe impeller diameIer in Ihe pump
meaning, reducing Ihe diameIer and consequenIly
reducing Ihe pump perIormance.
Obviously, reducing Ihe impeller diameIer cannoI be
done while Ihe pump is operaIing. Compared Io Ihe
IhroIIling and bypass meIhods, which can be carried ouI
during operaIion, modiIying Ihe impeller diameIer has
Io be done in advance beIore Ihe pump is insIalled or in
connecIion wiIh service. 1he Iollowing Iormulas show Ihe
relaIion beIween Ihe impeller diameIer and Ihe pump
perIormance.

Please noIe IhaI Ihe Iormulas are an expression oI an
ideal pump. ln pracIice, Ihe pump eIIiciency decreases
when Ihe impeller diameIer is reduced. lor minor changes
oI Ihe impeller diameIer D
x
> 0.8
.
D
n
, Ihe eIIiciency is
only reduced by a Iew -poinIs. 1he degree oI eIIiciency
reducIion depends on pump Iype and duIy poinI (check
speciIic pump curves Ior deIails).
As iI appears Irom Ihe Iormulas, Ihe Ilow and Ihe head
change wiIh Ihe same raIio - IhaI is Ihe raIio change
oI Ihe impeller diameIer in second power. 1he duIy
poinIs Iollowing Ihe Iormulas are placed on a sIraighI
line sIarIing in (0,0). 1he change in power consumpIion
is Iollowing Ihe diameIer change in IourIh power.
4.1.45peedcontroI
1he lasI meIhod oI conIrolling Ihe pump perIormance
IhaI we will cover in Ihis secIion is Ihe variable speed
conIrol meIhod. Speed conIrol by means oI a Irequency
converIer is wiIhouI no doubI Ihe mosI eIIicienI way oI
ad|usIing pump perIormance exposed Io variable Ilow
requiremenIs.
xx xx
R
R

D
lig. 4.1.4. Change in pump perIormance when Ihe impeller
diameIer is reduced
108
5ection4.1
Adjustingpumpperformance

1he Iollowing equaIions apply wiIh close approximaIion Io
how Ihe change oI speed oI cenIriIugal pumps inIluences
Ihe perIormance oI Ihe pump.
1he aIIiniIy laws apply on condiIion IhaI Ihe sysIem
characIerisIic remains unchanged Ior n
n
and n
x
and Iorms
a parabola Ihrough (0,0) - see secIion 3.1.1. 1he power
equaIion IurIhermore implies IhaI Ihe pump eIIiciency is
unchanged aI Ihe Iwo speeds.
1he Iormulas in Iigure 4.1.S show IhaI Ihe pump Ilow (O)
is proporIional Io Ihe pump speed (n). 1he head (R) is
proporIional Io Ihe second power oI Ihe speed (n) whereas
Ihe power (P) is proporIional Io Ihe Ihird power oI Ihe
speed. ln pracIice, a reducIion oI Ihe speed will resulI in a
slighI Iall in eIIiciency. 1he eIIiciency aI reduced speed (n
x
)
can be esIimaIed by Ihe Iollowing Iormula, which is valid
Ior speed reducIion down Io S0 oI Ihe maximum speed.

