Soil Mechanics Module, CED 201

MODULE OF SOIL MECHANICS
COURSE CONTENT
Section1. INTRODUCTION: Definition of soil, soil mechanics, soil engineering, importance of soil
mechanics in the design of civil engineering structures.
Section2. ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOIL: Types of soil, transported & residual soil,
engineering properties of soil, 3-phase diagram for soil and label in terms of volumes and weights,
expressions for various soil properties with problems.
Section3. CONSISTENCY OF SOIL: Liquid limit, plastic limit, shrinkage limit, plasticity index,
flow index, toughness index, shrinkage ratio, linear shrinkage and volumetric shrinkage and its
relationships, liquid limit graph from the given data, use of plasticity chart to classify soils.
Section4. SOIL CLASSIFICATION: Standard Soil Classification System, salient features of particle
size classification and textural classification, grain size distribution curve, significance of D10, D30,
and D60 from grain size distribution curve, coarse grained and fine-grained soils, co-efficient of
curvature and co-efficient of uniformity and their values for both coarse and fine-grained soils.
Section5. SOIL COMPACTION: Compaction, proctor compaction test, optimum moisture content
and maximum dry density curve, factors affecting compaction, light and heavy compaction, methods of
field measurements of soil compaction, dry and wet side of the optimum moisture content curve, range
of moisture content corresponding to a dry density equal to 95% of the optimum dry density.
Section6. SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL: Shear strength, causes of shear stress, factors affecting
shear strength of soil, Mohr-Coulombs failure theory, measurement of shear strength by direct shear
test, unconfined compressive strength test, vane shear test with problems.
Section7. EFFECTIVE STRESSES: Total stress, neutral stress, and effective stress, effective stress
formula for submerged soil, saturated soil mass with surcharge, saturated soil mass capillary fringe
with problems.
Section8. PERMEABILITY OF SOIL: Different modes of occurrence of soil-water, permeability of
soil, Darcys law and its assumptions, factors affecting the permeability of soil, laboratory methods of
determining the co-efficient of permeability of soils (constant head and variable head), expressions for
equivalent permeability of stratified soil for horizontal and vertical flow of water, methods adopted for
drainage and dewatering of soils.
Section9. CONSOLIDATION OF SOIL: Significance of consolidation, Terzaghis theory of one

dimensional consolidation, total and differential settlement, different methods of reducing total and
differential settlement.
Practical Content
Perform laboratory tests on determination of enginering properties of soils; water content, sieve
analysis; Atterberg limits, Specific gravity; direct shear and triaxial compression test; Proctor
compaction test etc.
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
The term Soil has various meanings, depending upon the general field in which it is being considered.
To a Pedologist, Soil is the substance existing on the earth's surface, which grows and develops
plant life.
To a Geologist, Soil is the material in the relative thin surface zone within which roots occur,
and all the rest of the crust is grouped under the term ROCK irrespective of its hardness.
To an Engineer, Soil is the un-aggregated or un-cemented deposits of mineral and/or organic
particles or fragments covering large portion of the earth's crust.
Soil Mechanics is one of the youngest disciplines of Civil Engineering involving the study of soil, its
behavior and application as an engineering material.
According to Terzaghi (1948): "Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and
hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations
of solid particles produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks regardless of
whether or not they contain an admixture of organic constituent."
Geotechnical Engineering is a broader term for Soil Mechanics which mainly deals with soils
mechanics, behavior and reaction to applied external forces.
Geotechnical Engineering section of civil engineering studies contains:
Soil Mechanics (Soil Properties and Behavior) and Geomechanics or advanced soil
mechanics which is mainly a 3D perception of stress distribution in soils.
Soil Dynamics (Dynamic Properties of Soils, Earthquake Engineering, Machine

Foundation, Ground water engineering).
Foundation Engineering (Deep & Shallow and Special Foundations).
Pavement Engineering (Flexible & Rigid Pavement).
Rock Mechanics (Rock Stability and Testing).
Ground Improvement (Surface compaction, deep compaction, dynamic compaction, vibro

- compaction, stone columns and pile compaction for shortening the list).
Underground Engineering and Construction (Tunneling principles and techniques,

Methods of tunneling, Mining principles and techniques, Ground geohazards and Mining
subsidence, Dewatering and Waste management).
Engineering geology (Rock formation and development, landslides and ground

movements, Rock Mechanics and Rock Testing, Geohazards and Mining related
geogazards)
Slope Stability and Retaining Structures (Why the need to study landslides, Types of
landslides, Inter-related topics, Factors affecting mass movements, Classification systems,
Types of landslides: Slab (sheet) slides, Circular slides, Noncircular slides, Stability
Charts, Pore Water Pressure, Factors of Safety, Methods of Stabilisation, Ground
Investigation of Landslides, critical failure plane, Rankine and Bishop and Janbu
methods of critical failure plane determination, gravity and gabion walls design).
Site Investigation (Desk Study, Walkover survey, Ground investigation which mainly
requires design and implementation of techniques to investigate the ground. The famous
techniques of ground investigation include trial pits, boreholes and geophysical
techniques).
Sometimes the course of Construction management (planning, contracting and managing

construction projects) can be added to the field of geotechnical engineering to add value to
the training.
2. SOIL FORMATION AND COMPOSITION

2.1. FORMATION
The definition of soil that is used by a civil engineer is rather arbitrary and is somewhat different from
that used by a geologist, soil scientist or a lay person. In brief, a civil engineer considers soil to include
all the material, organic and inorganic, overlying bedrock. However, the engineer must keep in mind
that there are many basic definitions and terminologies used to classify and describe both physical and
chemical behavior of soil. Broadly soils are classified as organic and inorganic.
Organic soils are mixtures in which a significant part is derived from growth and decay of plant life and
in some cases from the accumulation of skeletons or shells of small organisms. Inorganic soils are
derived from either chemical or mechanical weathering of rocks. Inorganic soil that is still located at
the place where it was formed is referred as residual soil. If the soil has been moved to the other
location by gravity, water, or wind, it is referred to as transported soil. In general:
Soil material is the product of rock
The geological process that produces soil is WEATHERING (Chemical and Physical).
Variation in Particle size and shape depends on:

- Weathering Process
- Transportation Process (by water, wind, glaciers)
Variation in Soil Structure Depends on Soil Minerals and Deposition Process
Some soil types

From the formation of soils, there are different types of soils but the following are commonly met all
over the world:
Loose sand is simply a sand deposit with a low density. Vibratory loads tend to densify these
deposits. Therefore special measures must be taken in designing foundations for buildings that
are to house machines, because the vibrations from operating machines may induce intolerable
settlements.
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Loose sands present also problems in high seismic risk areas, because seismic loading can
cause liquefaction if the sand is saturated, as well as cause significant settlement.
Loess is a deposit of relatively uniform, windblown silt. It has relatively high vertical
permeability but low horizontal permeability. Very compressible when saturated. Thus, special
measures for design of hydraulic structures (canals, dams).
Normally consolidated clays are clay soils that have never been subjected to a pressure greater
than the existing pressure. Generally high compressible, low ultimate bearing capacity, very
low permeability as other clay soils.
Overconsolidated clay soils are clays that have been subjected to a pressure greater than the
existing one. Highly overconsolidated clays generally tend to have a rather greater ultimate
bearing capacity and are relatively incompressible.
Expansive soils (Montmorillonite, bentonite, illite, vermiculite) are highly plastic clays
resulting from the decomposition of volcanic ash. Montmorillonite and bentonite swell
considerably when saturated or simply due to increase in moisture content and shrink due to
decrease in water content. This causes problems in the performance of foundations, sidewalks,
concrete slabs, and other structural elements if the soil is subjected to seasonal changes in
moisture content. Bentonite is often used as an impermeable barrier or pond liner.
Peat is fibrous, partly decomposed organic matter or a soil containing large amounts of fibrous
organic matter. Peats have a very high value of void ratio and are extremely compressible. Su
and Prysock (1972) reported that the settlement of an embankment 2.68 m high and underlain
by 8.24 m of peat and 12.4 m of peaty clay was 2.13 m in 13 years. The ultimate settlement of
the embankment was predicted to be 2.59 m after 25 years.
2.2. COMPOSITION
The soil is composed by Solids singly or in combination with Water and Air. Soil is a three phase
material which consists of solid particles that make up the soil skeleton and voids which may be full of
water if the soil is saturated, may be without water if the soil is dry, or may be partially saturated
if the three elements are represented.
Air
Water
Solid
Figure 1: Air, Water and Solid phases in a typical soil

It is useful to consider each phase individually as shown in Table 1.
The three phases can be interpreted with respect to volume and weight of each
element among solids, water and air as shown on the figure below.
Vv
Va
Air
Wa~0
Vw
Water
Ww
Solid
Ws
VT
Vs
Volume
WT
Weight
Table 1: Phase description in terms of volume and weight of soil elements.

