UNIT 1 ASTRONOMICAL SCALES

Astronomical Scales

Structure
1.1

Introduction
Objectives

1.2
1.3
1.4

Astronomical Distance, Mass and Time Scales

Brightness, Radiant Flux and Luminosity
Measurement of Astronomical Quantities
Astronomical Distances
Stellar Radii
Masses of Stars
Stellar Temperature

1.5
1.6
1.7

Summary
Terminal Questions
Solutions and Answers

1.1

INTRODUCTION

You have studied in Units 9 to 11 of the Foundation Course in Science and

Technology (FST-1) that the universe is vast. You know that the Sun is one amongst
billions of stars situated in as many galaxies. You have also learnt that the distances
between planets and stars are huge, and so are their masses. For example, the distance
between the Sun and the Earth is of the order of 1.51011m. The radius of the Sun
itself is about 7108m, which is almost 100 times the Earths radius. The mass of the
Earth is of the order of 1024kg and the Suns mass is a million times larger. The time
scales involved are also huge. For example, the estimated age of the Sun is about
5 billion years, compared to the lifetime of a human being, which is less than
100 years in most cases. All these numbers are very large compared to the lengths,
masses and time scales we encounter everyday. Obviously, we need special methods
to measure them and represent them.
The distances and masses of celestial objects are of fundamental interest to astronomy.
Does a star in the night sky seem bright to us because it is closer, or is it so because it
is intrinsically bright? The answer can be obtained if we know the distance to a star.
You have also learnt in Unit 10 of FST-1 that the mass of a star determines how it will
evolve.
In this unit we introduce you to some important physical quantities of interest in
astronomy, such as distance, size, mass, time, brightness, radiant flux, luminosity,
temperature and their scales. You will also learn about some simple methods of
measuring these quantities. In the next unit, you will learn about the various
coordinate systems used to locate the positions of celestial objects.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

describe the distance, mass, time and temperature scales used in astronomy and
astrophysics;

compare the brightness and luminosity of astronomical objects; and

determine the distance, size and mass of astronomical objects from given data.
5

Basics of Astronomy

1.2

ASTRONOMICAL DISTANCE, MASS AND TIME

SCALES

In astronomy, we are interested in measuring various physical quantities, such as

mass, distance, radius, brightness and luminosity of celestial objects. You have just
learnt that the scales at which these quantities occur in astronomy are very different
from the ones we encounter in our day-to-day lives.
Therefore, we first need to understand these scales and define the units of
measurement for important astrophysical quantities.
We begin with astronomical distances.
Astronomical Distances
You have studied in your school textbooks that the Sun is at a distance of about
1.5 1011m from the Earth. The mean distance between the Sun and the Earth is
called one astronomical unit. Distances in the solar system are measured in this unit.
Another unit is the light year, used for measuring distances to stars and galaxies.
The parsec is a third unit of length measurement in astronomy.
We now define them.

Units of measurement of distances

1 Astronomical Unit (AU) is the mean distance between the Sun and the
Earth.
1 AU = 1.496 1011m

1 Light Year (ly) is the distance travelled by light in one year.

1 ly = 9.460 1015m = 6.323 104 AU

1 Parsec (pc) is defined as the distance at which the radius of Earths orbit
subtends an angle of 1 (see Fig.1.1).
1 pc = 3.262 ly = 2.062 105AU = 3.085 1016m

EARTH

angle = 1 arc second

1 AU

SUN
STAR

distance = 1 parsec

Fig.1.1: Schematic diagram showing the definition of 1 parsec. Note that 1 60 and 1 = 60.
Thus, 1 = 1/3600 degree

Astronomical Scales

Dimensions of Astronomical Objects

The sizes of stars or stellar dimensions are usually measured in units of solar radius
R. For example, Sirius (yqC/kd), the brightest star in the sky, has radius 2R. The
radius of the star Aldebaran (jksfg.kh) in Taurus is 40R and that of Antares (T;s"Bk) in
Scorpius is 700 R.

Unit of measurement of size

1 solar radius, R = 7 108m

Mass
Stellar masses are usually measured in units of solar mass M. We know that
M = 2 1030 kg. For example, the mass of our galaxy is ~ 1011 M. The mass of a
globular cluster is of the order of 105 106 M. S. Chandrasekhar showed (Unit 11)
that the mass of a white dwarf star cannot exceed 1.4 M. This is called the
Chandrasekhar limit.