linally, iI you need Io know precisely how much power you
can save by reducing Ihe pump speed, you have Io Iake Ihe
eIIiciency oI Ihe Irequency converIer and Ihe moIor inIo
accounI.
lig. 4.1.S. SysIem characIerisIics Ior diIIerenI aIIiniIy equaIions
109
4.1.5Comparisonofadjustmentmethods
Now IhaI we have described Ihe Iour diIIerenI ways oI
changing Ihe perIormance oI a cenIriIugal pump, we will
have a look aI how Ihey diIIer Irom one anoIher.
When we consider Ihe pump and iIs perIormance-changing
device as one uniI, we can observe Ihe resulIing OR-
characIerisIic oI Ihis device and compare Ihe resulI oI Ihe
diIIerenI sysIems.
1hrcttIe ccntrcI
1he IhroIIling meIhod implies a valve connecIed in series
wiIh a pump, see Iigure 4.1.6a. 1his connecIion acIs as
a new pump aI unchanged maximum head buI reduced
Ilow perIormance. 1he pump curve R
n
, Ihe valve curve and
Ihe curve covering Ihe compleIe sysIem - R
x
, see Iigure
4.1.6b.
8ypass ccntrcI
When a valve is connecIed across Ihe pump, see Iigure 4.1.7a,
Ihis connecIion acIs as a new pump aI reduced maximum
head and a OR-curve wiIh a changed characIerisIic. 1he
curve will Iend Io be more linear Ihan quadraIic, see Iigure
4.1.7b
Mcdifying impeIIer diameter
1he impeller reducing meIhod does noI imply any exIra
componenIs. ligure 4.1.8 shows Ihe reduced OR-curve (R
x
)
and Ihe original curve characIerisIics (R
n
).
Speed ccntrcI
1he speed conIrol meIhod (Iigure 1.4.9) resulIs in a
new OR-curve aI reduced head and Ilow. 1he characIerisIics
oI Ihe curves remain Ihe same. Rowever, when speed
is reduced Ihe curves become more IlaI, as Ihe head is
reduced Io a higher degree Ihan Ihe Ilow.
Compared Io Ihe oIher meIhods Ihe speed conIrol
meIhod also makes iI possible Io exIend Ihe perIormance
range oI Ihe pump above Ihe nominal OR-curve, simply
by increasing Ihe speed above nominal speed level oI
Ihe pump, see Ihe R
y
-curve in Iigure 4.1.9. lI Ihis over-
synchronous operaIion is used, Ihe size oI Ihe moIor has
Io be Iake inIo accounI.
R
n
R
x
R
y
Speed conIroller
R
n
R
x
D
lig. 4.1.8. lmpeller diameIer ad|usImenI
lig. 4.1.9. Speed conIroller connecIed Io a pump
R
n
R
x
valve
1hroIIle valve
lig. 4.1.6. 1hroIIle valve connecIed in series wiIh a pump
a
b
R
n
R
x
valve
8ypass valve
lig. 4.1.7. 8ypass valve connecIed across Ihe pump
a
b
110
5ection4.1
Adjustingpumpperformance
4.1.6DveraIIefficiencyofthepumpsystem
8oIh Ihe IhroIIling and Ihe bypass meIhod inIroduce some
hydraulic power losses in Ihe valves (P
loss
= k O R). 1hereIore,
Ihe resulIing eIIiciency oI Ihe pumping sysIem is reduced.
keducing Ihe impeller size in Ihe range oI D
x
]D
n
>0.8
does noI have a signiIicanI impacI on Ihe pump
eIIiciency. 1hereIore, Ihis meIhod does noI have a
negaIive inIluence on Ihe overall eIIiciency oI Ihe sysIem.
1he eIIiciency oI speed-conIrolled pumps is only aIIecIed
Io a limiIed exIenI, as long as Ihe speed reducIion does
noI drop below S0 oI Ihe nominal speed. LaIer on, we
will discover IhaI Ihe eIIiciency has only reduced a Iew -
poinIs, and IhaI iI does noI have an impacI on Ihe overall
running economy oI speed-conIrolled soluIions.
4.1.7 xampIe: keIative power consumption
whenthefIowisreducedby20Z
ln an given insIallaIion Ihe Ilow has Io be reduced Irom
O = 60 m
3
]h Io S0 m
3
]h. ln Ihe original sIarIing poinI
(O = 60 m
3
]h and R = 70 m), Ihe power inpuI Io Ihe
pump is seI relaIively Io 100. Depending on Ihe meIhod
oI perIormance ad|usImenI, Ihe power consumpIion
reducIion will vary. Now, leI us have a look aI how
Ihe power consumpIion aIIecIs each oI Ihe perIormance
ad|usImenI meIhods.
111
1hrcttIe ccntrcI
1he power consumpIion is reduced Io abouI 94 when
Ihe Ilow drops. 1he IhroIIling resulIs in an increased head,
see Iigure 4.1.10. 1he maximum power consumpIion is Ior
some pumps aI a lower Ilow Ihan Ihe maximum Ilow. lI
Ihis is Ihe case, Ihe power consumpIion increases because
oI Ihe IhroIIle.
8ypass ccntrcI
1o reduce Ihe Ilow in Ihe sysIem, Ihe valve has Io reduce
Ihe head oI Ihe pump Io SS m. 1his can only be done by
increasing Ihe Ilow in Ihe pump. As iI appears Irom Iigure
4.1.11, Ihe Ilow is consequenIly increased Io 81 m
3
]h, which
resulIs in an increased power consumpIion oI up Io 10
above Ihe original consumpIion. 1he degree oI increase
depends on Ihe pump Iype and Ihe duIy poinI. 1hereIore,
in some cases, Ihe increase in P
2
is equal Io zero and in a
Iew rare cases P
2
mighI even decrease

a liIIle.
Mcdifying impeIIer diameter
When Ihe impeller diameIer is reduced, boIh Ihe Ilow and
Ihe head oI Ihe pump drop. 8y a Ilow reducIion oI 20,
Ihe power consumpIion is reduced Io around 67 oI iIs
original consumpIion, see Iigure 4.1.12.
Speed ccntrcI
When Ihe speed oI Ihe pump is conIrolled, boIh Ihe Ilow
and Ihe head are reduced, see Iigure 4.1.13. ConsequenIly,
Ihe power consumpIion has reduced Io around 6S oI Ihe
original consumpIion.

When iI comes Io obIaining Ihe besI possible eIIiciency, Ihe
impeller diameIer ad|usImenI meIhod or Ihe speed conIrol
meIhod oI Ihe pump are Ihe besI suiIed Ior reducing Ihe
Ilow in Ihe insIallaIion. When Ihe pump has Io operaIe
in a Iixed, modiIied duIy poinI, Ihe impeller diameIer
ad|usImenI meIhod is Ihe besI soluIion. Rowever, when
we deal wiIh an insIallaIion, where Ihe Ilow demand
varies, Ihe speed-conIrolled pump is Ihe besI soluIion.
R |mj
O |m
3
]hj
O
P
2
76
100
94
70
SS
S0 60
lig. 4.1.10. kelaIive power consumpIion - IhroIIle conIrol
R |mj
O |m
3
]hj
O
P
2
70
100
110
SS
S0 60 81
lig. 4.1.11. kelaIive power consumpIion - bypass conIrol
O |m
3
]hj
P
2
100
67
S0 60
R |mj
O
70
SS
lig. 4.1.12. kelaIive power consumpIion - modiIying impeller diameIer
O |m
3
]hj
P
2
100
6S
S0 60
R |mj
O
70
SS
O
lig. 4.1.13. kelaIive power consumpIion - speed conIrol
= ModiIied duIy poinI
= Original duIy poinI
= ModiIied duIy poinI
= Original duIy poinI
= ModiIied duIy poinI
= Original duIy poinI
= ModiIied duIy poinI
= Original duIy poinI
112
5ection4.1
Adjustingpumpperformance
Continuous
adjustment
possibIe?
es
es
No
es
1he resuIting performance
curve wiII have
keduced D
keduced H and changed
curve
keduced D and H
keduced D and H
Method
1hrottIe controI
1hroIIle valve
8ypass controI
8ypass valve
Speed conIroller
D
Modifying impeIIer
diameter
5peed controI
DveraII efficiency
of the pump
system
ConsiderabIy
reduced
5IightIy reduced
5IightIy reduced
65Z
67Z
110Z
94Z
ConsiderabIy
reduced
keIative power
consumption by 20Z
reduction in fIow
R
n