Phase
Air
Water
Solid
Volume
VA
VW
VS
Mass
0
MW
MS
These soils can be:

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Weight
0
WW
WS
- Dry
Air
Solid
Mineral Skeleton
Dry Soil
- Saturated Fully
Water
Solid
Mineral Skeleton
Fully Saturated
- Saturated Partially
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Air
Water
Solid
Mineral Skeleton
Partly Saturated Soils
SECTION 2: ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOIL

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(Physical and index or classification properties of soils)

Engineering properties of soils refer to those behaviors of a soil reflected by parameters which indicate
the type and conditions of the soil, and provide a relationship to structural properties such as strength,
compressibility, permeability, swelling potential. They are the ones that Control its Engineering
Behavior of soils.
3.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
3.1.1 Specific Gravity
The Specific Gravity, G, is the most frequently used quantity and is defined by
Density of Material
Density of Water
w
Unit Weight of Material
Unit Weight of Water

w
It is often found that the specific gravity of the materials making up the soil particles are close to the
value for quartz, that is Gs 2.65
For all the common soil forming minerals 2.5 < Gs < 2.8
We can use Gs to calculate the density or unit weight of the solid particles
s = G s w
s = Gs w
And hence the volume of the solid particles if the mass or weight is known
Vs
Ms
Gs w
Ws
Gs w
3.1.2 Voids Ratio and Porosity
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Using volumes is not very convenient in most calculations. An alternative measure that is used is the
voids ratio, e. This is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids, Vv to the volume of solids, Vs, that is
Vv
Vs
where Vv = Vw +Va
V = Va + Vw + Vs
A related quantity is the porosity, n, which is defined as ratio of the volume of voids to the total
volume.
n
Vv
V
The relation between e and n can be determined by noting that

Vs = V - Vv = (1 - n) V
Now,
e
Vv
Vv
n
Vs
(1 n) V
1 n
and hence
e
1 e
Porosity in soils varies between 0.3 (sands, silts) to 0.45 (clays) to 0.7 (peat), and is largely determined
by the soil bulk density.
3.1.3 Degree of Saturation
The degree of saturation, S, has an important influence on the soil behaviour. It is defined as the ratio of
the volume of water to the volume of voids.
Vw
V a V w
The distribution of the volume phases may be expressed in terms of e and S, and by knowing the unit
weight of water and the specific gravity of the particles, the distributions by weight may also be
determined as indicated in Table 2.
S
Vw
V
w
Vv
eVs
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Vw = e S Vs
Va = Vv - Vw = e Vs (1 - S)
Table 2 Distribution by Volume, Mass and Weight in Soil
Phase
Air
Water
Solid
Volume
e (1 - Sr)
e Sr
1
Mass
0
e Sr w
Gs w
Weight
0
e Sr w
Gs w
Note that Table 2 assumes a solid volume Vs = 1 m3. All terms in the table should be multiplied by Vs if
this is not the case.
3.1.4 Unit Weights
Several unit weights are used in Soil Mechanics. These are the bulk, saturated, dry, and submerged unit
weights. The bulk unit weight is simply defined as the weight per unit volume
bulk
W
V
When all the voids are filled with water the bulk unit weight is identical to the saturated unit weight,
sat, and when all the voids are filled with air the bulk unit weight is identical with the dry unit weight,
dry. From Table 2, it follows that:
bulk
G w eS
(G e S )
W
w s
w s
V
1 e
1 e
sat
w ( G s e)
1 e
dry
w Gs
1 e
Sr = S = 1
Sr = S = 0
Note that in discussing soils that are saturated it is common to discuss their dry unit weight. This is
done because the dry unit weight is simply related to the voids ratio; it is a way of describing the
amount of voids.
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The submerged unit weight, , is sometimes useful when the soil is saturated, and is given by
= sat - w
3.1.5 Moisture content
The moisture content, m, is a very useful quantity because it is simple to measure. It is defined as the
ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solid material
Ww
Ws
If we express the weights in terms of e, S, Gs and w as before we obtain

Ww = w Vw = w e Sr Vs
Ws = s Vs = w Gs Vs
and hence:
eS
Gs
Note that if the soil is saturated (S=1) the voids ratio can be simply determined from the moisture
content.
Example1 Mass and Volume fractions

A sample of soil is taken using a thin walled sampling tube into a soil deposit. After the soil is extruded
from the sampling tube a sample of diameter 50 mm and length 80 mm is cut and is found to have a
mass of 290 g. Soil trimmings created during the cutting process are weighed and found to have a mass
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of 55 g. These trimmings are then oven dried and found to have a mass of 45 g. Determine the phase
distributions, void ratio, degree of saturation and relevant unit weights.
Example2 Calculation of Unit Weights
A soil has a voids ratio of 0.7. Calculate the dry and saturated unit weight of the material. Assume that
the solid material occupies 1 m3, then assuming Gs = 2.65 determine the distribution by volume and
weight.
3.2. INDEX PROPERTIES
Refer to those properties of a soil that indicate the type and conditions of the soil, and provide
parameters for the classification. They are also referred as classification properties and classification or
index tests are performed in laboratory for determination of these properties.
3.2.1 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

It is a screening process in which coarse fractions of soil are separated by means of series of sieves.
Particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm (U.S. No. 200 sieve) are usually analyzed by means of sieving:
Sieve analysis is used to determine the distribution of the larger grain sizes.
The soil is passed through a series of sieves with the mesh size reducing progressively, and the
proportions by weight of the soil retained on each sieve are measured. There are a range of sieve sizes
that can be used, and the finest is usually a 75 m sieve. Sieving can be performed either wet or dry.
Because of the tendency for fine particles to clump together, wet sieving is often required with finegrained soils.
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Soil materials finer than 0.075 mm (-200 material) are analyzed by means of sedimentation or
hydrometer analysis:
To determine the grain size distribution of material passing the 75m sieve the hydrometer method is
commonly used. The soil is mixed with water and a dispersing agent, stirred vigorously, and allowed to
settle to the bottom of a measuring cylinder. As the soil particles settle out of suspension the specific
gravity of the mixture reduces. An hydrometer is used to record the variation of specific gravity with
time. By making use of Stokes Law, which relates the velocity of a free falling sphere to its diameter,
the test data is reduced to provide particle diameters and the % by weight of the sample finer than a
particular particle size.
D 2 w (Gs GL )
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Figure 6 A schematic view of the hydrometer test
1.5 Grading curves

The results from the particle size determination tests are plotted as grading curves. These show the
particle size plotted against the percentage of the sample by weight that is finer than that size. The
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results are presented on a semi-logarithmic plot as shown in Figure 7 below. The shape and position of
the grading curve are used to identify some characteristics of the soil.
100
% F ine r
80
60
40
20
0
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
Particle size (mm)
Figure 7 Typical grading curves

Some typical grading curves are shown on the figure. The following descriptions are applied to these
curves:
W
Well graded material
Uniform material
Poorly graded material
Well graded with some clay
Well graded with an excess of fines
The use of names to describe typical grading curve shapes and positions has developed as the
suitability of different gradings for different purposes has become apparent. For example, well grade
sands and gravels can be easily compacted to relatively high densities which result in higher strengths
and stiffnesses. For this reason soils of this type are preferred for road bases.
Parameters Obtained From Grain Size Distribution Curve:

1. Uniformity Coefficient Cu, Cu is also called Hazen Coefficient
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Cu
2.
D60
D10
Coefficient of Gradation or Coefficient of Curvature Cc

D302
Cc
( D60 D10 )
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SECTION 3: CONSISTENCY OF SOIL

3.1 ATTERBERG or CONSISTENCY LIMITS
These tests are only used for the fine-grained soils that are mainly silts and clays (actually passing a
425 m sieve). If we take a very soft (high moisture content) clay specimen and allow it to dry we
would obtain a relation similar to that shown in Figure 8.
As the soil dries its strength and stiffness will increase. Three limits are indicated, the definitions of
which are given below. The liquid and plastic limits appear to be fairly arbitrary, but recent research has
suggested they are related to the strength of the soil.
Figure 8. Moisture content versus volume relation

(SL) The Shrinkage Limit - This is the moisture content the soil would have had if it were fully
saturated at the point at which no further shrinkage occurs on drying.
(PL) The Plastic Limit - This is the minimum water content at which the soil will deform plastically
(LL) The Liquid Limit - This is the minimum water content at which the soil will flow under a small
disturbing force
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Index from Atterberg Limits:

