Chapter Three: Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry: Ratios of Combination

3.1 Molecular and Formula Masses 3.6 Calculations with Balanced
3.2 Percent Composition of
Chemical Equations
Compounds
Moles of Reactants and
3.3 Chemical Equations
Products
Interpreting and Writing
Mass of Reactants and
Chemical Equations
Products
Balancing Chemical Equations 3.7 Limiting Reactants
3.4 The Mole and Molar Mass
Determining the Limiting
The Mole
Reactant
Determining Molar Mass
Reaction Yield
Interconverting Mass, Moles,
and Numbers of Particles
Empirical Formula from Percent
Composition
3.5 Combustion Analysis
Determination of Empirical
Formula
Determination of Molecular
Formula

Chapter Three: Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry rests upon the law of conservation of mass, the law of definite
proportions (i.e., the law of constant composition) and the law of multiple
proportions. Since chemical reactions can neither create nor destroy matter, nor
transmute one element into another, the amount of each element must be the
same throughout the overall reaction. For example, the amount of elements x
on the reactant side must equal the amount of element X on the product side.
Stoichiometry is often used to balance chemical equations.
Simply said, when directly comparing two groups of anything, the number of
a specific component in one group must be equal to that same specific
component in the other group.

Molecular and Formula Masses

Molecular mass is the mass in atomic mass units (amu) of individual molecules.
This is obtained by adding the molecular mass in atoms composing the molecule.
Ionic compounds do not have a molecular mass, but the empirical formula to
compute the formula mass

Calculating molecular mass of CO2

Multiply the atomic mass of each element by its
subscript
C = 1 x 12.01 = 12.01 amu
O = 2 x 16.00 = 32.00 amu
Determine the sum
12.01 + 32.00 = 44.01 amu
Molecular mass of H2O = 2(atomic mass of H) + atomic mass of O
2(1.008) amu + 16.00 amu = 18.02

Molecular and Formula Masses

Calculate the molecular or formula mass of (a) magnesium chloride
(MgCl2); (b) sulfuric acid (H2SO4); (3) ibuprofen (C13H18O2)

MgCl2
Mg = 24.31 amu
Cl2 = 2(35.45 amu)
95.21 amu

H2SO4
H2 = 2(1.008 amu)
S = 32.07 amu
O4 = 4(16.00 amu)
98.09 amu

C13H18O2
C13 = 13(12.01 amu)
H18 = 18(1.008 amu)
O2 = 2(16.00 amu)
206.4 amu

Percent Composition of Compounds

Percent composition by mass is a list of the percent
by mass of each element in a compound

% by mass of an element =

n x atomic mass of element

x 100%
molecular or formula mass of compound

% composition allows verification

of purity of a sample

Percent Composition of Compounds

What is the percent composition by mass of H2O2
2 x 1.008 = 2.016
2 x 16.00 = 32.00
(17.01) 34.02
2 x 1.008 amu
% H=
34.02 amu

% 0=

x 100% = 5.926%

2 x 16.00 amu
x 100% = 94.06%
34.02 amu

% H=

1.008 amu
x 100% = 5.926%
17.01 amu

% O= 16.00 amu x 100% = 94.06%

17.01 amu

Percent Composition of Compounds

What is the percent composition by mass of acetaminophen (C8H9NO2)
C8H9NO2
C8 = 8(12.01 amu) = 96.08
H9 = 9(1.008 amu) = 9.072
N = 14.01 amu
= 14.01
O2 = 2(16.00 amu) = 32.00
151.2 amu
= 151.2
% C=

8 x 12.01 amu
x 100% = 63.55%
151.2 amu

% H=

9 x 1.008 amu
x 100% = 6.000%
151.2 amu

% N=

% O=

Total = 99.98%

14.01amu
x 100% = 9.266%
151.2 amu

2 x 16.00 amu
x 100% = 21.16%
151.2 amu

Percent Composition of Compounds

Calculate the percent composition of iron

in a sample of iron(III) oxide
Formula: Fe2O3
Calculate formula mass
Fe = 2 x 55.85 = 111.7 amu
O = 3 x 16.00 = 48.00 amu
111.70 + 48.00 = 159.7 amu