R
x
valve
R
n

R
x
valve
R
n

R
x
R
n

R
x
R
y
lig. 4.1.14. CharacIerisIics oI ad|usImenI meIhods.
Summary
ligure 4.1.14 gives an overview oI Ihe diIIerenI ad|usImenI
meIhods IhaI we have presenIed in Ihe previous secIion.
Lach meIhod has iIs pros and cons which have Io be Iaken
inIo accounI when choosing an ad|usImenI meIhod Ior a
sysIem.
113
As discussed in Ihe previous secIion, speed conIrol oI pumps
is an eIIicienI way oI ad|usIing pump perIormance Io Ihe
sysIem. ln Ihis secIion we will discuss Ihe possibiliIies oI
combining speed-conIrolled pumps wiIh Pl-conIrollers
and sensors measuring sysIem parameIers, such as
pressure, diIIerenIial pressure and IemperaIure. On Ihe
Iollowing pages, Ihe diIIerenI opIions will be presenIed
by examples.
4.2.1ConstantpressurecontroI
A pump has Io supply Iap waIer Irom a break Iank Io
diIIerenI Iaps in a building.

1he demand Ior Iap waIer is varying, so IhereIore Ihe
sysIem characIerisIic varies according Io Ihe required
Ilow. Due Io comIorI and energy savings a consIanI supply
pressure is recommended.
As iI appears Irom Iigure 4.2.1, Ihe soluIion is a speed-
conIrolled pump wiIh a Pl-conIroller. 1he Pl-conIroller
compares Ihe needed pressure p
seI
wiIh Ihe acIual supply
pressure p
1
, measured by a pressure IransmiIIer P1.
lI Ihe acIual pressure is higher Ihan Ihe seIpoinI, Ihe
Pl-conIroller reduces Ihe speed and consequenIly Ihe
perIormance oI Ihe pump, unIil p
1
= p
seI
. ligure 4.2.1 shows
whaI happens when Ihe Ilow is reduced Irom O
max
Io O
1
.
1he conIroller sees Io iI IhaI Ihe speed oI Ihe pump is
reduced Irom n
n
Io n
x
in order Io ensure IhaI Ihe required
discharge pressure is p
1
= p
seI
. 1he pump insIallaIion
ensures IhaI Ihe supply pressure is consIanI in Ihe Ilow
range oI 0 - O
max
. 1he supply pressure is independenI
on Ihe level (h) in Ihe break Iank. lI h changes, Ihe Pl-
conIroller ad|usIs Ihe speed oI Ihe pump so IhaI p
1
always
corresponds Io

Ihe seIpoinI.
p
1
h
O
1
R
1
SeIpoinI p
seI
8reak
Iank
AcIual value p
1
Pressure
IransmiIIer
Pl-
conIroller
Speed
conIroller
1aps
P1
H
D O
1
h O
max
p
seI
n
x
n
n
lig. 4.2.1. WaIer supply sysIem wiIh speed-conIrolled pump delivering
consIanI pressure Io Ihe sysIem
5ection4.2
5peed-controIIedpumpsoIutions
114
4.2.2ConstanttemperaturecontroI
PerIormance ad|usImenI by means oI speed conIrol is
suiIable Ior a number oI indusIrial applicaIions. ligure 4.2.2
shows a sysIem wiIh an in|ecIion moulding machine which
has Io be waIer-cooled Io ensure high qualiIy producIion.
1he machine is cooled wiIh waIer aI 1S
o
C Irom a cooling
planI. 1o ensure IhaI Ihe moulding machine runs properly
and is cooled suIIicienIly, Ihe reIurn pipe IemperaIure has
Io be kepI aI a consIanI level, I
r
= 20
o
C. 1he soluIion is a
speed-conIrolled pump, conIrolled by a Pl-conIroller. 1he
Pl-conIroller compares Ihe needed IemperaIure I
seI
wiIh
Ihe acIual reIurn pipe IemperaIure I
r
, which is measured
by a IemperaIure IransmiIIer 11. 1his sysIem has a Iixed
sysIem characIerisIic and IhereIore Ihe duIy poinI oI Ihe
pump is locaIed on Ihe curve beIween O
min
and O
max
. 1he
higher Ihe heaI loss in Ihe machine, Ihe higher Ihe Ilow
oI cooling waIer needed Io ensure IhaI Ihe reIurn pipe
IemperaIure is kepI aI a consIanI level oI 20
o
C.