(PI or Ip) The Plasticity Index. This is derived simply from the LL and PL
IP = LL - PL
(3)
(LI) The Liquidity Index - This is defined as
LI
m PL
m PL
LL PL
Ip
(4)
The Atterberg Limits and relationships derived from them are simple measures of the water absorbing
ability of soils containing clay minerals. For example, if clay has a very high LI and LL it is capable of
absorbing large amounts of water, and for instance would be unsuitable for the base of a pavement. The
LL and PL are also related to the soil strength.
Remember that only the fraction finer than 425 m is tested in the Atterberg Tests. If this fraction is
only small (that is, the soil contains significant amounts of sand or gravel) it might be expected that the
soil would have better properties. While this is true to some extent it is important to realise that the soil
behaviour is controlled by the finest 10 - 25 % of the particles.
Plasticity of clays
The plasticity is a potential property of clays and it relates to a plasticity index, PI. The index refers to
the magnitude of moisture content for the soil to remain plastic.
Mathematically PI equals to the liquid limit minus the plastic limit of the soil. PI is the fundamental
index of clay soils because of its use in their classification. The plasticity chart differentiates between
clays and silts, and subgroups them based on the level of compressibility (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981;
Sivakugan, 2001).
In addition, PI correlates many engineering properties of clays including compression index, coefficient
of consolidation, swelling potential, friction angle, coefficient of earth pressure and undrained shear
strength (Seed et al., 1962). The use of PI also helps in determining activity of clay and liquidity index.
The wide involvement of PI in geotechnical engineering decisions recommends accurate determination
of the liquid and plastic limits of clay soils when working in laboratory.
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Determination of Liquid Limit (LL) and Plastic Limit (PL) of clay soils
The two most used methods to determine the LL are the percussion cup method and the cone
penetration method. The Percussion Cup method is advantageous over the cone penetration method
because it is easy, simple and with a remarkable standard of re-productivity. However, the overall
precision and sensitivity of the operator can affect results. In addition, the method is difficult in clays of
low plasticity because of irregularities in cutting the groove and sliding effect of mass of soil instead of
flow of soil (Casagrande, 1948).
Farrel et al. (1997) reported Cone Penetration Method (PCM) as the best standard method for
determining the LL and PL both in the UK and worldwide. It is useful for a wide range of soil
plasticity. Two types of cone penetrometers include the British Cone or the 30/80g cone with the depth
of penetration of 20 mm at the LL while the Swedish Cone or the 60/60g cone gives the depth of
penetration of 10 mm at the LL.
The determination of PL is not with the same high level of confidence as for the LL. In the Rolling
Thread Method, the operator rolls the clay soil into a thread by hand, with enough pressure but specific
rate is not accurate. The moisture content at which the clay soil mass begins to fall into small fragments
when rolled into a thread of about 3 mm diameter gives the PL. When different persons carry out the
test, the reality is that personal experience and judgement greatly play in the results and errors are
unavoidable. Sridharan and Prakash (1997) showed that different attempts were made to find PL from
cone penetration tests but none of them has given an accurate value for PL, thus giving room to
reservations when using them.
Towner (1973) said that PL equals to the moisture content corresponding to
Campbell (1976) reported PL as equal to the water content giving
cone penetration.
depth of cone penetration
while Sampson and Netterberg, (1985) reported that PL equals to the water content giving
depth
of cone penetration.
Professor Casagrande (1948) developed the plasticity chart with plasticity indices plotted against liquid
limits. On the Casagrandes plasticity chart, the A- line distinguishes claylike materials from silt
materials and the organics from the inorganics. In addition, the U- line gives the uppermost bound of
soils in terms of PI and LL. Holtz and Kovacs (1981) suggested careful review and check of clay soil
laboratory work with PI and LL results plotting on the left side of U- line.
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The mathematical expressions for the two lines are such that A line corresponds
while U- line corresponds to
. The A- line distinguishes between organic (above)
and inorganic (below) clays while the U-line is the possible upper bound of soils once relating the PI to
the LL.
The plasticity chart shows that only smectite and illite groups of clay minerals are expansive.
Depending on their PI and LL values, smectite plots exactly below and parallel to the U line whereas
illite plots immediately above and parallel to the A line (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). The non-expansive
clay minerals include kaolinite that plots below and parallel to the A line. Halloysite and chlorite plot
far away below the A line. Generally, expansive clays have wide range of PI while non-expansive
clays have very low PI values as shown on the figure 2.11.2.1 below (Casagrande, 1948; Holtz and
Kovacs, 1981 and Mitchell, 1993 and Sivakugan, 2001).
Casagrandes PI- PL chart and clay mineral groups (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
In general, smectite group (montmorillonite and bentonite) has higher consistency limits and plot below
but parallel to U-line. Illite group plts above but parallel to A-line. The two groups are known as
expansive clays which swell and shrink due to change in moisture content. Kaolin plots below and
parallel to A-line. Other groups such as chlorite and halloysite plot also below A-line but not parallel to
this one. Some index properties of important clay minerals are given belw.
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SECTION 4: SOIL CLASSIFICATION

SOIL CLASSIFICATION BASICS
These lecture notes are based upon BS5930:1999 and BS1377:1990 but, where appropriate, reference
is made to Eurocode 7 related documents. These are namely BS EN ISO 14688-1:2002, BS EN ISO
14688-2:2004 and BS EN ISO 14689-1:2003). During this transitional stage as the full
recommendations of the Eurocode are being implemented during 2010 students are advised to be aware
that published text books are likely to make little reference to the Eurocode 7 (ie. EN 1997) and there
are some major differences in the way that soils are described. Students should be aware that the final
National Annex to BS EN 1997 was published on 31st December 2009 and that sections of BS5930 are
currently being re-written to comply fully with the Eurocode).
Purpose of soil classification
1. Provides a concise and systematic method for designating various types of soil.
2. Enables useful engineering conclusions to be made about soil properties.
3. Provides a common language for the transmission of information.
4. Permits the precise presentation of boring records and test results.
Object of soil classification
Is to provide a soil NAME and symbol, e.g. GRAVEL is G, based on the results of simple and quick to
perform (therefore economic) key tests;
1. Particle size distribution (P.S.D.) or sieve analysis.
2. Plastic properties:
Liquid limit test
Plastic limit test
Soil is initially classified into either coarse or fine soil on the basis of particle size.
Coarse soil (Granular): Physical characteristics and appearance are influenced by the distribution of
particle sizes within the soil, i.e.>0.063mm (1/16mm). A granular soil is classified according to its
Particle Size Distribution.
Fine soil (Cohesive): Physical characteristics and appearance influenced by cohesion and plastic
properties (plasticity) associated with mineral composition and water content. The fine soil is subgrouped according to its plasticity. The soil classification is commonly based on grain size and soil
consistency. Several classification systems exist:
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1. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) (ASTM D2487-11).

2. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) (ASTMD3282-09)
3. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA).
4. Burmister Soil Identification System
5. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).
4.1 Broad Classification
4.1.1 Classification of coarse soil
These include sands, gravels and larger particles. For these soils the grains are well defined and may be
seen by the naked eye. The individual particles may vary from perfectly round to highly angular
reflecting their geological origins.
Is classified on the sand (symbol S) and gravel (symbol G) content plus the amount of fines present
Particle size distribution by sieve analysis
This test involves passing soil through a series of sieves of decreasing mesh size and recording the
weight of soil retained on each. Soil that passes through the finest sieve (63 microns or 0.063mm)
collects in a base tray and is also weighed.
NB Where a soil contains fines, a relatively small proportion may cause the soil to form a cohesive
mass and dominate the properties of the soil. It is considered that a soil containing 35% fines or more
will behave as a cohesive soil (ie silt or clay). The fines content is critical and is indicated with an extra
symbol.
Symbol
% of
Fines
05
S
G-F
5 15
S-F
GF
15 - 35
SF
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Terminology
Fines
Clean gravel
content
Little
Clean sand
influence
Gravel with some fines
Some
Sand with some fines
influence
Gravel with much fines
Considerable
Sand with much fines
influence
The results are processed and plotted on a semi-log chart of cumulative percentage passing (y-axis)
verses log of particle size in mm (x-axis).
Grading:
The shape of the Particle Size Distribution curve indicates the range of particle sizes within a soil.
Coarse soils are sub-grouped on whether a soil is well graded or poorly graded.
A well graded (symbol W) soil has approximately equal proportions of particles sizes and the curve is
usually smooth. Note the Till is a well graded soil and the well graded gravel GW in the PSD chart
below.
A poorly graded (symbol P) soil may contain a high proportion of material within a limited particle
size band or bands. Poorly graded soil may be further sub-divided into uniform soil and gap graded
soil:
A poorly graded soil (Pu, uniform or closely graded) has a major proportion of the particles lying
between narrow size limits. As shown by the Estuary Sand, SPuF, in the PSD chart below.
Gap graded soil has particles of both large and small sizes but with a relatively small proportion of
particles with intermediate size, see clayey gravely sand, SPg in the PSD chart below.
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Soil description: Four elements can be deduced on the basis of grading curves:
Grading
Secondary
Sub-divisions Soil name
constituent
Well graded
sandy
(IN CAPS)
fine
and GRAVEL
medium
Other physical characteristics can also be included, for example overall colour, strength, presence of
root inclusions, layering/banding or organic odours. Some examples of soil descriptions are:
Dense, reddish-brown, sub-angular, well graded, gravelly SAND
Firm, grey, laminated CLAY of low plasticity with occasional silt partings 0.5-2.0mm
Dense, brown, heterogeneous, well graded, very silty SAND and GRAVEL with some COBBLES: Till
Stiff, brown, closely fissured CLAY of high plasticity: London Clay
Spongy, dark brown, fibrous PEAT
NOTE: A soil description is NOT a soil classification.
Analysis of particle size distribution curves
Analyse each of the curves A, B and C shown below using the table provided:
26
Soil Compositions:
Soil A: Gravel..% Sand..% Fines..%
Soil B: Gravel..% Sand..% Fines..%
Soil C: Gravel..% Sand..% Silt..% Clay..%
Soil classifications:
Soil A: ______ Soil B: ______ Soil C: ______
Soil Descriptions
Soil A: _____________________________________
Soil B: _____________________________________
(Soil C requires further classification of the fines faction according to plasticity)
27
4.1.2 Classification of Fine-grained soils