111.7
100%
159.7

69.94%

iron

Writing Chemical Equations

What happens in chemical reactions? How do we express it?
Chemical equations use chemical formulas to denote what
occurs during a chemical reaction.
A chemical equation represents a chemical statement and it is
helpful to read it like a sentence
Arrows represent the
NH + HCl NH Cl direction of the reaction
3

ammonia reacts with hydrogen chloride to produce ammonium chloride

SO3 + H2O H2SO4
sulfur trioxide reacts with water to produce sulfuric acid
chemical species to the left of the arrow are called reactants and those
to the right of the arrow are called products

Writing Chemical Equations

The physical state of the reactants and products should also be labeled
solids = (s)
gas = (g)
liquids = (l)
aqueous = (aq)

C12H22O11 (s)

H2O

sucrose

C12H22O11 (aq)
sucrose

2KClO3 (s)
potassium chlorate

2KCl (s) + 3O2(g)

potassium chloride oxygen

Balancing Chemical Equations

The reaction must be balanced on each side of the arrow. This is
accomplished by writing appropriate stoichiometric coefficients
to the left of the chemical formulas. You can not add or remove
elements to the reactants or products (i.e. can not add or remove
subscripts).
Balanced means the same number of each type of atom
on each side of the equation

Balancing Chemical Equations

Balancing a chemical equation is a trial and error process
you may make changes and then have to remake them later
in the process.

Steps for successful balancing

1. Change coefficients for compounds before
changing coefficients for elements. Never
change subscripts.
2. Treat polyatomic ions as units rather than
individual atoms if they appear on both sides
of the equation.
3. Count carefully, being sure to recount after
each coefficient change.

Balancing Chemical Equations

Balance the equation representing the
combustion of hexane
__C6H14(l) +__O2(g) __CO2(g) +__H2O(l)

C6H14(l) +19/2O2(g)

6CO2(g) + 7H2O(l)

Multiply each coefficient in the equation by 2

to get small, whole numbers.
2C6H14(l) +19 O2(g) 12 CO2(g) + 14H2O(l)

Practice problem A and B

Write and balance the equation for the combustion of propane
(propane reacts with O2 to form carbon dioxide and water).
C3H8 (g)+ O2 (g) CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
3 - 3 - 3 - 3 - C-1 - 1 -3 - 3
8 - 8 - 8 - 8 - H- 2 - 8 - 8 - 8
10 - 2 - 2 - 2 - O - 3 - 6 - 10- 10
C3H8 (g)+ O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)
C3H8 (g)+ O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)
C3H8 (g)+ 5O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)

C3H8 (g)+ 5O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)

Practice problem A and B

Write and balance the equation for the reaction of sulfuric acid with
sodium hydroxide to form water and sodium sulfate.
H2SO4 ( aq)+ NaOH (aq) H2O (l) + Na2SO4 (s)

4-4-3-H -2-2-4
1-1-1-S -1-1-1
6-6-5-O -5-5-6
2 - 2 - 1 - Na- 2 - 2 - 2
H2SO4 ( aq)+ 2NaOH (l) H2O (l) + Na2SO4 (s)
H2SO4 ( aq)+ 2NaOH (l) 2H2O (l) + Na2SO4 (s)
H2SO4 ( aq)+ 2NaOH (l) 2H2O (l) + Na2SO4 (s)

Chemical Equations

Equations can represent physical changes

KClO3(s)

KClO3(l)

Or chemical changes
2 KClO3(s)

2 KCl(s) + 3 O2(g)

Note the symbol for heat above the arrow.

Avogadros Number (NA): the mole

The mole (written in equations as mol) is the number of
things (atoms, molecules, formula units, etc.) as there are
atoms of carbon in exactly 0.012 kg (12 g) of carbon-12.
The currently accepted value of Avogadros number is
6.0221415 x 1023. For our use in chemistry that number will
be shortened to 6.022 x 1023. This is a huge number, but even
small samples of elements may contain many moles of
atoms.
This is our counting number for atoms, ions, molecules
much like a dozen is the counting number for eggs, cookies
and doughnuts.