4.2.3ConstantdifferentiaIpressureina
circuIatingsystem
CirculaIing sysIems (closed sysIems), see chapIer 3, are
well-suiIed Ior speed-conIrolled pump soluIions. lI is an
advanIage IhaI circulaIing sysIems wiIh variable sysIem
characIerisIic are IiIIed wiIh a diIIerenIial pressure-
conIrolled circulaIor pump, see Iigure 4.2.3.
1he Iigure shows a heaIing sysIem consisIing oI a heaI
exchanger where Ihe circulaIed waIer is heaIed up and
delivered Io Ihree consumers, e.g. radiaIors, by a speed-
conIrolled pump. A conIrol valve is connecIed in series aI
each consumer Io conIrol Ihe Ilow according Io Ihe heaI
requiremenI.
1he pump is conIrolled according Io a consIanI diIIerenIial
pressure, measured across Ihe pump. 1his means IhaI
Ihe pump sysIem oIIers consIanI diIIerenIial pressure in
Ihe O-range oI 0 - O
max
, depicIed as Ihe horizonIal line in
Iigure 4.2.3.
lig. 4.2.2. SysIem wiIh in|ecIion moulding machine and IemperaIure-
conIrolled circulaIor pump ensuring a consIanI reIurn pipe IemperaIure

lig. 4.2.3. ReaIing sysIem wiIh speed-conIrolled circulaIor pump delivering
consIanI diIIerenIial pressure Io Ihe sysIem
11S
4.2.4fIow-compensateddifferentiaI
pressurecontroI
1he main IuncIion oI Ihe pumping sysIem in Iigure 4.2.4
is Io mainIain a consIanI diIIerenIial pressure across Ihe
conIrol valves aI Ihe consumers, e.g. radiaIors. ln order Io
do so, Ihe pump has Io be able Io overcome IricIion losses
in pipes, heaI exchangers, IiIIings, eIc.
As we discussed in chapIer 3, Ihe pressure loss in a sysIem
is proporIional Io Ihe Ilow in second power. 1he besI way
Io conIrol a circulaIor pump in a sysIem like Ihe one shown
in Ihe Iigure on your righI, is Io allow Ihe pump Io deliver a
pressure, which increases when Ihe Ilow increases.
When Ihe demand oI Ilow is low, Ihe pressure losses in Ihe
pipes, heaI exchangers, IiIIings, eIc. are low as well, and
Ihe pump only supplies a pressure equivalenI Io whaI Ihe
conIrol valve requires, R
seI
-R
I
. When Ihe demand oI Ilow
increases, Ihe pressure losses increase in second power
and IhereIore Ihe pump has Io increase Ihe delivered
pressure, depicIed as Ihe blue curve in Iigure 4.2.4.
Such a pumping sysIem can be designed in Iwo diIIerenI
ways.
- 1he diIIerenIial pressure IransmiIIer is placed across Ihe
pump and Ihe sysIem is running wiIh Ilow-compensaIed
diIIerenIial pressure conIrol - DP1
1
, see Iigure 4.2.4.
- 1he diIIerenIial pressure IransmiIIer is placed close Io
Ihe consumers and Ihe sysIem is running wiIh
diIIerenIial pressure conIrol - DP1
2
in Iig. 4.2.4.
1he advanIage oI Ihe IirsI soluIion is IhaI Ihe pump, Ihe
Pl-conIroller, Ihe speed conIrol and Ihe IransmiIIer are
placed close Io one anoIher, making Ihe insIallaIion easy.
1his insIallaIion makes iI possible Io geI Ihe enIire sysIem
as one single uniI, see secIion 4.4. ln order Io geI Ihe
sysIem up and running, pump curve daIa have Io be sIored
in Ihe conIroller. 1hese daIa are used Io calculaIe Ihe Ilow
and likewise Io calculaIe how much Ihe seIpoinI R
seI
has
Io be reduced aI a given Ilow Io ensure IhaI Ihe pump
perIormance meeIs Ihe required blue curve in Iigure 4.2.4.
1he second soluIion wiIh Ihe IransmiIIer placed in Ihe
insIallaIion requires more insIallaIion cosIs because Ihe
IransmiIIer has Io be insIalled aI Ihe insIallaIion siIe and
Ihe necessary cabling has Io be carried ouI as well. 1he
perIormance oI Ihis sysIem is more or less similar Io Ihe
IirsI sysIem. 1he IransmiIIer measures Ihe diIIerenIial
pressure aI Ihe consumer and compensaIes auIomaIically
Ior Ihe increase in required pressure in order Io overcome
Ihe increase in pressure losses in Ihe supply pipes, eIc.
Speed
conIroller
SeIpoinI R
seI
AcIual value R
1
O
1
Pl-
conIroller

DP11
DP12
O
1
O
max
R
seI
R
I
R
1
n
x
n
n
D
H
lig. 4.2.4. ReaIing sysIem wiIh speed-conIrolled circulaIor pump
delivering Ilow-compensaIed diIIerenIial pressure Io Ihe sysIem
116
5ection4.2
5peed-controIIedpumpsoIutions
K
a
p
i
I
e
l