These include the silts and clays and have particles smaller than 60 m.
Silts: these can be visually differentiated from clays because they exhibit the property of dilatancy.
If a moist sample is shaken in the hand water will appear on the surface. If the sample is then
squeezed in the fingers the water will disappear. Their gritty feel can also identify silts.
Clays: exhibit plasticity, they may be readily remoulded when moist, and if left to dry can attain
high strengths. The precise boundaries between different soil types are somewhat arbitrary, but the
following scale is now in use worldwide.
Gravel
Sand
Silt
Clay
C
M
F
C
M
F
C
M
F
C
M
F
60 20
6
2
0.6
0.2
0.06 0.02 .006 .002 .0006 .0002
Where C, M, F stand for coarse, medium and fine respectively, and the particle sizes are in millimetres
Note
The logarithmic scale: most soils contain mixtures of sand, silt and clay particles, so the range of
particle sizes can be very large.
Not all particles less than 2 m are comprised of clay minerals, and some clay mineral particles can
be greater than 2 m. (A micron, m, is 10-6m).
4.2 Classification Systems for Soils
Several systems are used for classifying soil. This is because these systems have two main purposes
28
1. To determine the suitability of different soils for various purposes

2. To develop correlations with useful soil properties, for example, compressibility and strength
The reason for the large number of such systems is the use of particular systems for certain types of
construction, and the development of localised systems.
4.2.1 AASHO system
An example is the PRA system of AASHO (American Association of State Highway Officials), which
ranks soils from 1 to 8 to indicate their suitability as a subgrade for pavements.
1.
Well graded gravel or sand; may include fines
2.
Sands and Gravels with excess fines
3.
Fine sands
4.
Low compressibility silts
5.
High compressibility silts
6.
Low to medium compressibility clays
7.
High compressibility clays
8.
Peat, organic soils
4.2.2 Unified Soil Classification

The standard system used worldwide for most major construction projects is known as the Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS). This is based on an original system devised by Cassagrande. Soils are
identified by symbols determined from sieve analysis and Atterberg Limit tests.
Coarse Grained Materials
If more than half of the material is coarser than the 75 m sieve, the soil is classified as coarse. The
following steps are then followed to determine the appropriate 2 letter symbol
1. Determine the prefix (1st letter of the symbol)
If more than half of the coarse fraction is sand then use prefix S
If more than half of the coarse fraction is gravel then use prefix G
2. Determine the suffix (2nd letter of symbol)
This depends on the uniformity coefficient Cu and the coefficient of curvature Cc obtained from the
grading curve, on the percentage of fines, and the type of fines.
First determine the percentage of fines, that is the % of material passing the 75 m sieve.
Then if % fines is
< 5% use W or P as suffix

29
> 12% use M or C as suffix

between 5% and 12% use dual symbols. Use the prefix from above with first one
of W or P and then with one of M or C.
If W or P are required for the suffix then Cu and Cc must be evaluated
Cu
D60
D10
D302
Cc
( D60 D10 )
If prefix is G then suffix is W
if Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 and 3 otherwise use P
If prefix is S then suffix is W
if Cu > 6 and Cc is between 1 and otherwise use P
If M or C are required they have to be determined from the procedure used for fine grained materials
discussed below. Note that M stands for Silt and C for Clay. This is determined from whether the soil
lies above or below the A-line in the plasticity chart shown in Figure 9.
For a coarse grained soil which is predominantly sand the following symbols are possible
SW, SP, SM, SC
SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-SM, SP-SC
Fine grained materials
These are classified solely according to the results from the Atterberg Limit Tests. Values of the
Plasticity Index and Liquid Limit are used to determine a point in the plasticity chart shown in Figure
9. The classification symbol is determined from the region of the chart in which the point lies.
Examples
CH
High plasticity clay
CL
Low plasticity clay
MH
High plasticity silt
ML
Low plasticity silt
OH
High plasticity organic soil (Rare)
Pt
Peat
30
60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
Plasticity index
50
Toughness and dry strength increase

with increasing plasticity index
40
CH
30
OH
20
CL
CL
10
0
ML
10
20
ML
30
or
OL
40
50
60
Liquid limit
or
MH
70
80
90
100
Plasticity chart
Figure
for laboratory
9 Plasticity
classification
chart for laboratory
of fine grained
classification
soils
of fine grained soils
The final stage of the classification is to give a description of the soil to go with the 2-symbol class. For
a coarse grained soil this should include:
the percentages of sand and gravel
maximum particle size
angularity
surface condition
hardness of the coarse grains
local or geological name
any other relevant information
If the soil is undisturbed mention is also required of:
stratification
degree of compactness
cementation
moisture conditions
drainage characteristics
The information required, along with all the details of the Unified Classification Procedure is given in
Figure 6. Note that slightly different information is required for fine-grained soils.
31
32
33
34
Example: The liquid limit and plastic limit tests were carried out for a given soil and the obtained
results are as follows:
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
Example - Classification using USCS

Classification tests have been performed on a soil sample and the following grading curve and
Atterberg limits obtained. Determine the USCS classification.
100
% F i ne r
80
60
40
20
0
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
Particle size (mm)
Atterberg limits:
Liquid limit LL = 32, Plastic Limit, PL =26
Step 1: Determine the % fines from the grading curve

%fines (% finer than 75 m) = 11% - Coarse grained, Dual symbols required
42
Step 2: Determine % of different particle size fractions (to determine G or S), and D 10, D30, D60 from
grading curve (to determine W or P).
D10 = 0.06 mm, D30 = 0.25 mm, D60 = 0.75 mm
Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38, and hence Suffix1 = W
Particle size fractions: Gravel
17%
Sand
73%
Silt and Clay 10%

Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S
Step 3: From the Atterberg Test results determine its Plasticity chart location
LL = 32, PL = 26. Hence Plasticity Index Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line, and hence Suffix2 = M
Step 4: Dual Symbols are SW-SM
Step 5: Complete classification by including a description of the soil
43
SECTION 5: SOIL COMPACTION

Compaction is the application of mechanical energy to a soil to rearrange the particles and reduce the
void ratio.
5.1 Purpose of Compaction
The principal reason for compacting soil is to reduce subsequent settlement under working loads.
Compaction increases the shear strength of the soil.
Compaction reduces the voids ratio making it more difficult for water to flow through soil. This is
important if the soil is being used to retain water such as would be required for an earth dam.
Compaction can prevent the build-up of large water pressures that cause soil to liquefy during
earthquakes.
5.2 Factors affecting Compaction
Water content of the soil
The type of soil being compacted
The amount of compactive energy used
5.3 Laboratory Compaction tests
There are several types of test which can be used to study the compactive properties of soils. Because
of the importance of compaction in most earth works standard procedures have been developed. These
generally involve compacting soil into a mould at various moisture contents.
Standard Compaction Test AS 1289-E1.1
Soil is compacted into a mould in 3-5 equal layers, each layer receiving 25 blows of a hammer of
standard weight. The apparatus is shown in Figure 1 below. The energy (compactive effort) supplied in
this test is 595 kJ/m3. However, the widely used standard compaction or proctor compaction is 3 equal
layers with 27 blows each using a 2.5 kg rammer from 300 mm according to BS 1377-2.
The important dimensions are:
Volume of mould
1000 cm3
Hammer mass
2.5 kg
Drop of hammer
300 mm
Because of the benefits from compaction, contractors have built larger and heavier machines to
increase the amount of compaction of the soil. It was found that the Standard Compaction test could not
reproduce the densities measured in the field and this led to the development of the Modified
Compaction test.
44
Modified Compaction Test AS 1289-E2.1