Unit of measurement of mass

1 solar mass M = 2 1030 kg

Time Scales
The present age of the Sun is about 5 billion years. It has been estimated that it would
live for another 5 billion years in its present form. The age of our galaxy may be
around 10 billion years. Various estimates of the age of the universe itself give a
figure between 12 and 16 billion years. On the other hand, if the pressure inside a star
is insufficient to support it against gravity, then it may collapse in a time, which may
be measured in seconds, rather than in millions of years.
In Table 1.1, we list the distances, sizes and masses of some astronomical objects.
Table 1.1: Distance, radii and masses of astronomical objects

Sun
Earth
Jupiter

Distance

Radius

Mass

Remarks

1 AU

1 R

1 M

0.01 R

10 M

4 AU
(5 AU from
the Sun)

0.1 R

10 M

Largest planet

Proxima
Centauri

1.3 pc

0.15 R

0.12 M

Nearest star

Sirius A

2.6 pc

2 R

3 M

Brightest star

Sirius B

2.6 pc

0.02 R

1 M

First star identified

as white dwarf

Antares

150 pc

700 R

15 M

Super giant star

7

Basics of Astronomy

You may like to express the distances and sizes of some astronomical objects in
various units introduced here.
Spend
10 min.

SAQ 1
a) Express the distance between Jupiter and Sun in parsecs, and the distance between
the Earth and the Sun in light years.
b) Express the radius of the Earth in units of R.
Next time when you look at the familiar stars in the night sky, you will have some
idea of how far these are from us, and also how massive they are.
An important problem in astronomy is to find out how much energy is emitted by
celestial objects. It is expressed in terms of the luminosity and is related to the radiant
flux and brightness of the object. You may have noticed that some stars in the night
sky appear bright to us, some less bright and others appear quite faint. How do we
estimate their real brightness? Let us find out.

1.3

BRIGHTNESS, RADIANT FLUX AND LUMINOSITY

It is a common experience that if we view a street lamp from nearby, it may seem
quite bright. But if we see it from afar, it appears faint. Similarly, a star might look
bright because it is closer to us. And a really brighter star might appear faint because it
is too far. We can estimate the apparent brightness of astronomical objects easily, but,
if we want to measure their real or intrinsic brightness, we must take their distance
into account. The apparent brightness of a star is defined in terms of what is called
the apparent magnitude of a star.
Apparent Magnitude
In the second century B.C., the Greek astronomer Hipparchus was the first astronomer
to catalogue stars visible to the naked eye. He divided stars into six classes, or
apparent magnitudes, by their relative brightness as seen from Earth. He numbered
the apparent magnitude (m) of a star on a scale of 1 (the brightest) to 6 (the least
bright). This is the scale on which the apparent brightness of stars, planets and other
objects is expressed as they appear from the Earth. The brightest stars are assigned
the first magnitude (m = 1) and the faintest stars visible to the naked eye are
assigned the sixth magnitude (m = 6).

Apparent Magnitude
Apparent magnitude of an astronomical object is a measure of how
bright it appears. According to the magnitude scale, a smaller
magnitude means a brighter star.

The magnitude scale is actually a non-linear scale. What this means is that a star, two
magnitudes fainter than another, is not twice as faint. Actually it is about 6.3 times
fainter. Let us explain this further.
The response of the eye to increasing brightness is nearly logarithmic. We, therefore,
need to define a logarithmic scale for magnitudes in which a difference of 5
magnitudes is equal to a factor of 100 in brightness. On this scale, the brightness
ratio corresponding to 1 magnitude difference is 1001/5 or 2.512.
Therefore, a star of magnitude 1 is 2.512 times brighter than a star of magnitude 2.
8

It is (2.512)2 = 6.3 times brighter than a star of magnitude 3.

Astronomical Scales

How bright is it compared to stars of magnitude 4 and 5?

3

It is (2.512) = 16 times brighter than a star of magnitude 4.

4

And (2.512) = 40 times brighter than a star of magnitude 5.

5

As expected, it is 2.512 = 100 times brighter than a star of magnitude 6.

For example, the pole star (Polaris, Dhruva) has an apparent magnitude +2.3 and the
star Altair has apparent magnitude 0.8. Altair is about 4 times brighter than Polaris.
Mathematically, the brightness b1 and b2 of two stars with corresponding magnitudes
m1 and m2 are given by the following relations.
Relationship between brightness and apparent magnitude
b
m1 m2 = 2.5 log10 2
b1

(1.1)

b2
= 100 ( m1 m2 ) / 5
b1

b1
= 100 (m1 m2 ) / 5
b2

(1.2)

In Table 1.2, we give the brightness ratio for some magnitude differences.
Table 1.2: Brightness ratio corresponding to given magnitude difference
Magnitude Difference

Brightness Ratio

0.0

1.0

0.2

1.2

1.0

2.5

1.5

4.0

2.0

6.3

2.5

10.0

3.0

16.0

4.0

40.0

5.0

100.0

7.5

1000.0

10.0

10000.0

Modern astronomers use a similar scale for apparent magnitude. With the help of
telescopes, a larger number of stars could be seen in the sky. Many stars fainter than
the 6th magnitude were also observed. Moreover, stars brighter than the first
magnitude have also been observed.
Thus a magnitude of zero or even negative magnitudes have been assigned to extend
the scale. A star of 1 magnitude is 2.512 times brighter than the star of zero
magnitude. The brightest star in the sky other than the Sun, Sirius A, has an apparent
magnitude of 1.47.