1

S
A large number oI pump applicaIions do noI require Iull
pump perIormance 24 hours a day. 1hereIore, iI is an
advanIage Io be able Io ad|usI Ihe pump's perIormance
in Ihe sysIem auIomaIically. As we saw in secIion 4.1,
Ihe besI possible way oI adapIing Ihe perIormance oI
a cenIriIugal pump is by means oI speed conIrol oI Ihe
pump. Speed conIrol oI pumps is normally made by a
Irequency converIer uniI.
On Ihe Iollowing pages we will have a look aI speed-
conIrolled pumps in closed and open sysIems. 8uI beIore
we dig any IurIher inIo Ihe world oI speed conIrol, we will
presenI Ihe advanIages IhaI speed conIrol provides and
Ihe beneIiIs IhaI speed-conIrolled pumps wiIh Irequency
converIer oIIer.
keduced energy ccnsumpticn
Speed-conIrolled pumps only use Ihe amounI oI energy
needed Io solve a speciIic pump |ob. Compared Io oIher
conIrol meIhods, Irequency-conIrolled speed conIrol
oIIers Ihe highesI eIIiciency and Ihus Ihe mosI eIIicienI
uIilizaIion oI Ihe energy, see secIion 4.1.
lcw Iife cycIe ccsts
As we will see in chapIer S, Ihe energy consumpIion oI a
pump is a very imporIanI IacIor considering a pump's liIe
cycle cosIs. 1hereIore, iI is imporIanI Io keep Ihe operaIing
cosIs oI a pumping sysIem aI Ihe lowesI possible level.
LIIicienI operaIion leads Io lower energy consumpIion and
Ihus Io lower operaIing cosIs. Compared Io Iixed speed
pumps, iI is possible Io reduce Ihe energy consumpIion by
up Io S0 wiIh a speed-conIrolled pump.
Prctecticn cf the envircnment
Lnergy eIIicienI pumps poluIe less and Ihus do noI harm
Ihe environmenI.
lncreased ccmfcrt
Speed conIrol in diIIerenI pumping sysIems provides
increased comIorI. ln waIer supply sysIems, auIomaIic
pressure conIrol and soII-sIarI oI pumps reduce waIer
hammer and noise generaIed by Ioo high pressure in Ihe
sysIem. ln circulaIing sysIems, speed-conIrolled pumps
ensure IhaI Ihe diIIerenIial pressure is kepI aI a level so
IhaI noise in Ihe sysIem is minimised.
keduced system ccsts
Speed-conIrolled pumps can reduce Ihe need Ior
commissioning and conIrol valves in Ihe sysIem.
1hereIore, Ihe IoIal sysIem cosIs can be reduced.
5ection4.3
AdvantagesofspeedcontroI
117
ln many applicaIions, pumps wiIh inIegraIed Irequency
converIer is Ihe opIimum soluIion. 1he reason is IhaI Ihese
pumps combine Ihe beneIiIs oI a speed-conIrolled pump
soluIion wiIh Ihe beneIiIs gained Irom combining a pump,
a Irequency converIer, a Pl-conIroller and someIimes
also a sensor]pressure IransmiIIer in one single uniI
- see Iigure 4.4.1.
A pump wiIh inIegraIed Irequency converIer is noI |usI
a pump, buI a sysIem which is able Io solve applicaIion
problems or save energy in a varieIy oI pump insIallaIions.
As regards replacemenI, pumps wiIh inIegraIed Irequency
converIers are ideal as Ihey can be insIalled insIead oI
pumps aI no exIra insIallaIion cosI. All IhaI
is required is a power supply connecIion and a IiIIing oI
Ihe pump wiIh inIegraIed Irequency converIer in Ihe pipe
sysIem, and Ihen Ihe pump is ready Ior operaIion. All
Ihe insIaller has Io do is Io ad|usI Ihe required seIpoinI
(pressure) aIIer which Ihe sysIem is operaIional.
WhaI Iollows is a brieI descripIion oI Ihe advanIages IhaI
pumps wiIh inIegraIed Irequency converIer have Io oIIer.
asy tc instaII
Pumps wiIh inIegraIed Irequency converIer are |usI as
easy Io insIall as Iixed speed pumps. All you have Io do is
Io connecI Ihe moIor Io Ihe elecIrical power supply and
Ihe pump is in operaIion. 1he manuIacIurer has made all
inIernal connecIions and ad|usImenIs.
0ptimaI energy savings
8ecause Ihe pump, Ihe moIor and Ihe Irequency converIer
are designed Ior compaIibiliIy, operaIion oI Ihe pump
sysIem reduces power consumpIion.
0ne suppIier
One supplier can provide pump, Irequency converIer
and sensor which naIurally IaciliIaIe Ihe dimensioning,
selecIion, ordering procedures, as well as mainIenance
and service procedures.
lig. 4.4.1. Pump uniI wiIh inIegraIed
Irequency converIer and pressure IransmiIIer

SeIpoinI
Pl-
conIroller
lrequency
converIer
5ection4.4
Advantagesofpumpswithintegrated
frequencyconverter
P1
118
Wide perfcrmance range
Pumps wiIh inIegraIed Irequency converIer have a
very broad perIormance range, which enables Ihem Io
perIorm eIIicienIly under widely varied condiIions and Io
meeI a wide range oI requiremenIs. 1hus, Iewer pumps
can replace many Iixed speed pump Iypes wiIh narrow
perIormance capabiliIies.
4.4.1.Performancecurvesofspeed-
controIIedpumps
Now, leI us have a closer look aI how you can read a
speed-conIrolled pump's perIormance curve.
ligure 4.4.2 shows an example oI Ihe perIormance curves
oI a speed-conIrolled pump. 1he hrsI curve shows Ihe OR-
curve and Ihe second curve shows Ihe corresponding power
consumpIion curve.
As you can Iell, Ihe perIormance curves are given Ior every
10 decrease in speed Irom 100 down Io S0. Likewise,
Ihe minimum curve represenIed by 2S oI Ihe maximum
speed is also shown. As we have indicaIed in Ihe diagram,
you can poinI ouI a speciIic duIy poinI OR and hnd ouI aI
which speed Ihe duIy poinI can be reached and whaI Ihe
power consumpIion P
1
is.
4.4.2 5peed-controIIedpumpsindifferent
systems
Speed-conIrolled pumps are used in a wide range oI sysIems.
1he change in pump perIormance and consequenIly Ihe
poIenIial energy saving depend on Ihe sysIem in quesIion.
As we discussed in chapIer 3, Ihe characIerisIic oI a sysIem
is an indicaIion oI Ihe required head a pump has Io deliver,
in order Io IransporI a cerIain quanIiIy oI liquid Ihrough
Ihe sysIem. ligure 4.4.3 shows Ihe perIormance curve and
Ihe sysIem characIerisIic oI a closed and an open sysIem.