The procedure and equipment is essentially the same as that used for the Standard test except that 5
layers of soil must be used. To provide the increased compactive effort (energy supplied = 2072 kJ/m 3)
a heavier hammer and a greater drop height for the hammer are used. The key dimensions for the
Modified test are
Volume of mould
1000 cm3
Hammer mass
4.9 kg
Drop of hammer
450 mm
Handle
Collar (mould
extension)
Metal guide to control

drop of hammer
Cylindrical
soil mould
Hammer for
compacting soil
Base plate
Figure 11 Apparatus for laboratory compaction tests
5.4 Presentation of Results
To assess the degree of compaction it is important to use the dry unit weight, dry, because we are
interested in the weight of solid soil particles in a given volume, not the amount of solid, air and water
in a given volume (which is the bulk unit weight).
45
From the relationships derived previously we have

dry
Gs w
1 e
which can be rearranged to give

e
Gs w
1
dry
Because Gs and w are constants it can be seen that increasing dry density means decreasing voids ratio
and a more compact soil. In the test the dry density cannot be measured directly, what are measured are
the bulk density and the moisture content. From the definitions we have:
dry
Wt of Solids Ws
TotalVolume V
bulk
Wt of Water Ww
Wt of Solids Ws
Wt of Solids Wt of Water
W Ww
W
s
V
TotalVolume
V
(1 m) Ws
V
= (1 + m) dry
This allows us to plot the variation of dry unit weight with moisture content, giving the typical response
shown in Figure 2 below. From this graph we can determine the optimum moisture content, m opt, for the
D ry unit w e ig ht
maximum dry unit weight, (dry) max.
(dry)
max
mopt
Moisture content
Figure 12 A typical compaction test result.
46
If the soil were to contain a constant percentage, A, of voids containing air where
A (%)
Va
100
V
Writing Va as V - Vw - Vs we obtain
1
V Vs
A
w
100
V
Then a theoretical relationship between dry and m for a given value of A can be derived as follows
dry
W Ww
bulk s
1 m V (1 m)
Now Vs
Ws
Gs w
Hence dry (1
Vw
A
)
100
(Vs Vw ) (1 m)
(Ws Ww ) (1
Ww mWs
w
w
A Gs w
)
100 Gs m 1
If the percentage of air voids is zero, that is, the soil is totally saturated, then this equation becomes
G
dry s w
Gs m 1
From this equation we see that there is a limiting dry unit weight for any moisture content and this
occurs when the voids are full of water. Increasing the water content for a saturated soil results in a
reduction in dry unit weight. The relation between the moisture content and dry unit weight for
D r y u n it w e ig h t
saturated soil is shown on the graph in Figure 3. This line is known as the zero air voids line.
Moisture content
Figure 13 Typical compaction curve showing no-air-voids line
47
5.5 Effects of water content during compaction

As water is added to a soil (at low moisture content) it becomes easier for the particles to move past
one another during the application of the compacting forces. As the soil compacts the voids are reduced
and this causes the dry unit weight (or dry density) to increase. As the moisture content increases so
does the dry unit weight. However, the increase cannot occur indefinitely because the soil state
approaches the zero air voids line which gives the maximum dry unit weight for given moisture
content. Thus as the state approaches the no air voids line further moisture content increases must result
in a reduction in dry unit weight. As the state approaches the no air voids line a maximum dry unit
weight is reached and the moisture content at this maximum is called the optimum moisture content.
5.6 Effects of increasing compactive effort
Increased compactive effort enables greater dry unit weights to be achieved which because of the shape
of the no air voids line must occur at lower optimum moisture contents. The effect of increasing
compactive energy can be seen in Figure 4. It should be noted that for moisture contents greater than
the optimum the use of heavier compaction machinery will have only a small effect on increasing dry
unit weights. For this reason it is important to have good control over moisture content during
D r y u nit w e ig ht
compaction of soil layers in the field.
increasing compactive
energy
Moisture content
Figure 14 Effects of compactive effort on compaction curves
It can be seen from this figure that the compaction curve is not a unique soil characteristic. It depends
on the compaction energy. For this reason it is important when giving values of ( dry) max and mopt to also
specify the compaction procedure (for example, standard or modified).
48
5.7 Effects of soil type

The table below contains typical values for the different soil types obtained from the Standard
Compaction Test.
Well graded sand

SW
Sandy clay
SC
Poorly graded sand
SP
Low plasticity clay
CL
Non plastic silt
ML
High plasticity clay CH
Typical Values
(dry )max (kN/m3)
22
19
18
18
17
15
mopt (%)
7
12
15
15
17
25
Note that these are typical values. Because of the variability of soils it is not appropriate to use typical
values in design, tests are always required.
5.8 Field specifications
To control the soil properties of earth constructions (e.g. dams, roads) it is usual to specify that the soil
must be compacted to some pre-determined dry unit weight. This specification is usually that a certain
percentage of the maximum dry density, as found from a laboratory test (Standard or Modified) must
be achieved. For example we could specify that field densities must be greater than 98% of the
maximum dry unit weight as determined from the Standard Compaction Test. It is then up to the
Contractor to select machinery, the thickness of each lift (layer of soil added) and to control moisture
Reject
Accept
D ry unit w e ig ht
D r y u n it w e ig h t
contents in order to achieve the specified amount of compaction.

Accept
Reject
Moisture content
Moisture content
Figure 15 Possible field specifications for compaction

There is a wide range of compaction equipment. For pavements some kind of wheeled roller or
vibrating plate is usually used. These only affect a small depth of soil, and to achieve larger depths
49
vibrating piles and drop weights can be used. The applicability of the equipment depends on the soil
type as indicated in the table below
Equipment
Most suitable soils Typical application Least suitable soils
Smooth
wheeled Well graded sand- Running surface, Uniform sands
rollers,
static
or gravel,
vibrating
Rubber tired rollers
crushed base
rock, asphalt
subgrades
Coarse
grained Pavement subgrade
Coarse
soils
some
soils and rocks
rock, Subgrade, subbase
Clays, silty clays,
with
fines
Weathered
Grid rollers
courses,
well graded coarse

Sheeps
uniform materials
soils
foot Fine grained soils Dams,
rollers, static
with > 20% fines
uniform
Coarse soils, soils
embankments,
subgrades
Sheepsfoot rollers, as above, but also subgrade layers
with
stones
vibratory
sand-gravel mixes
Vibrating plates
Coarse soils, 4 to Small patches
Tampers, rammers
8% fines
All types
Impact rollers
Most saturated and
Dry,
moist soils
gravels
Difficult
cobbles,
clays and silts
access
areas
sands
and
5.9 Sands and gravels

For soils without any fines (sometimes referred to as cohesionless) the standard compaction test is
difficult to perform. For these soil types it is normal to specify a relative density, I d, that must be
achieved. The relative density is defined by:
50
Id
emax e
emax emin
Where e is the current voids ratio, emax, emin are the maximum and minimum voids ratios measured in
the
laboratory from Standard Tests (AS 1289-5.1)
Note that if
e = emin, Id = 1 and the soil is in its densest state

e = emax, Id = 0 and the soil is in its loosest state
The expression for relative density can also be written in terms of the dry unit weights associated with
the various voids ratios. From the definitions we have:
Gs w
1
dry
And hence
1
Id
drymin
dry
1
1
drymin
drymax
drymax ( dry drymin )

dry ( drymax drymin )
The description of the soil will include a description of the relative density. Generally the terms loose,
medium and dense are used where
Loose
0 < Id < 1/3
Medium
1/3 < Id < 2/3
Dense
2/3 < Id < 1
Note that you cannot determine the unit weight from knowing I d. This is because the values of the
maximum and minimum dry unit weights (void ratios) can vary significantly. They depend on soil type
(mineralogy), the particle grading, and the angularity.
SECTION6. SOIL STRENGTH
6.1 Introduction
One of the most important questions to be answered in geotechnical engineering is are structures built
in or on the ground going to be safe? To answer this question, two issues must be addressed:
1. How are the applied loads distributed within the soil as stresses?
51
2. Is the soil strong enough to withstand these stresses?