Basics of Astronomy

The larger magnitude on negative scale indicates higher brightness while the
larger positive magnitudes indicate the faintness of an object.
The faintest object detectable with a large modern telescope in the sky currently is of
magnitude m = 29.
22

Therefore, the Sun having the apparent magnitude m = 26.81, is 10 times brighter
than the faintest object detectable in the sky.
In the following table we list the apparent magnitudes of some objects in the night
sky.
Table 1.3: Apparent magnitudes of some celestial objects
Object

Indian Name

Apparent Magnitude

Sun

Surya

26.81

Full Moon

Chandra

12.73

Venus

Shukra

4.22

Jupiter

Guru

2.60

Sirius A

Vyadha

1.47

Canopus

Agastya

0.73

-Centauri

0.10

Betelgeuse

Ardra

+0.80

Spica

Chitra

+0.96

Polaris

Dhruva

+2.3

Uranus

Varuna

+5.5

Sirius B

+8.68

Pluto

+14.9

Faintest Star
(detected by a modern
telescope)

+29

Let us now apply these ideas to a concrete example.

Example 1: Comparison of Brightness
Compare the brightness of the Sun and -Centauri using the apparent magnitudes
listed in the Table 1.3.
Solution
From Table 1.3, mSun mC = 26.81 ( 0.10) = 26.71. Therefore, using
Eq. (1.2), we obtain
bC
bSun

= 100 ( 26.71) / 5 = 10 10.7

or
bSun
bC
10

= 1010.7 , i.e. the Sun is about 10 times brighter than -Centauri.

11

You may now like to solve a problem based on what you have studied so far.

Astronomical Scales

SAQ 2
a) The apparent magnitude of the Sun is 26.81 and that of the star Sirius is 1.47.
Which one of them is brighter and by how much?

Spend
10 min.

b) The apparent magnitudes of the stars Arcturus and Aldebaran are 0.06 and 0.86,
respectively. Calculate the ratio of their brightness.
The apparent magnitude and brightness of a star do not give us any idea of the total
energy emitted per second by the star. This is obtained from radiant flux and the
luminosity of a star.

Luminosity and Radiant Flux

The luminosity of a body is defined as the total energy radiated by it per unit
time.
Radiant flux at a given point is the total amount of energy flowing through per
unit time per unit area of a surface oriented normal to the direction of
propagation of radiation.

The unit of radiant flux is erg s

cm and that of luminosity is erg s .

In astronomy, it is common to use the cgs system of units. However, if you wish to
convert to SI units, you can use appropriate conversion factors.
Note that here the radiated energy refers to not just visible light, but includes all
wavelengths.
The radiant flux of a source depends on two factors:
(i) the radiant energy emitted by it, and
(ii) the distance of the source from the point of observation.
Suppose a star is at a distance r from us. Let us draw an imaginary sphere of radius r
round the star. The surface area of this sphere is 4 r2. Then the radiant flux F of the
star, is related to its luminosity L as follows:

F=

L
4r 2

(1.3)

The luminosity of a stellar object is a measure of the intrinsic brightness of a star. It is

expressed generally in the units of the solar luminosity, L, where
L = 4 10 26 W = 4 10 33 erg s 1

For example, the luminosity of our galaxy is about 1011 L.

Now, the energy from a source received at any place, determines the brightness of the
source. This implies that F is related to the brightness b of the source: the brighter the
source, the larger would be the radiant flux at a place. Therefore, the ratio of
brightness in Eq. (1.2) can be replaced by the ratio of radiant flux from two objects at
the same place and we have
F2
= 100 ( m1 m2 ) / 5
F1

(1.4)
11

Basics of Astronomy

You know from Eq. (1.3) that the flux received at a place also depends on its distance
from the source. Therefore, two stars of the same apparent magnitude may not be
equally luminous, as they may be located at different distances from the observer: A
stars apparent brightness does not tell us anything about the luminosity of the star.
We need a measure of the true or intrinsic brightness of a star. Now, we could easily
compare the true brightness of stars if we could line them all up at the same distance
from us (see Fig. 1.2). With this idea, we define the absolute magnitude of a star as
follows:

Absolute Magnitude
The absolute magnitude, M, of an astronomical object is defined as its
apparent magnitude if it were at a distance of 10 pc from us.