602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000

Molecular Formulas Using Moles

If atoms have a distinct ratio in compounds, then moles have the same
distinct ratio in large amounts of the same compound
2(6.022 x 1023)
molecules of H2

6.022 x 1023
molecules of O2

2 mol H2 + 1mol O2 =

2(6.022 x 1023)
molecules of H2O

2 mol H2O

Conversion Between Moles and Atoms

How does it work

Its a conversion
factor !!!!
1 mol
6.022 x1023 units
or
6.022 x1023 units
1 mol

Conversion Factors Using Moles

7.31 mol K x

6.022 x 1023 atoms K

1 mol K

8.91 x 1025 atoms K x

6.022 x 1023 atoms He

= 44.0 x 1023 atoms K 1.05 x 10-6 mol He x
= 6.32 x 1017atoms He
1 mol He

1 mol K
6.022 x 1023 atoms K

= 148 mol K

2.33 x 1021 atoms K x

1 mol K
6.022 x 1023 atoms K

= 0.00387 mol K

Determining Molar Mass

Molar mass
- the mass of one mole of
a substance in grams
Carbon = 12.01 grams/mole
Sodium = 22.99 grams/mole
Molar mass in grams is numerically equal to
the atomic mass in amu.

Determining Molar Mass

The molar mass (M) of a substance is the mass in grams of
1 mole of the substance.

Determining Molar Mass

What is molar mass for each of the following?
Copper metal
63.55 g/mol
Hydrogen gas
2.016 g/mol

Determining Molar Mass

Molar mass for compounds
Molar mass in molecules is calculated by
adding the molar mass of individual
components.
Calculate the molar mass of H2O.

H 2 mol x 1.008 g/mol = 2.016 g

O 1 mol x 16.00 g/mol = 16.00 g
Molar mass = 18.02 g/mol

Determining Molar Mass

Calculate the molar mass for each of the
following:
More Conversion
Factors
Carbon dioxide, CO2
44.01 g/mol = 1 mol CO2
Ammonia, NH3
17.03 g/mol = 1 mol NH3
Oxygen gas, O2
32.00 g/mol = 1 mol O2

Interconverting Mass, Moles and Number of Particles

g x mol = mol
g

Interconverting Mass, Moles and Number of Particles

Helpful Hints
Always check unit
cancellations

Think about relative

amounts

Practice Problems
Determine the mass in grams of 2.75 moles of glucose (C6H12O6)
1st determine molar mass of glucose:
then
2.75 mol C6H12O6 x

180.2 g
1 mol

C6 = 6 (12.01 g)
H12 = 12 (1.008 g)
O6 = 6 (16.00 g)
180.2 g = 1mol glucose

= 495.6 g

Determine the number of moles in 59.8 g of sodium nitrate (NaNO3)

1st determine molar mass of sodium nitrate:
then
59.8 g NaNO3 x

1 mol
85.00 g

Na = 22.99 g
N = 14.01 g
O3 = 3 (16.00 g)
85.00 g = 1mol NaNO3

= 0.704 mol

Sample Problem

Practice Problems
Calculate the number of oxygen gas molecules in 35.5 g O2
35.5 g O2 x

1 mol
32.00 g

23 molecules
6.022
x
10
x
= 6.68 x 1023 molecules O2
1 mol

Calculate the mass of 12.3 moles of SO3 molecules

S =
32.07 g
O3 = 3 (16.00 g)
80.07 g

12.3 mol SO3 x

80.07 g
= 985 g SO3
1 mol

Conversions
Determine the number of moles in 85.00
grams of sodium chlorate, NaClO3
85.00 g NaClO3

1mol NaClO3
106.44 g NaClO3

0.7986 mol NaClO3

Determine the number of molecules in 4.6 mol of

ethanol, C2H5OH.
6.02 10 23 molecules C2 H 5OH
4.6 mol C2 H 5OH
1 mol C2 H 5OH

2.8 10 24 molecules C2 H 5OH

Conversions
Determine how many H atoms are in 4.6 mol of
ethanol, C2H5OH.

6.02 10 23 molecules C2H5OH

4.6 mol C2H5OH
1mol C2H5OH

2.8 10 24 molecules C2H5OH

6 H atoms C2H5OH
2.8 10 molecules C2H5OH
1.7 10 25 H atoms
1molecule C2H5OH
24

Your Turn

Solve the following conversions

How many atoms of silver are in 3.50 moles
of silver?
Determine the number of moles of carbon
disulfide in 34.75 grams of CS2.
Determine the number of sulfur atoms in
34.75 grams of CS2.