In essence, this equates to the ultimate state analysis of the ground, with settlements and volume chage
being associated with serviceability limit state, following the design principles set out in EC7. If these
questions are not taken into account or are ignored, consequences may be severe as figures 6.1 and 6.2
can serve examples. Therefore the soil fails when the maximum shear stresses that a soil can withstand
have been mobilisedThe shear strength of soil is resistance to deformation by continuous shear
displacement of soil particles up on the action of a shear stress. The shearing resistance of soil is
constituted basically by the following components:
1. Internal friction: due to interlocking of the particles and translocation between the individual
soil particles at their contact points.
2. Cohesion or adhesion between the surfaces of soil particles. The shear strength in cohesionless soil
results from in inter-granural friction alone while in all other soil it results both from internal friction
as well as cohesion.
52
The shear strength of soils is an important aspect in many foundation engineering problems such as the
bearing capability of shallow foundation and piles, the stability of slopes of dams and embankments
and lateral earth pressure on retaining walls.
Figure 6.1 typical slope failures
53
Figure 6.2: Transcona Grain Elevator foundation failure in 1913 (Canada).

The strength will also depend on whether the soil deformation occurs under fully drained conditions,
constant volume (undrained) conditions, or with some intermediate state of drainage. In each case
different excess pore pressures will occur resulting in different effective stresses, and hence different
strengths. In assessing the stability of soil constructions analyses are usually performed to check the
short term (undrained) and long term (fully drained) conditions.
6.2 Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion
The shear stress that may be applied to any plane in the soil mass is found to be given by an equation of
the form
= c + n tan
where c
= cohesion (apparent)
= friction angle
n = normal stress
This is known as the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion
54
Shear Strength,
S or
Normal Stress,
The parameters c and are not generally soil constants. The Mohr-Coulomb criterion is an
empirical criterion, and the failure locus is only locally linear. Extrapolation outside the range of
normal stresses for which it has been determined is likely to be unreliable. In terms of effective
stress the failure criterion is written:
= c + n tan
Where c and are referred to as the effective (drained) strength parameters
Soil behaviour is controlled by effective stresses, and the effective strength parameters are the
fundamental strength parameters. But they are not necessarily soil constants. They are fundamental in
the sense that if soil is at failure the state will always be described by an effective stress failure
criterion. The parameters can be determined from any test provided that the pore pressures are known.
In terms of total stress the failure criterion is written
= cu + n tan u
Where cu, u are referred to as the undrained (total) strength parameters. These parameters can only be
determined from undrained tests.
The undrained strength parameters are not soil constants, they depend strongly on the moisture content
of the soil. The total stress criterion has limited applicability as it is only valid if soil deformation
occurs without drainage.
55
The undrained strengths measured in the laboratory are only relevant in practice to clayey (low
permeability) soils that initially deform without drainage.
6.3 Strength Tests
The engineering strength of soil materials is often determined from tests in either the shear box
apparatus or the triaxial apparatus.
6.3.1 The Shear Box Test
The soil is sheared along a predetermined plane by placing it in a box and then moving the top half of
the box relative to the bottom half. The box may be square or circular in plan and of any size, however,
the most common shear boxes are square, 60 mm x 60 mm,
A load normal to the plane of shearing may be applied to a soil specimen through the lid of the box.
Provision is made for porous plates to be placed above and below the soil specimen. These enable
drainage to occur which is necessary if a specimen is to be consolidated under a normal load, and if a
specimen is to be tested in a fully drained state.
The soil specimen may be submerged, by filling the containing vessel with water, to prevent the
specimens from drying out. Undrained tests may be carried out, but in this case solid spacer blocks
rather than the porous disks must be used.
56
Typical drained shear box results
= F/A
Cohesive soil
Cohesionless soil
N2
N1
= N/A
Notation:
N
Normal Force
Tangential (Shear) Force
N/A
Normal Stress
F/A
Shear Stress
Cross-sectional area of shear plane
Usually only relatively slow drained tests are performed in shear box apparatus. For clays the rate of
shearing must be chosen to prevent excess pore pressures building up. For freely draining sands and
gravels tests can be performed quickly. Tests on sands and gravels are usually performed dry as it is
found that water does not significantly affect the (drained) strength.
Provided there are no excess pore pressures the pore pressure in the soil will be approximately zero and
the total and effective stresses will be identical. That is, n = n
The failure stresses thus define an effective stress failure envelope from which the effective (drained)
strength parameters c, can be determined.
57
At this stage we are primarily interested in the stresses at failure. It is observed that for a set of initially
similar soil samples there is a linear failure criterion that may be expressed as
= c + n tan
From this the effective (drained) strength parameters c and can be determined.
As a soil test the shear box is far from ideal. Disadvantages of the test include:
Non-uniform deformations and stresses. The stresses determined may not be those
acting on the shear plane.
There are no facilities for measuring pore pressures in the shear box and so it is not
possible to determine effective stresses from undrained tests.
The shear box apparatus cannot give reliable undrained strengths because it is
impossible to prevent localised drainage away from the shear plane.

However, it has many apparent advantages:
It is easy to test sands and gravels
Large deformations can be achieved and is useful in finding the
residual strength of a
soil.
Large samples may be tested in large shear boxes. Small samples may give misleading
results due to imperfections (fractures and fissures) or the lack of them.
Samples may be sheared along predetermined planes. This is useful when the shear
strengths along fissures or other selected planes are required.

In practice the shear box is used to get quick and crude estimates of the failure parameters. It is
sometimes used to obtain undrained strengths but this use should be discouraged.
Types of shear strength tests
Laboratory tests
Direct shear box
Triaxial compression
Unconfined compression
Ring shear
Shear vane
In Situ tests
Shear vane
Cone penetration
Standard penetration
Pressuremeter
Plate loading
6.3.2 The Triaxial Test

58
The triaxial test is carried out in a cell and is so named because three principal stresses are applied to
the soil sample. Two of the principal stresses are applied to the sample by a water pressure inside the
confining cell and are equal.
The third principal stress is applied by a loading ram through the top of the cell and therefore may be
different to the other two principal stresses. A diagram of a typical triaxial cell is shown below.
A cylindrical soil specimen as shown is placed inside a latex rubber sheath which is sealed to a top cap and
bottom pedestal by rubber O-rings. For drained tests, or undrained tests with pore pressure measurement,
porous disks are placed at the bottom, and sometimes at the top of the specimen.
For tests where consolidation of the specimen is to be carried out, filter paper drains may be provided
around the outside of the specimen in order to speed up the consolidation process.
Pore pressure generated inside the specimen during testing may be measured by means of pressure
transducers.
The triaxial test is widely used to investigate the stress-strain behaviour of different soil types. It has the
advantages that drainage condition can be controlled and pore water and pore air pressures can be
measured. Thus both drained and undrained conditions can be examined as well as saturated and partialy
saturated situations. Specimens are tested as cylinder, with nominal measurents of heights to diameter ratio
of 2:1. A range of different soil types can be tested using different specimen sizes. For example in the UK,
the standard size for fine grained soils is 38 mm diameter by 76 mm height, and for soils with larger
particles, 100 mm diameter by 200 mm height is used. The valves help to control pore water pressure; if
they are closed the test is undrained ant it is drained if they are open.
Test Method:
During the testing using triaxial device, the vertical force is applied via the piston to increase the the
vertical stress (vertical compressive) to a value greater than the radial or horizontal stress. In this case:
The vertical stress will equate to the major principal stress (1)
The horizontal stress will equate to the minor principal stress (3)
There are normally two stages during the conventional triaxial testing. The stage one allows consolidation
to take place as cell pressures are increased; yielding isotropic consolidation (different to oedometer
consolidation which is anisotropic). Once the desired value has been achieved, the second stage which is
shearing commences.
During the above explained stages, different drainage conditions can be applied:
Undrained/Unconsolidated (UU): The drainage taps are closed during the consolidation and
shearing phases. The rate of strain used is commonly 2% of specimen length per minute which
59
gives undrained compressive strength characteristic. In other words, cell pressure applied without
allowing drainage. Then keeping the cell pressure constant and increasing the deviator load to
failure without drainage.
Consolidated/Undrained (CU): With pore pressure measurements and where drainage taps are
open during the consolidation phase while they are closed during the shearing phase.
Consolidated/Drained (CD): Where the drainage taps are open during both phases of the test.
Such tests on clays can take weeks but give drained strength parameters. The rate of strain applied
depends on the soil tested. During this type of test volume changes are measured.
If the saturated conditions are required, or pore water pressure and hence effective stresses are needed
to be controlled, then a back pressure may be applied.
Figure: General layout of a triaxial test (Head, 1986)