Fig.1.2: Absolute magnitude of astronomical objects

Let us now relate the absolute magnitude of a star to its apparent magnitude. Let us
consider a star at a distance r pc with apparent magnitude m, intrinsic brightness or
luminosity L and radiant flux F1. Now when the same star is placed at a distance of
10 pc from the place of observation, then its magnitude would be M and the
corresponding radiant flux would be F2. From Eq. (1.4), we have
F2
= 100 ( m M ) / 5
F1

(1.5)

Since the luminosity is constant for the star, we use Eq. (1.3) to write
r pc

=
F1 10 pc

F2

(1.6)

Using Eq. (1.6) in Eq. (1.5), we get the difference between the apparent magnitude
(m) and absolute magnitude (M ).
12

Astronomical Scales

It is a measure of distance and is called the distance modulus (see Fig. 1.3).

Distance modulus
r pc
= 5 log10 r 5
m M = 5 log10
10 pc

(1.7)

Farther away

Closer

Fig.1.3: Star cluster showing distance modulus as a measure of distance. For the star farther away,
m = 12.3, M = 2.6, r = 871 pc. For the closer star, m = 8.0, M = 5.8, r = 28 pc

We can also relate the absolute magnitudes of stars to their luminosities. From
Eq. (1.3), we know that the ratio of radiant flux of two stars at the same distance
from the point of observation is equal to the ratio of their luminosities. Thus, if M1
and M2 are the absolute magnitudes of two stars, using Eq. (1.5), we can relate their
luminosities to M1 and M2.
Relationship between Luminosity and Absolute Magnitude
L2
= 100 ( M1 M 2 ) / 5
L1

(1.8)

or
L
M 1 M 2 = 2.5 log10 2
L1

(1.9)

Thus, the absolute magnitude of a star is a measure of its luminosity, or intrinsic

brightness.
Often if we know what kind of star it is, we can estimate its absolute magnitude. We
can measure its apparent magnitude (m) directly and solve for distance using
Eq. (1.7). For example, the apparent magnitude of Polaris (pole star) is +2.3. Its
absolute magnitude is 4.6 and it is 240 pc away. The apparent magnitude of Sirius A
is 1.47, its absolute magnitude is +1.4 and it is at a distance of 2.7 pc.
You may now like to stop for a while and solve a problem to fix these ideas.
SAQ 3

Spend
5 min.

a) The distance modulus of the star Vega is 0.5. At what distance is it from us?
b) If a star at 40 pc is brought closer to 10 pc, i.e., 4 times closer, how bright will it
appear in terms of the magnitude?
13

Basics of Astronomy

We now discuss some simple methods of measuring astronomical distances, sizes,

masses and temperatures.

1.4

MEASUREMENT OF ASTRONOMICAL
QUANTITIES

Since the brightness of heavenly objects depends on their distances from us, the
measurement of distance is very important in astronomy. You must have measured the
lengths of several objects in your school and college laboratories. But how do we
measure astronomical distances? Obviously, traditional devices like the metre stick or
measuring tapes are inadequate for such measurements. Other less direct ways need to
be used. We now discuss some common methods of measuring astronomical
distances. Since stars have been studied most extensively, we will focus largely on
them in our discussion.

1.4.1

Astronomical Distances

You may be familiar with the method of trigonometric parallax. To get an idea of
what it is, perform the following activity.
Activity 1: Trigonometric Parallax

Extend your arm and hold your thumb at about one foot or so in front of your eyes.
Close your right eye and look at your thumb with your left eye. Note its position
against a distant background. Now close your left eye and look at your thumb with
your right eye. Do you notice that the position of the thumb has shifted with respect to
the background? Your thumb has not moved. However, since you have looked at it
from different point (left and right eyes), it seems to have shifted. The shift in the
apparent position of the thumb can be represented by an angle (Fig. 1.4).
Parallax is the apparent change in the position of an object due to a change in the
location of the observer.

b
Fig.1.4: Parallax angle and baseline

We call /2, the parallax angle. The distance b between the points of observation (in
this case your eyes), is called the baseline. From simple geometry, for small
b
angles, = , where d is the distance from the eyes to the thumb.
2 d

14

The parallax method can be used to measure the distances of stars and other objects in
the sky. The principle of the method is similar to the one used in finding the height of
mountain peaks, tall buildings, etc.