70
H
[m]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 D [m
3
h]
D [m
3
h]
35
6
4
2
0
P
1
[kW]
100
90
86
80
70
60
50
25
lig 4.4.2. PerIormance curve Ior a speed-conIrolled pump
lig 4.4.3. SysIem characIerisIic poinI oI a closed and an open
sysIem

R

CIosedsystem Dpensystem

Pumpcurve
5ystem
characteristic
Pumpcurve
5ystem
characteristic
119
Speed-ccntrcIIed pumps in cIcsed systems
ln closed sysIems, like heaIing and air-condiIioning sysIems,
Ihe pump has only Io overcome Ihe IricIion losses in Ihe pipes,
valves, heaI exchangers, eIc. ln Ihis secIion, we will presenI
an example wiIh a speed-conIrolled pump in a closed
sysIem. 1he IoIal IricIion loss by a Iull Ilow oI 1S m
3
]h is 16 m,
see Iigure 4.4.4.
1he sysIem characIerisIic sIarIs in Ihe poinI (0,0), Ihe red
line in Iigure 4.4.S. 1he conIrol valves in Ihe sysIem always
need a cerIain operaIing pressure, so IhereIore Ihe pump
cannoI work according Io Ihe sysIem characIerisIic. 1haI is
why some speed-conIrolled pumps oIIer Ihe proporIional
pressure conIrol IuncIion, which ensures IhaI Ihe pump
will operaIe according Io Ihe orange line shown in Ihe
Iigure. As you can Iell Irom Ihe Iigure 4.4.S, Ihe minimum
perIormance is around S7 oI Ihe Iull speed. ln a circulaIing
sysIem operaIion aI Ihe minimum curve (2S oI Ihe Iull
speed) can be relevanI in some siIuaIions, Ior example
when we deal wiIh nighI-Iime duIy in heaIing sysIems.
R
O = 1S m
2
]h
Consumers
8oiler
or like
lig. 4.4.4. Closed sysIem
H
[m]
4
8
12
16
20
24
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 D [m
3
h]
D [m
3
h]
14 16
12
08
04
0
P
1
[kW]
60
70
80
90
99
100
25
50
lig. 4.4.S. A speed-conIrolled pump in a closed sysIem
120
5ection4.4
Advantagesofpumpswithintegratedfrequencyconverter
Speed-ccntrcIIed pumps in cpen systems
1he sysIem characIerisIic as well as Ihe operaIing range oI
Ihe pump depend on Ihe Iype oI sysIem in quesIion.
ligure 4.4.6 shows a pump in a pressure boosIing ] waIer
supply sysIem. 1he pump has Io supply O = 6.S m
3
]h Io Ihe
Iap, which is placed h = 20 m above Ihe pump. 1he inleI
pressure Io Ihe pump p
s
is 1 bar, Ihe pressure aI Ihe Iap p
I

has Io be 2 bar and Ihe IoIal IricIion loss in Ihe sysIem by
Iull Ilow p
I
is 1.3 bar.
ligure 4.4.7 shows Ihe OR-curve oI a pump, which is
able Io meeI Ihe requiremenIs described beIore. ou can
calculaIe Ihe required head aI zero Ilow (R
o
) by using Ihe
equaIion on your righI.
lI you need Io calculaIe Ihe maximum head aI a Ilow (O) oI
6.S m
3
]h, Ihis is Ihe equaIion Io use.
998
.
9.81
H
max
=H
o
+ =30.2+ =43.5m
p
f
.
g
1.3
.
10
5
1o cover Ihis applicaIion Irom zero Ilow Io maximum Ilow
O = 6.S m
3
]h Ihe pump operaIes in a relaIive narrow speed
band, IhaI is Irom abouI 6S oI Ihe Iull speed and up Io
99 oI Ihe Iull speed. ln sysIems wiIh less IricIion loss
Ihe variaIion in speed will be even smaller. lI no IricIion
loss, Ihe minimum speed in Ihe above case is abouI 79
speed.
As you can Iell Irom Ihe previous Iwo examples, Ihe
possible variaIion in speed and consequenIly in power
consumpIion is highesI in closed sysIems. 1hereIore, Ihe
closed sysIems accounI Ior Ihe highesI energy saving
poIenIial.
h=20m
lig. 4.4.6. Pump in a
waIer supply sysIem
p
t
=2bar
p
s
=1bar
p
f
=1.3bar
D=6.5m
3
Jh
H
p
t
- Pressureattappingpoint
p
s
- 5uctionpressure
p
f
-frictionIoss
D - fIowrate
h - 5taticIift
H
[m]
60
50
40
20
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 D [m
3
h]
D [m
3
h]
12
08
04
0
P
1
[kW]
90
80
70
60
50
25
100
R
O
lig. 4.4.7. A speed-conIrolled pump in an open sysIem
p
t-
p
s
.
g 998
.
9.81
H
o
=h+ =20+ =30.2m
(2-1)
.
10
5
121
4.5.2.Componentsofthefrequency
converter
ln principle, all Irequency converIers consisI oI Ihe same
IuncIional blocks. 1he basic IuncIion is as menIioned
previously, Io converI Ihe mains volIage supply inIo a new
AC volIage wiIh anoIher Irequency and ampliIude.
1he Irequency converIer IirsI oI all recIiIies Ihe incoming
mains volIage and Ihen sIores Ihe energy in an inIermediaIe
circuiI consisIing oI a capaciIor. 1he DC volIage is Ihen
converIed inIo a new AC volIage wiIh anoIher Irequency
and ampliIude.
8ecause oI Ihe inIermediaIe circuiI in Ihe Irequency
converIer Ihe Irequency oI Ihe mains volIage has no direcI
inIluence on Ihe ouIpuI Irequency and Ihus Io Ihe moIor
speed. lI does noI maIIer iI Ihe Irequency is S0Rz or 60Rz
as Ihe recIiIier can handle boIh siIuaIions. AddiIionally, Ihe
incoming Irequency will noI inIluence Ihe ouIpuI Irequency,
as Ihis is deIined by Ihe volIage]Irequency paIIern, which
is deIined in Ihe inverIer. Keeping Ihe above-menIioned
IacIs in mind, using a Irequency converIer in connecIion
wiIh asynchronous moIors provides Ihe Iollowing beneIiIs.
- 1he sysIem can be used in boIh S0 and 60 cycle
areas wiIhouI any modiIicaIions
- 1he ouIpuI Irequency oI Ihe Irequency converIer is
independenI on Ihe incoming Irequency
- 1he Irequency converIer can supply ouIpuI Irequencies
higher Ihan mains supply Irequency - makes
oversynchronous operaIion possible.
As you can Iell Irom Iigure 4.S.2, Ihe Irequency converIer
consisIs oI Ihree oIher componenIs as well. An LMC IilIer,
a conIrol circuiI and an inverIer.
As menIioned earlier, speed conIrol oI pumps involves a
Irequency converIer. 1hereIore, iI will be relevanI Io have
a closer look aI a Irequency converIer, how iI operaIes and
Iinally Io discuss relaIed precauIions by using Ihis device.