6.3.2.1 Stresses
60
F = Deviator load
r =
Radial stress (cell

pressure)
u
a = Axial stress
From vertical equilibrium we have
a r
F
or 1= 3 + Q/Ac with Q being the applied load in KN
A
and Ac the corrected area. The value Q/Ac = 1-3 is the deviator stress.
The term F/A is known as the deviator stress, and is usually given the symbol q.
Hence we can write q = a - r = 1 - 3 (The axial and radial stresses are principal stresses)
If q = 0 increasing cell pressure will result in:
Volumetric compression if the soil is free to drain. The effective stresses will increase and so will the
strength
Increasing pore water pressure if soil volume is constant (that is, undrained). Increasing q is required
to cause failure
6.3.2.2 Strains
From the measurements of change in height, dh, and change in volume dV we can determine
Axial strain
a = -dh/h0
Volume strain v = -dV/V0

where h0 is the initial height, and V0 the initial volume. The conventional small strain assumption is
generally used. It is assumed that the sample deforms as a right circular cylinder. The corrected crosssectional area, A or Ac, can then be determined from:
A=Ac= A0/ (1-a) for undrained tests.
The formula below gives the corrected area for the drained tests.
61
A =
dV
V0
Ao
1 + dh
h0
It is
1 +
1 - v
1 - a
Ao
important to make allowance for the changing area when calculating the deviator stress,
q = 1 - 3 = F/A
Advantages of triaxial test
As a test for investigating the behaviour of soils the triaxial test has many advantages over the shear box
test:
Specimens are subjected to uniform stresses and strains
The complete stress-strain behaviour can be investigated
Drained and undrained tests can be performed
Pore water pressures can be measured in undrained tests
Different combinations of confining and axial stress can be applied
Typical results from a series of drained tests consolidated to different cell pressures would be as follows.
q
Increasing cell
pressure
a
The triaxial test gives the strength in terms of the principal stresses, whereas the shear box gives the
stresses on the failure plane directly. To relate the strengths from the two tests we need to use some results
from the Mohr circle transformation of stress.
62
6.4 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion (Principal stresses)

6.4.1 Relation between , and C, at failures
Failure will occur when we can find any direction such that
= c + n tan
c
3
c cot
At failure from the geometry of the Mohr Circle

R = sin (p + c cot ) = p sin + c cos
63
N 3 + 2 c
1
3
+ c cot
+ c cot
1 + sin
1 - sin

+
tan 2
2
4
6.4.2
=
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion for effective stresses

As mentioned above it is the effective strength parameters c, that are the fundamental soil strength
parameters. To use these parameters the Mohr-Coulomb criterion must be expressed in terms of effective
stresses, that is:
= c + n tan
1 = N 3 + 2 c N
With
1 sin
1 sin
And the effective stresses are given by

n = n - u
1= 1- u
3= 3 - u
Note that the difference between the total and effective stresses is simply the pore pressure u. Thus the
total and effective stress Mohr circles have the same diameter and are displaced along the axis by the
value of the pore pressure.
6.5 Interpretation of Laboratory Data

It is helpful to distinguish between drained and undrained loading.
64
6.5.1 Drained loading

In drained laboratory tests the loading rate is sufficiently slow so that all excess pore water pressures will
have dissipated. From the known pore water pressures the effective stresses can be determined.
The behaviour of drained tests must be interpreted in terms of the effective strength parameters c, ,
using the effective stresses. It is possible to construct a series of total stress Mohr Circles but the inferred
total strength parameters have no relevance to the soil behaviour.
The effective strength parameters are generally used to check the long term (that is when all the excess
pore pressures have dissipated) stability of soil constructions. However, for sands and gravels pore
pressures dissipate rapidly and for these permeable soils the effective strength parameters can also be used
for assessing the short term stability. In principle the effective strength parameters can be used to check the
stability at any time for any soil type, but to do this the pore pressures in the ground must be known and in
general they are not.
6.5.2 Undrained loading
In undrained laboratory tests it is necessary to ensure no drainage from the sample, or moisture
redistribution within the sample occurs. In shear box tests this requires fast rates, but because of the more
uniform conditions in the triaxial test undrained tests can be performed more slowly simply making sure
that no water can drain from the sample.
The behaviour of undrained tests may be interpreted in terms of the effective strength parameters c, ,
using the effective stresses. In a triaxial test with pore pressure measurement this is possible. The
behaviour may also be interpreted in terms of the total strength parameters c u, u. However, if the total
stress parameters are being used they must be determined from Unconsolidated Undrained tests if they are
to be relevant to the soil in the ground.
6.6 Unconfined Compression Test
Unconfined compression test is used when = 0 assumption is valid
For clay soils
Cylindrical Test specimen
No confining stress (i.e. 3 = 0)

65
Axial stress = 1
3 = 0
66
Unconfined Compression Test Data
l
l0
A0
1
P
Ac
Ac
qu Unconfined Compressio n Strength

Su Undrained Shear Strngth
qu
2
67
68
69
Lecture notes by Eng. Esdras NGEZAHAYO, BSc (CEET), MSc (GEM).
70
CHAP 7. SOIL PERMEABILITY

INTRODUCTION
Permeability may be defined as the property of a porous material which permits the passage water
or seepage (or other fluid) through its interconnecting voids. A material having continuous voids is
called permeable.
Learning outcome:
At the completion of this chapter you should be able to:
Determine the rate of flow of water through soils.

Determine the hydraulic conductivity of soils
Appreciate the importance of flow of water through soils
Understand instability and sometimes failure of many geotechnical structures as caused by
flow of water in soils.
Definitions of key terms

Hydraulic conductivity, also called coefficient of permeability or permeability (k): is
proportionality constant used to determine the flow velocity of water through soils.
Head (H): Is the mechanical energy per unit weight
Porewater pressure (p): Is the pressure of water within the soil pores.
Laminar flow: A laminar flow (according to Reynolds), is a flow which its velocity is less than
a lower critical velocity
Factors affecting permeability
Following are some of the factors affecting soil permeability:
Grain size and shape
Properties of the pore fluid
Void ratio of the soil
Structural arrangement of the soil particles
Entrapped air of the soil
Adsorbed water in clay soils.
71
To determine the coefficient of permeability Following Laboratory testing may be

used:
i.
Constant head permeability Test
ii.
Falling head permeability test
72
73
74
Illustrative example in head calculation

Exemple
A soil sample 10cm in diameter is placed in a tube 1m long.A constant supply of water is allowed to
flow into one end of the soil at A, and the outflow at B is collected by a beaker (Fig.X).The average
amount of water collected is 1cm3 for every 10seconds.The tube is inclined as shown in figure X.
75
i.
Determine the total head at points A and B
( assume the datum to be taken at the level of table)
ii.
What would be the total heads at those points if the datum is assumed to be at
0.5m from the the top of the water supply? (See figure Y)
Answer
i) HA= h (p) A+ ZA =1+1=2m
HB= h (p) B +ZB=0+0.8=0.8m
ii) HA=h (p) A+ ZA =1-0.5=0.5m
HB=h (p) B +ZB= 0-0.7= -0.7m
76
77
78
79
Practical examples
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
Effective Stress
1. INTRODUCTION
This section covers the principle of effective stress in soils and introduces the concept of partly
saturated soils. Only brief details are given in these notes and further reading should be undertaken
(for example Barnes 2000, p-84-114, Craig 2004, p-71-88).
2. EFFECTIVE STRESS
2.1. The Nature of Effective Stress
The nature of way a soil skeleton reacts to load dictates how a soil as a whole responds to the
application of the load and how the soil will deform. A soil itself is made up of a skeleton of solid
particles and voids filled with water and gases. The interaction between the solid and fluid
components determines the time-dependent behaviour of the soil overall.
With deformation, it is the voids (usually the displacement of water) that dictate what and how a
soil will react. However, it is the ultimately resistance offered by the solid components that control
the strength of a soil.
To understand and explain these complex interactions, Karl Terzaghi introduced the principle of
effective stress into soil mechanics in the 1920s. This was the first time that both cohesive and
frictional soil could be considered in a unified manner. This enabled the short term and long term
responses of soils to put into a rational framework.
2.2. The Principle of Effective Stress
The principle of effective stress can be demonstrated by examining how a soil reacts to an external
load. Consider a small element of soil at depth z that is fully saturated, as shown in Fig. 1.
The external normal load or pressure (stress) is resisted by two internal components:
(1) The pore water pressure; and
(2) The stress transmitted through the soil skeleton, or the effective stress
95
96
97
98
99
Exercises
100
101
Key exercises.
Work out the following exercises and meet the provided answers.
102
103
CHAPITER 9: CONSOLIDATION OF SOIL