Astronomical Scales

Let us now find out how this method can be used to measure astronomical distances.
Stellar Parallax

For measuring the distance of a star, we must use a very long baseline. Even for
measuring the distance to the nearest star, we require a baseline length greater than the
Earths diameter. This is because the distance of the star is so large that the angle
measured from two diametrically opposite points on the Earth will differ by an
amount which cannot be measured. Therefore, we take the diameter of the Earths
orbit as the baseline, and make two observations at an interval of six months (see
Fig. 1.5).
One half of the maximum change in angular position (Fig. 1.5) of the star is defined as
its annual parallax. From Fig. 1.5, the distance r of the star is given by
d SE
= tan
r

(1.10a)

where dSE is the average distance between the Sun and the Earth. Since the angle is
very small, tan , and we can write
r=

d SE

(1.10b)

Remember that this relation holds only when the parallax angle is expressed in
radians.

dSE

Fig.1.5: Stellar parallax

Since, dSE = 1 AU, we have

1AU
r=

(1.10c)
15

Basics of Astronomy

If we measure in arc seconds, then the distance is said to be in parsecs.

One parsec is the distance of an object that has a parallax of one second of an
arc (1).

The nearest star Proxima Centauri has a parallax angle 0.77 . Thus its distance is
1.3 pc. Since the distance is proportional to 1/, the more distant a star is, the
smaller is its parallax.
In Table 1.4 we give the parallax angles and distances of some stars.
Table 1.4: Parallaxes and distances of some bright stars
Star

(in arc-seconds)

distance (r pc)

-CMa

0.375

2.67

CMi

0.287

3.48

Aquila

0.198

5.05

Tauri

0.048

20.8

Virginis

0.014

71.4

Scorpii

0.008

125

Note that the angle cannot be measured precisely when the stellar object is at a large
distance. Therefore, alternative methods are used to determine distances of stellar
objects.
You could now try an exercise to make sure you have grasped the concept of parallax.
Spend
10 min.

SAQ 4

a) The parallax angles of the Suns neighbouring stars (in arc-seconds) are given
below. Calculate their distances.
Star

Parallax

Alpha Centauri

0.745

Barnards star

0.552

Altair

0.197

Alpha Draco

0.176

b) A satellite measures the parallax angle of a star as 0.002 arc-second. What is the
distance of the star?
You have just learnt that the parallax method helps us in finding the distances to
nearby stars. But how can we find out which stars are nearby? We can do this by
observing the motion of stars in the sky over a period of time.
Proper Motion

All celestial objects, the Sun, the Moon, stars, galaxies and other bodies are in relative
motion with respect to one another. Part of their relative motion is also due to the
Earths own motion. However, the rate of change in the position of a star is very slow.
It is not appreciable in one year or even in a decade. For example, if we photograph a
small area of the sky at an interval of 10 years, we will find that some of the stars in
the photograph have moved very slightly against the background objects (Fig.1.6).
16

Astronomical Scales

Fig.1.6: Motion of a star with respect to distant background objects

The motion of a star can be resolved along two directions:

i) Motion along the line of sight of the observer, (either towards or away from the
observer) is called the radial motion.
ii) Motion perpendicular to the line of sight of the observer is called proper motion
(see Fig. 1.7).
Radial
motion

Space
motion

Fig.1.7: Radial and proper motion of a star

Radial motion causes the spectral lines of a star to shift towards red (if the motion is
away from the observer) or towards blue (if the motion is towards the observer). This
shift is the well-known Doppler shift. The proper motion is very slow. It is measured
over an interval of 20 to 30 years. It is expressed in arc seconds per year. The average
proper motion for all naked eye stars is less than 0.1 arc second/yr.
The proper motion is denoted by . For a star at a distance r from the Earth it is
related to its transverse velocity as follows:
proper motion =

or

transverse velocity
distance of the star

v
= ,
r

(1.11a)

where v is the transverse velocity.

Hence,
v = r

(1.11b)
17

Basics of Astronomy

If is measured in units of arc-seconds per year and r in pc, the transverse velocity is
given by
v ( km s 1 ) = 4.74r

(1.11c)

If we add the radial velocity vector and the proper motion vector, we obtain the space
velocity of a star (Fig.1.7).
We can locate stars that are probably nearby by looking for stars with large proper
motions (see Fig. 1.8a). Proper motion of a star gives us statistical clues to its
distance. If we see a star with a small proper motion, it is most likely to be a distant
star. However, we cannot be absolutely certain since it could also be a nearby star
moving directly away from us or toward us (see Fig. 1.8b).

(a)

(b)

Fig.1.8: a) If two stars have the same space velocity and move perpendicular to the line of sight, the
one with the larger proper motion will be nearer; b) Two stars at the same distance with
the same velocity may have different proper motions, if one moves perpendicular to the
line of sight and the other is nearly parallel to the line of sight

We know that the Sun itself is not stationary. The space velocity vector of a star must
be corrected by subtracting from it the velocity vector of the Sun.
The space velocity of a star corrected for the motion of the Sun is termed as the
peculiar velocity of the star.
The peculiar velocities of stars are essentially random and their typical magnitude is
such that in a time of about 106 years the shape of the present constellations will
change completely and they would not be recognisable (Fig. 1.9).
100,000 years ago

Present

100,000 years from now

Fig.1.9: Change in the shape of the Big Dipper due to peculiar velocities

You may now like to solve a problem based on these concepts.