Another

How many grams of oxygen are present in

5.75 moles of aluminum oxide, Al2O3?
Strategy:

A Challenge

Determine the number of fluorine atoms in

24.24 grams of sulfur hexafluoride.
(hint: make a plan first!)

Determination of Empirical Formula

Empirical and Molecular Formulas
An empirical formula uses simplest
whole-number ratio for subscripts
A molecular formula expresses the exact
number of atoms in the molecule
Often a whole-number multiple of the
empirical formula

Empirical formulas can be

determined from % composition data

Determination of Empirical Formula

Steps for determining empirical formulas
Convert given amounts to moles.
Divide moles of each component by the
smallest number of moles to determine the
ratio.
If the ratio is not a small whole number,
multiply each by an integer to convert to small
whole numbers.
The small whole numbers represent subscripts
in the formula.

Empirical Formula from Percent Composition

2.173 mol
1
2

NO2

52.15 g C x

1 mol
= 4.342 mol
12.01 g

13.13 g H x

1 mol
1.008 g

34.73 g O x

= 13.03 mol

2.171 mol

1 mol
= 2.171 mol
16.00 g

C2H6O

B
85.63 g C x

1 mol
= 7.130 mol
12.01 g

7.130 mol
14.37 g H x

1 mol
= 14.26 mol
1.008 g

CH2

Combustion Analysis
Analyses of hydrocarbon compounds are
performed using an apparatus like the one
below.

Combustion Analysis

The data obtained allows an empirical

formula to be determined.
The mass of products (carbon dioxide and
water) are measured in the traps.
From the mass of these products, the mass
of carbon and hydrogen can be derived.

Combustion Analysis

C = 12.01 g
H = 2 x 1.008 g
O = 16.00 g
30.03 g
0.627
1
2

180g
=6
30g
CH2O x 6 = C6H12O6

We know the molecular mass of the empirical formula ( 30 g) that we determined.

If we know the approximate molecular mass of what was being combusted, we can
determine the molecular formula. In this case it is glucose which has a molecular
mass of approximately 180 g

Molecular Formula Determination Practice Problems

mass of C

42.1 g CO2 x

1 mol CO2
1 mol C
x
44.01 g
1 mol CO2

12.01 g C
1 mol C

= 11.5 g C

mass of H

11.5 g H2O x

1 mol HO2
2 mol H
x
18.02 g
1 mol H2O

1.008 g H
1 mol H

= 1.29 g H

0.957

empirical mass

11.5 g C
+1.29 g H
12.8 g
28.1 g ascorbic acid
-12.8 g
15.3 g O

11.5 g C x

1 mol
12.01 g

= 0.957 mol C

1.00

12.01 g

1.29 g H x

1 mol
1.008 g

= 1.29 mol H

1.35

1.36 g

Ascorbic acid mass divided by empirical

mass gives empirical formula units

15.3 g O x

1 mol
16.00 g

= 0.958 mol O

1.00

16.00 g

176 g 29.37 g = 6

29.37 g

empirical formula = CH1.35O x 6 = molecular formula of C6H8O6

= C H O x 2 = molecular formula of C6H8O6
3

Practice Problem B

1 mol CO2
1 mol C
x
44.01 g
1 mol CO2

mass of C

5.38 g CO2 x

mass of H

1 mol H2O
2 mol H
1.10 g H2O x
x
18.02 g
1 mol H2O

12.01 g C
1 mol C

1.008 g H
1 mol H

0.122

empirical mass

1 mol
12.01 g

= 0.122 mol C

1.00

12.01 g

0.123 g H x 1 mol
1.008 g

= 0.122 mol H

1.00

1.008 g

1 mol
16.00 g

= 0.244 mol O

1.47 g C x

3.91 g O x

2.00

= 1.47 g C

= 0.123 g H

1.47 g C
+0.123 g H
1.59 g
5.50 g ascorbic acid
-1.59 g
3.91 g O

Ascorbic acid mass divided by empirical

mass gives empirical formula units

90 g 45.02 g = 2.0

32.00 g
45.02 g

empirical formula = HCO2 x 2 = molecular formula of H2C2O4

3.6 Calculations with Balanced Chemical Equations

Balanced equations allow chemists and

chemistry students to calculate various
amounts of reactants and products.
The coefficients in the equation are used as
mole ratios.