4.5.18asicfunctionandcharacteristics
lI is a well-known IacI IhaI Ihe speed oI an asynchronous
moIor depends primarily on Ihe pole number oI Ihe moIor
and Ihe Irequency oI Ihe volIage supplied. 1he ampliIude
oI Ihe volIage supplied and Ihe load on Ihe moIor shaII
also inIluence Ihe moIor speed, however, noI Io Ihe same
degree. ConsequenIly, changing Ihe Irequency oI Ihe
supply volIage is an ideal meIhod Ior asynchronous moIor
speed conIrol. ln order Io ensure a correcI moIor magneIisaIion
iI is also necessary Io change Ihe ampliIude oI Ihe volIage.
A Irequency]volIage conIrol resulIs in a displacemenI oI Ihe
Iorque characIerisIic whereby Ihe speed is changed. ligure
4.S.1 shows Ihe moIor Iorque characIerisIic (1) as a IuncIion
oI Ihe speed (n) aI Iwo diIIerenI Irequencies]volIages. ln
Ihe same diagram is also drawn Ihe load characIerisIic
oI Ihe pump. As iI appears Irom Ihe Iigure, Ihe speed is
changed by changing Irequency]volIage oI Ihe moIor.
1he Irequency converIer changes Irequency and volIage,
so IhereIore we can conclude IhaI Ihe basic Iask oI a
Irequency converIer is Io change Ihe Iixed supply volIage]
Irequency, e.g. 3x400 v] S0Rz, inIo a variable volIage]
Irequency.
lig. 4.S.1. DisplacemenI oI moIor Iorque characIerisIic
n
1
f
2
f
1
f
1
>f
2
lig. 4.S.2. luncIional blocks oI Ihe Irequency converIer
MainssuppIyAC
LMC
hlIer
kecIiher
lnIer-
mediaIe
circuiI DC
lnverIer
ConIrol circuiI
5ection4.5
frequencyconverter
122
1he MC fiIter
1his block is noI parI oI Ihe primary IuncIion oI Ihe
Irequency converIer and IhereIore, in principle, could be leII
ouI oI Ihe Irequency converIer. Rowever, in order Io meeI
Ihe requiremenIs oI Ihe LMC direcIive oI Ihe Luropean
Union or oIher local requiremenIs, Ihe IilIer is necessary.
1he LMC IilIer ensures IhaI Ihe Irequency converIer does
noI send unaccepIably high noise signal back Io Ihe mains
Ihus disIurbing oIher elecIronic equipmenI connecIed Io
Ihe mains. AI Ihe same Iime Ihe IilIer ensures IhaI noise
signals in Ihe mains generaIed by oIher equipmenI do noI
enIer Ihe elecIronic devices oI Ihe Irequency converIer
causing damage or disIurbances.
1he ccntrcI circuit
1he conIrol circuiI block has Iwo IuncIions. lI conIrols Ihe
Irequency converIer and aI Ihe same Iime iI Iakes care oI
Ihe enIire communicaIion beIween Ihe producI and Ihe
surroundings.
1he inverter
1he ouIpuI volIage Irom a Irequency converIer is
noI sinusoidal like Ihe normal mains volIage is. 1he
volIage supplied Io Ihe moIor consisIs oI a number oI
square-wave pulses, see Iigure 4.S.3. 1he mean value oI
Ihese pulses Iorms a sinusoidal volIage oI Ihe desired
Irequency and ampliIude. 1he swiIching Irequency can
be Irom a Iew kRz up Io 20 kRz, depending on Ihe
brand. 1o avoid noise generaIion in Ihe moIor windings, a
Irequency converIer wiIh a swiIching Irequency
above Ihe range oI audibiliIy (16 kRz) is preIerable.
1his principle oI inverIer operaIion is called PWM (Pulse
WidIh ModulaIion) conIrol and iI is Ihe conIrol principle
which is used mosI oIIen in Irequency converIers Ioday.
1he moIor currenI iIselI is almosI sinusoidal. 1his is shown
in Iigure 4.S.4 (a) indicaIing moIor currenI (Iop) and moIor
volIage. ln Iigure 4.S.4 (b) a secIion oI Ihe moIor volIage
is shown. 1his indicaIes how Ihe pulse]pause raIio oI Ihe
volIage changes.
t
U
motor
MeanvaIueofvoItage
1=1Jfm
lig 4.S.3. AC volIage wiIh variable Irequency (Im) and
variable volIage (U
moIor
)
0
0
*
* DetaiI
lig 4.S.4. a) MoIor currenI (Iop) and moIor volIage aI PWM (Pulse WidIh
ModulaIion) conIrol. b) SecIion oI moIor volIage
a b
123
4.5.35peciaIconditionsregarding
frequencyconverters
8y insIalling and using Irequency converIers or pumps
wiIh inIegraIed Irequency converIers, Ihere are some
condiIions, which Ihe insIaller and user have Io be aware