18

SAQ 5

The star CMa is at a distance of 800 pc. If the proper motion of the star is 0.008/yr,
calculate its transverse velocity in km s1.

Spend
2 min.

Astronomical Scales

So far you have learnt how we can find distances of stars. In astronomy, it is equally
important to know the sizes of stars. Are they all the same size, or are some of them
smaller or larger than the others? Let us now find out how stellar radii may be
measured.

1.4.2

Stellar Radii

There are several ways of measuring the radii of stars. Here we describe two methods:

the direct method, and

the indirect method.

Direct Method

We use this method to measure the radius of an object that is in the form of a disc. In
this method, we measure the angular diameter and the distance of the object from the
place of observation (see Fig. 1.10).

Fig.1.10: Direct method

If (rad) is the angular diameter and r is the distance of the object from the observer
then the diameter of the stellar object will be
D=r

(1.12)

This method is useful for determining the radii of the Sun, the planets and their
satellites. Since stars are so far that they cannot be seen as discs even with the largest
telescopes, this method cannot be used to find their radii. For this we use other
methods.
In Table 1.5 we give the radius of some stars.
Table 1.5: Radius of some stars
Star

(in arc seconds)

Radius (in R)

Tau

0.020

48

Ori

0.034

214

Sco

0.028

187

The luminosity of a star can also reveal its size since it depends on the surface area
and temperature of star. This provides a basis for the indirect method of determining
stellar radii.
19

Basics of Astronomy

Indirect Method

To obtain stellar radii, we can also use Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation

F = T4

(1.13)

where F is the radiant flux from the surface of the object, , Stefans constant and T,
the surface temperature of the star. You have learnt in Sec. 1.3 that the luminosity L of
a star is defined as the total energy radiated by the star per second. Since 4 R2 is the
surface area, we can write
L = 4 R 2 F

where R is the radius of the star. If the stars surface temperature is T, using
Eq. (1.13), we obtain
L = 4R 2 T 4

(1.14)

The knowledge of L and T gives R.

Now let us consider two stars of radii R1 and R2 and surface temperatures T1 and T2,
respectively. The ratio of luminosities of these two stars will be
L1 R1
=
L2 R2

T1

T
2

(1.15)

But from Eq. (1.8), we have

L2
= 100 ( M1 M 2 ) / 5
L1

(1.16)

where M1 and M2 are the absolute magnitudes. Therefore, from Eqs. (1.15) and
(1.16), we get
R22T24
R12T14

= 100.4(M 1 M 2 )

(1.17)

Using Eq. (1.17) let us now determine the ratio of radii of Sirius A and Sirius B.

Example 2: Determining stellar radii

The surface temperatures of Sirius A and Sirius B are found to be equal. The absolute
magnitude of Sirius B is larger than that of Sirius A by 10. Thus, M1 M2 = 10 and
we have
R2 = 0.01 R1
Thus the radius of Sirius A is 100 times that of Sirius B.
You may like to attempt an exercise now.
Spend
5 min.

SAQ 6

The luminosity of a star is 40 times that of the Sun and its temperature is twice as
much. Determine the radius of the star.
Mass is also a fundamental property of a star, like its luminosity and its radius.
Unfortunately, mass of a single star cannot be found directly. If, however, two stars
revolve round each other, it is possible to estimate their masses by the application of
Keplers laws.

20

1.4.3

Masses of Stars

Astronomical Scales

Two stars revolving around each other form a binary system. Fortunately, a large
fraction of stars are in binary systems and therefore their masses can be determined.
Binary stars can be of three kinds:
1. Visual binary stars: These stars can be seen moving around each other with the
help of a telescope. If both the stars have comparable masses, then both revolve
around their common centre of mass in elliptic orbits. If, however, one is much
more massive than the other, then the less massive star executes an elliptic orbit
around the more massive star (Fig.1.11).

Fig.1.11: Orbit of visual binary stars

2. Spectroscopic binary stars: The nature of these stars being binary is revealed by
the oscillating lines in their spectra. Consider the situation in Fig.1.12a. Here star
1 is moving towards the observer and star 2 is moving away from the observer.
The spectral lines of star 1 are, therefore, shifted towards blue region from their
original position due to Doppler Effect. The lines of star 2 are shifted towards red.
Half a period later, star 1 is moving away from the observer and star 2 is moving
towards the observer (Fig.1.12b). Now the spectral lines of the two stars are
shifted in the directions opposite to the earlier case. In this way the spectral lines
oscillate.