Calculations with Balanced Chemical Equations:

Moles of Reactants and Products

Stoichiometric equivalents
These stoichiometric equivalents can be used as conversion factors
2 mol CO
2 mol CO2
1 mol O2
2 mol CO2

2 mol CO2
1 mol O2

2 mol CO2
2 mol CO
and

2 mol CO
1 mol O2

1 mol O2
2 mol CO

These conversion factors allow us to determine how many moles of CO2 will be produced from
a given molar amount of CO or how much CO is necessary to produce a given molar amount
of CO2.
2 mol CO
3.82 mol CO x

Sample: if we have 3.82 mol of CO

how much CO2 can be produced and
how much O2 is needed.

3.82 mol CO x

2 mol CO

= 3.82 mol CO2

1 mol O2
= 1.91 mol O2
2 mol CO2

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

conversion factors
1 mol N2
2 mol NH3

3 mol H2
2 mol NH3

3 mol H2
1 mol N2

0.0880 mol N2 x

3 mol H2
= 0.2640 mol H2
1 mol N2

0.0880 mol N2 x

2 mol NH3
= 0.176 mol NH3
1 mol N2

To check our answer

0.2640 mol H2 x

2 mol NH3
= 0.176 mol NH3
3 mol H2

Calculations with Balanced Chemical Equations:

Mass of Reactants and Products

Balanced chemical equations give us the relative

amounts of reactants and products in terms of moles.
However, in the lab we have to measure reactants and
products by weighing them, so most calculations start
with mass rather than with the number of moles.

Practice Problems

6 mol CO2
1 mol C6H12O6
56.8 g C6H12O6 x

6 mol H2O
1 mol C6H12O6

6 mol O2
1 mol C6H12O6

1 mol C6H12O6
= 0.315 mol C6H12O6
180.2 g C6H12O6

Formula (molar) masses

1 mol C6H12O6 = 180.2 g
1 mol CO2 = 44.01g
1 mol H2O = 18.02 g

0.315 mol C6H12O6 x

1.89 mol H2O x

56.8 g C6H12O6 x

175 g H2O x

6 mol H2O
= 1.89 mol H2O
1 mol C6H12O6

18.02 g H2O
1 mol H2O

= 34.06 g H2O

1 mol C6H12O6
6 mol H2O
18.02 g H2O
x
x
= 34.06 g H2O
180.2 g C6H12O6
1 mol C6H12O6
1 mol H2O

1 mol H2O
1 mol C6H12O6
180.2 g C6H12O6
x
x
= 291.7 g C6H12O6
18.02 g H2O
6 mol H2O
1 mol C6H12O6

You Try

How many grams of carbon dioxide are

needed to produce 125 grams of urea?
2NH3 (g) + CO2 (g)

(NH2)2CO (aq) + H2O (l)

3.7 Limiting Reactants

Limiting reactant - the reactant that is used
up first in a reaction (limits the amount of
product produced)
Excess reactant - the one that is left over
Industry often makes the more expensive
reactant the limiting one to ensure its complete
conversion into products

Limiting Reactant
If one loaf of bread contains 16 slices of
bread and a package of lunchmeat contains
10 slices of turkey, how many sandwiches
can be made with 2 pieces of bread and one
slice of meat?
Which is the limiting reactant? How much
excess reactant is left?