oI. A Irequency converIer will behave diIIerenIly aI Ihe
mains supply side Ihan a sIandard asynchronous moIor.
1his is described in deIail below.
Ncn-sinuscidaI pcwer input, three-phase suppIied
frequency ccnverters
A Irequency converIer designed as Ihe one described above
will noI receive sinusoidal currenI Irom Ihe mains. Among
oIher Ihings Ihis inIluences Ihe dimensioning oI mains
supply cable, mains swiIch, eIc. ligure 4.S.S shows how
mains currenI and volIage appear Ior a.
a) Ihree-phase, Iwo-pole sIandard asynchronous moIor
b) Ihree-phase, Iwo-pole sIandard asynchronous moIor
wiIh Irequency converIer.
ln boIh cases Ihe moIor supplies 3 kW Io Ihe shaII.
A comparison oI Ihe currenI in Ihe Iwo cases shows Ihe
Iollowing diIIerences, see hgure 4.S.6.
- 1he currenI Ior Ihe sysIem wiIh Irequency converIer
is noI sinusoidal
- 1he peak currenI is much higher (approx. S2
higher) Ior Ihe Irequency converIer soluIion
1his is due Io Ihe design oI Ihe Irequency converIer
connecIing Ihe mains Io a recIiIier Iollowed by a capaciIor.
1he charging oI Ihe capaciIor happens during shorI Iime
periods in which Ihe recIiIied volIage is higher Ihan Ihe
volIage in Ihe capaciIor aI IhaI momenI.
As menIioned above, Ihe non-sinusoidal currenI resulIs in
oIher condiIions aI Ihe mains supply side oI Ihe moIor. lor a
sIandard moIor wiIhouI a Irequency converIer Ihe relaIion
beIween volIage (U), currenI (l) and power (P) is shown
in Ihe box on your righI hand side. 1he same Iormula
cannoI be used Ior Ihe calculaIion oI Ihe power inpuI in
connecIion wiIh moIors wiIh Irequency converIers.
lig 4.S.S a). 1hree-phase, Iwo-pole
sIandard asynchronous moIor
lig 4.S.S b). 1hree-phase, Iwo-pole
sIandard asynchronous moIor wiIh
Irequency converIer
MainsvoItage 400V 400V
MainscurrentkM5 6.4A 6.36A
Mainscurrent,peak 9.1A 13.8A
Powerinput,P1 3.68kW 3.69kW
cos,
powerfactor(Pf)
cos=0.83 Pf=0.86
5tandardmotor Motorwithfrequency
converter
lig. 4.S.6. Comparison oI currenI oI a sIandard moIor and a Irequency
converIer
a b
5ection4.5
frequencyconverter
124
ln IacI, in Ihis case, Ihere is no saIeway oI calculaIing
Ihe power inpuI based on simple currenI and volIage
measuremenIs, as Ihese are noI sinusoidal. lnsIead, Ihe
power musI be calculaIed by means oI insIrumenIs and
on Ihe basis oI insIanIaneous measuremenIs oI currenI
and volIage.
lI Ihe power (P) is known as well as Ihe kMS value oI
currenI and volIage, Ihe so-called power IacIor (Pl) can be
calculaIed by Ihe Iormula on your righI hand side.
Unlike whaI is Ihe case when currenI and volIage are
sinusoidal, Ihe power IacIor has no direcI connecIion
wiIh Ihe way in which currenI and volIage are displaced
in Iime.
When measuring Ihe inpuI currenI in connecIion wiIh
insIallaIion and service oI a sysIem wiIh Irequency
converIer iI is necessary Io use an insIrumenI IhaI is capable
oI measuring "non-sinusoidal" currenIs. ln general, currenI
measuring insIrumenIs Ior Irequency converIers musI be
oI a Iype measuring "1rue kMS".
frequency ccnverters and earth-Ieakage circuit
breakers {lC8}
LarIh-leakage circuiI breakers are used increasingly as
exIra proIecIion in elecIrical insIallaIions. lI a Irequency
converIer is Io be connecIed Io such an insIallaIion iI
musI be ensured IhaI Ihe LLC8 insIalled is oI a Iype
which will surely brake - also iI Iailure occurs on Ihe
DC side oI Ihe Irequency converIer. ln order Io be sure
IhaI Ihe LLC8 always will brake in case oI earIh-leakage
currenI Ihe LLC8's Io be used in connecIion wiIh Irequency
converIer musI be labelled wiIh Ihe signs shown in
Iigures 4.S.7 and 4.S.8
8oIh Iypes oI earIh-leakage circuiI breaker are available in
Ihe markeI Ioday.
lig 4.S.7. Labelling oI Ihe LLC8 or single-phase requency converIers
lig 4.S.8. Labelling oI Ihe LLC8 Ior Ihree-phase Irequency converIers
12S