To Earth

(a)

To Earth

(b)

Fig.1.12: Spectroscopic binary stars

21

Basics of Astronomy

Observations of oscillating lines indicate that the stars are binary stars. If only one
of the stars is bright, then only one set of oscillating lines is observed. If both the
stars are bright, then two sets of oscillating lines are seen.
3. Eclipsing binary stars: If the orbits of two stars are such that the stars pass in
front of each other as seen by an observer (Fig.1.13), then the light from the group
dips periodically. The periodic dips reveal not only the binary nature of the stars,
but also give information about their luminosities and sizes.

d
a

Total light output

Due to limb
darkening

d
Time

Fig.1.13: Eclipsing binary stars

Now suppose M1 and M2 are the masses of the two stars and a is the distance between
them, then we can write Keplers third law as
GP 2
4

(M 1 + M 2 ) = a 3

(1.18)

where P is the period of the binary system and G is the constant of gravitation. This
relation gives us the combined mass of the two stars. However, if the motion of both
the stars around the common centre of mass can be observed, then we have
M 1a1 = M 2 a 2

(1.19)

where a1 and a 2 are distances from the centre of mass. Then both these equations
allow us to estimate the masses of both the stars.
Masses of stars are expressed in units of the solar mass, M = 2 1030 kg. Most stars
have masses between 0.1 M and 10 M. A small fraction of stars may have masses of
50 M or 100 M.
So far we have discussed the ways of measuring stellar parameters such as distance,
luminosity, radii and mass. Stellar temperature is another important property of a star.

1.4.4

Stellar Temperature

The temperature of a star can be determined by looking at its spectrum or colour. The
radiant flux (F) at various wavelengths () is shown in Fig.1.14. This figure is quite
similar to the one obtained for a black body at a certain temperature. Assuming the
star to be radiating as a black body, it is possible to fit in a Plancks curve to the
observed data at temperature T. This temperature determines the colour of the star.
22

Astronomical Scales

max

Fig.1.14: Total energy flux at different wavelengths.

The temperature of a star (corresponding to a black body) may be estimated using

Wiens law:
maxT = 0.29 cm K

(1.20)

Such a temperature is termed as surface temperature, Ts. In general it is difficult to

define the temperature of a star. For instance the temperature obtained from line
emission is indicative of temperature from a region of a star where these lines are
formed. Similarly the effective temperature of a star corresponds to the one obtained
using Stefan-Boltzman law, i.e., F = Te4 .
In Table 1.6 we give the range of values of stellar parameters of interest in astronomy
such as mass, radius, luminosity and stellar temperature.
Table 1.6: Range of Stellar Parameters
Stellar Parameters

Range

0.1 100 M

Mass

0.01* 1000 R

Radius

105 105 L

Luminosity
Surface Temperature

3000 50,000 K

*It is difficult to put any lower limit on the radii of stars. As you will learn later, a neutron star has a
radius of only 10 km. The radius of a black hole cannot be defined in the usual sense.

We can find various empirical relationships among different stellar parameters, e.g.,
mass, radius, luminosity, effective temperatures, etc. Observations show that the
luminosity of stars depends on their mass. We find that the larger the mass of a star,
the more luminous it is. For most stars, the mass and luminosity are related as
M
=
L M
L

3.5

(1.21)

In this unit we have introduced you to a number of astronomical quantities and

described some simple ways of measuring them. We now summarise the contents of
this unit.

1.5

SUMMARY
The astronomical units of distance, size, mass and luminosity are defined as
follows:

1 astronomical unit (AU) is the mean distance between the Sun and the
Earth. 1 AU = 1.496 1011m.

1 light year (ly) is the distance travelled by light in one year.

1 ly = 9.4605 1015m = 6.32 104 AU.

23

 1 parsec (pc) is defined as the distance at which the radius of Earths orbit

Basics of Astronomy

subtends an angle of 1. 1 pc = 3.262 ly = 2.06 105AU = 3.084 1016m.

1 solar radius R = 7 108 m.

1 solar mass M = 2 1030 kg.
1 solar luminosity L = 4 1026 W.

Apparent magnitude of an astronomical object is a measure of how bright it

appears. Its absolute magnitude is defined as its apparent magnitude if it were at
a distance of 10 pc from us.

The difference in apparent and absolute magnitude is called the distance modulus
and is a measure of the distance of an astronomical object:
rpc

m M = 5 log10
10pc

Radiant flux is the total amount of energy flowing per unit time per unit area
oriented normal to the direction of its propagation. The luminosity of a body is
defined as the total energy radiated per unit time by it.

Brightness and radiant flux of an object are related to its apparent magnitude as
follows:
b2
= 100 ( m1 m2 ) / 5
b1
F2
= 100 ( m1 m2 ) / 5
F1

The absolute magnitude and luminosity are related as follows:

L
M 1 M 2 = 2.5 log10 2
L1

If is the parallax of an object in arc seconds, then its distance in parsecs is given
by
r=

1 AU

The motion of an object can be resolved into two components: radial motion and
proper motion. The proper motion of a star is related to its transverse velocity
v as follows:
v
=
r

where r is its distance.