Limiting Reactant
How do you identify a limiting reactant
problem?
Example:
If 5.0 moles of hydrogen react with 5.0
moles of oxygen, how many moles of water
can be produced?
Notice: both reactant amounts are given and a
product amount is requested

Practice Problem

N2 = 28.02 g
H2 = 2.016 g
NH3 =17.03 g

1 mol N2
3 mol H2

1 mol N2
2 mol NH3

35 g N2 x 1 mol N2 = 1.249 mol N2

28.02 g N2

6.200 mol H2
- 3.747 mol H2
2.453 mol H2

12.5 g H2 x 1 mol H2 = 6.200 mol H2

2.016 g H2
1.249 mol N2 x

3 mol H2 = 3.747 mol H

2
1 mol N2

6.200 mol H2 x

1 mol N2
= 2.067 mol N2
3 mol H2

2.453 mol H2 x

H2 is the excess reactant and N2 is the limiting reactant

1.249 mol N2 x

2 mol NH3
x
1 mol N2

3 mol H2
2 mol NH3

17.03 g NH3
= 42.54 g NH3
1 mol NH3

2.016 g H2
= 4.945 g H2
1 mol H2
4.945 g excess H2
+ 42.54 g NH3
47.5 g

Your Turn

When 35.50 grams of nitrogen react with

25.75 grams of hydrogen, how many grams
of ammonia are produced?
How many grams of excess reagent remain
in the reaction vessel?

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

Reaction Yield
Theoretical yield: the amount of product formed when all the limiting
reactant reacts to form the desired product.
Actual yield: the actual amount of product obtained from a reaction
Percent yield: what percentage the actual yield is of the theoretical yield.

actual yield
% yield =
x 100%
theoretical yield

Example of Reaction Yield

O

Br
H2N

N
H

CHO

S
F

N
H

Br
N

2 HCl

N
H

S
(A P Q 2 H C l)
M e O H , T H F , N a O H (aq )

N a B H 4 , M e O H /T H F

N
H

(9 1 .4 % )

(9 3 .1 % )
O

O
Br

Br
S

N
H

N
H

N
H

R e c ry s ta lliz a tio n fro m

E tO H
(5 2 .6 % )

S
F

C ru d e R E P 8 8 3 9

O v e ra ll y ie ld o f 3 8 .4 % fo r 6 s te p s fro m D B M T
R e a c tio n s e q u e n c e s c a le d to > 2 0 0 g D B M T
F in a l P u rity > 9 9 % b y H P L C

N
H

REP8839

N
H

N
H

Solving Percent Yield Problems

Step 1: Balanced equation

Step 2: Calculate theoretical yield
Step 3: Substitute into formula and solve

Sample Problem

Practice Problem

1 mol CH3CH2OH
68.6 g CH3CH2OH x
= 1.49 mol CH3CH2OH
46.07 g CH3CH2OH
(EtOH)

1.49 mol CH3CH2OH x

1 mol CH3CH2OCH2CH3
= 0.745 mol CH3CH2OCH2CH3
2 mol CH3CH2OH
(Ether)

0.745 mol CH3CH2OCH2CH3 x 74.12 g CH3CH2OCH2CH3 = 55.22 g CH3CH2OCH2CH3

1 mol CH3CH2OCH2CH3

16.1 g
% yield =
55.22 g

x 100% = 29.2%

1 mol CH3CH2OH
221.0 g CH3CH2OH x
= 4.797 mol CH3CH2OH
46.07 g CH3CH2OH
(EtOH)

4.797 mol CH3CH2OH x

1 mol CH3CH2OCH2CH3
= 2.399 mol CH3CH2OCH2CH3
2 mol CH3CH2OH
(Ether)

2.399 mol CH3CH2OCH2CH3 x

74.12 g CH3CH2OCH2CH3
= 177.8 g CH3CH2OCH2CH3
1 mol CH3CH2OCH2CH3

actual yield
73.2 % =
x 100% = 130.1 g
177.8 g

actual yield = 130.1 g

Some Reaction Types

Combination: one product is formed

Decomposition: one reactant produces more
than one product
Combustion: a hydrocarbon reacts with
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water

Combination Reactions

General formula: A + B AB
Sodium + chlorine sodium chloride
2Na + Cl2
2 NaCl
Sulfur dioxide + water sulfurous acid
SO2 + H2O
H2SO3

Decomposition Reactions
General formula: AB
A+B
Copper (II) carbonate decomposes with heat
into copper (II) oxide and carbon dioxide
CuCO3
CuO + CO2
Potassium bromide decomposes into its
elements
2KBr 2K + Br2

Combustion (hydrocarbons) Reactions

General formula: CxHy + O2 CO2 + H2O

Methane gas burns completely
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
Butane liquid in a lighter ignites
2C4H10 + 13O2 8CO2 + 10H2O