Stellar radii are related to the absolute magnitudes and temperatures of stars:
R22T24

24

R12T14

= antilog{+ 0.4(M 1 M 2 )}

The masses M1 and M2 of stars in a binary system can be estimated from the
following relations:
GP 2
4

Astronomical Scales

(M 1 + M 2 ) = a 3

M 1a1 = M 2 a 2

where P is the time period of the binary system, G the constant of gravitation, a
the distance between them and a1, a2, their distances from the centre of mass,
respectively.

The temperature of a star can be estimated by fitting observed data to Plancks

black body radiation curve or using Weins law: max T = 0.29 cm
The temperature T of a star can also be estimated from Stefan-Boltzmann law:
F = T 4 .

1.6

TERMINAL QUESTIONS

Spend 30 min.

1. The apparent magnitude of full moon is 12.5 and that of Venus at its brightest is
4.0. Which is brighter and by how much?
2. The apparent magnitude of the Sun is 26.8. Find its absolute magnitude.
Remember that the distance between the Sun & the Earth is 1.5 1013 cm.
3. After about 5 billion years the Sun is expected to swell to 200 times its present
size. If its temperature becomes half of what it is today, find the change in its
absolute magnitude.
4. The mass of star Sirius is thrice that of the Sun. Find the ratio of their luminosities
and the difference in their absolute magnitudes. Taking the absolute magnitude of
the Sun as 5, find the absolute magnitude of Sirius.

1.7

SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self Assessment Questions (SAQs)

1. a) Jupiter is 5 AU from the Sun.

1 pc = 2.06 105 AU
5 AU = 2.43 105 pc
Distance between Earth and the Sun = 1 AU.
1 ly = 6240 AU
1 AU = 1.6 104 ly
b) The radius of the Earth is 0.01 R .
2. a) The Sun is brighter
mSun mSi = 26.81 ( 1.47) = 25.34
25

Basics of Astronomy

b1
b2

= 100 25.34 / 5 = 100 5.07 = 1.38 1010

The Sun is about 1010 times brighter than Sirius.

b1

b)

b2

= 100 (0.060.86) / 5 = 100

+.80/5

= (10)0.32 = 2.09

m M = 0.5 = 5 log10
10 pc

3. a)

r 0 .5
=
= 0.1
log10
10 pc 5
r
10 pc

= (10 )0.1

r = 7.9 pc
2

40
= = 16
F1 10

F2

b)

It will appear 16 times brighter, which corresponds to m = 3 from Table 1.2.

4. a)

r=

1 AU

pc ;

Alpha Centauri 1.34 pc;

Barnards star 1.81 pc;
Altair

5.07 pc;

Alpha Draco

5.68 pc

b) Distance = 500 pc
5.

v = 4.74 r = 30.34 km s1

6.

M1 M2 = 40
4

R22

T4 L
1
= 1 . 2 = 40
2
4 L
R1 T2
1 2

( )

R22 = R12 2.5

R2 = 1.58R .

26

Astronomical Scales

Terminal Questions

1. Apparent magnitude of moon is lower (larger negative number), than that of

Venus. Therefore, moon is brighter than Venus.
Moreover,
bmoon

= 10 0.4( mmoon mvenus )

bvenus

= 10 0.4( 12.5+ 4.0) = 10 0.48.5 = 10 3.4

= 2.5 10 3.

2. The relation between apparent magnitude m and absolute magnitude M is

M = m 5 log r + 5
where the distance r is in parsec. Distance of the Sun in parsec is
1.5 1013/3 1018 = 5 106. So,
M = 26.8 5 (log 5 6) + 5 = 26.8 5 log 5 + 30 + 5
= 8.4 3.5 = 4.9
3. According to Eq. (1.17)
(200) 2
( 2)

= 10 0.4( M1 M 2 )

where M1 is the present absolute magnitude of the Sun. Therefore,

200 200

M 1 M 2 = 2.5 log
16

= 2.5 log (2500) = 2.5 3.4 = 8.5

So, the absolute magnitude of the Sun will decrease by 8.5 and it will, therefore,
become much more luminous.
4. Using Eq. (1.21)
LSirius
L

= (3) 3.5

27

Basics of Astronomy

Now using Eq. (1.16),

(3) 3.5 = 10 0.4( M M Sirius )

where M and MSirius are absolute magnitudes of the Sun and Sirius.
(M MSirius) = 2.5 log (46.8)

So,

= 2.5 1.7 = 4.25.

28

MSirius = 5 4.25 = 0.75.