9.1 INTRODUCTION
When a soil layer is subjected to a compressive stress. Such as the construction of a structure, it
will exhibit a certain amount of compression.
This compression is achieved through a number of ways: including rearrangement of the soil solids,
extrusion of the pore air and or water. Consolidation is a process by which soils decrease in volume.
According to Karl Terzaghi consolidation is any process which involves decrease in water content
of a saturated soil without replacement of water by air. In general it is the process in which
reduction in volume takes place by expulsion of water under long term static loads. It occurs when
stress is applied to a soil that causes the soil particles to pack together more tightly, therefore
reducing its bulk volume. When this occurs in a soil that is saturated with water, water will be
squeezed out of the soil. The magnitude of consolidation can be predicted by many different
methods. In the Classical Method, developed by Karl von Terzaghi, soils are tested with an
oedometer test to determine their compression index. This can be used to predict the amount of
consolidation. When stress is removed from a consolidated soil, the soil will rebound, regaining
some of the volume it had lost in the consolidation process. If the stress is reapplied, the soil will
consolidate again along a recompression curve, defined by the recompression index. The soil which
had its load removed is considered to be over consolidated.
9.2 LABORATORY CONSOLIDATION TEST
Fig.9-1
104
When a loading machine is allowed to apply to the soil specimen a certain number of increaments
of vertical pressure, such as: 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000 (KN/m 3) and each pressure
increment is maintained constant until the compression virtually stops (generally after 24hrs), the
specimen exhibits vertical compresssion h.
In reality of compression process, the solids of soil exhibits the small compression withwhich is
negligible; therefore we assume that the compression of soil results from the decreasement of
volume of voids. Through the following calculation we can get relationship between h and P
Fig 9-2
According to figure 5-3 and we assume the cross- section of sample F= 1 we get:
=1-
, we know that: Vs1 =
and Vs2 =
V= Vs + Vv, or e = Vv/Vs
105
V= Vs+eVs = Vs (1+e) therefore Vs = V/(1+e) or Vs =
Because Vs1 = Vs2
We get:
Therefore
hence h2 =
= 1-
Finally e =
(5-1)
(5-2)
When processing data from laboratory test, you have:

-
e0 =
First, to calculate e0 by using other parameters: , s, or s, and
- 1 or
1, with s = Gsxw
Then, use formula (5-2) to calculate e for each load level, and finally plot
e-P curve as shown in fig.(5-3c)
9.3 IMPORTANT PARAMETERS FROM CONSOLIDATION TEST

9.3.1 Coefficient of compressibility a or Cv:
106
If we assume that the soil mass perfect elastic material (isotropic) we can consider e-P relation as
linear relationship and the curve becomes straight line as shown in figure: at that time we get:
e2 e2 = a (P2-P1)
(9-3)
From this formula, the compressibility of the soil is expressed as follows:
The change in void ratio is proportional to change in the load pressure and a is called coefficient
of compressibility: which is defined as the decrease in voids ratio per unit increase of pressure.
a = tg = - e/P (1/Kpa)
(9-4)
Strictly speaking a is not constant for a given soil mass; that is why generally a calculated from
P1= 100Kpa to P2 = 200Kpa is taken as standard in evaluation of compressibility of given soil, and
is symbolized as a1-2.
9.3.2 Compression modulus: Es
Vertical strain at given increment pressure
z =
= -
Hence, e1 e2 = e = (1+e1) z
In other hands: e1- e2 = a (P2-P1)
From above we get: a (P2 P1) = (1+e1) z or P2 P1 =
P = Es x z, where Es is called compression modulus which is defined as a ratio of vertical stress

to the vertical stain of soil mass laterally confined.
Es = (1+e1)/a
(9-5)
When a1-2 is replaced in above formula we get Es1-2, used in foundation settlement calculation.
9.3.3 Modulus of Volume change or coefficient of volume change m
Is defined as the change in volume of soil per unit initial volume due to a unit increase in vertical
stress (pressure)
m =
or m =
or m = 1/Es
(9-6a)
(9-6b)
9.3.4. Compression Index Cc

When the e-P plot is changed in form where by the pressure P is in logarithmic scale
We get e-logP plot shown in fig.9.2-d. From this plot we can see that when P is greater than a
certain value, the relationship between e and log P becomes approximatively linear. In this case the
formula (9-3) is written as follows:
e1 e2 = Cc (log P2 log P1) or e1 e2 = Cc log P2/P1
Therefore
Cc =
(9-7)
107
Which is numerical slope of linear portion of e-log P curve and is called compression index
According to the Pc obtained, the consolidation history of soil is divided in three states:
1. Over consolidation: The soil may have been consolidated during the part geological periods
by the weight of an ice sheet or glacier which has melted annoy or by other. Overburden and
structural loads which no longer exist.
2. Normal consolidation: Soil normally consolidated is one which has never been subjected to
an overburden pressure greater than existing one and soil which is completely consolidated
3.
by existing overburden pressure.

Under consolidation: The soil which is not fully consolidated under the existing
overburden pressure is called an under-consolidated soil.
By using the over consolidation ratio: OCR= Pc/P0, where:

P0 is existing overburden pressure P0 = .Z (Z: is sampling depth)
We can determine the consolidation state of a given soil mass.
Obviously when OCR > 1: The soil is over consolidated
OCT = 1: The soil is normally consolidated
OCR < 1: The soil is under consolidation
9.3.5 Coefficient of consolidation Cv
The term coefficient of consolidation Cv, is adopted to indicated the combined effect of
permeability and compressibility of soil on the rate of volume change. It is expressed as follows:
Cv =
(9-8)
If the average values of k, a, e (They change with increase of pressure P). Laboratory experiments
have already demonstrated that: on the e-log P curve, the pressure Pc corresponding to the
beginning of linear portion is value of the maximum stress (overburden pressure) to which a soil has
been subjected and under which it got consolidated in its stress history. This pressure is known as:
Pre- consolidation pressure.
Determination of Pre-consolidation pressure
108
The approximate value of the preconsolidation pressure Pc may be determined by the following
method of Casagrande (1936):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The point of maximum curvature M on the curved portion of the e-log P plot is located.
A horizontal line MS is drawn through M:
A tangent MT to the curved portion is drawn through M;
The angle STM is bisected, MB being the bisector.
The straight portion DC of the plot is extended backward to meet MB in E point.
The pressure corresponding to the point E is the most probable past maximum stress or the
preconsolidation pressure Pc are known.
Other method of determining Cv is given by the relationship between elapsed time t and deal
readings (sample thickness) which are consolidated data obtained in Laboratory during
consolidation test.
Out of many methods available, two major methods are hereby described:
1. Square root of time fitting or Tylor method;
2. Logarithm of time fitting or casagrande method.
Square root of time fitting:
1. Plot the curve between square root of time
2. The straight portion of curve (R-----
and compression dial reading of specimen.
) is extended back to form the line A which meets the
ordinate at reading Rc which is the corrected reading.

3. From Rc other line (Line B) is drawn so that its absciss a at every point is 1.15 times that of
line R, but A and B have same ordinate
109
4. Intersection of line B and curve gives point P corresponding to 90% U whose dial reading
and time are respectively R90 and t90.
5. Hence
Cv = (Tv)90 d2 / t90
Where d- is average drainage path
Tv Consolidation time factor (from the table)
U Degree of consolidation
Logarithm of time fitting:

1. Plot the curve between log t and compression dial reading.
2. A tangent at the point of inflection and the asymptote of lower portion of the curve intersect
at point P corresponding to 100%U.
3. A point A corresponding to t= 1 minute and point B corresponding to t = minute are
marked (located) on the curve.
4. An horizontal line is drawn at a vertical height Z above point B, where Z is drawn at a
vertical distance between A and B. The ordinate corresponding to this horizontal line is
corrected reading Rc which correspond to U= 0
5. The dial reading R100 corresponding to U1= 100% is given by ordinate of point P . After
locating Rc and R100 the dial ready R50 and hence t50 corresponding to U= 50% can be found
out from the plot.
Hence Cv = (Tv) 50 d2/ t50
(9-10)
110

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MODULE OF SOIL MECHANICS

Section9. CONSOLIDATION OF SOIL: Significance of consolidation, Terzaghis theory of one

Soil Dynamics (Dynamic Properties of Soils, Earthquake Engineering, Machine

Foundation Engineering (Deep & Shallow and Special Foundations).

Pavement Engineering (Flexible & Rigid Pavement).

Rock Mechanics (Rock Stability and Testing).

Ground Improvement (Surface compaction, deep compaction, dynamic compaction, vibro

Underground Engineering and Construction (Tunneling principles and techniques,

Engineering geology (Rock formation and development, landslides and ground

Sometimes the course of Construction management (planning, contracting and managing

2. SOIL FORMATION AND COMPOSITION

Soil material is the product of rock

Variation in Particle size and shape depends on:

Variation in Soil Structure Depends on Soil Minerals and Deposition Process

Some soil types

Figure 1: Air, Water and Solid phases in a typical soil

Table 1: Phase description in terms of volume and weight of soil elements.

These soils can be:

Partly Saturated Soils

SECTION 2: ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOIL

(Physical and index or classification properties of soils)

Unit Weight of Material

Unit Weight of Water

3.1.2 Voids Ratio and Porosity

The relation between e and n can be determined by noting that

If we express the weights in terms of e, S, Gs and w as before we obtain

Example1 Mass and Volume fractions

3.2.1 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

Figure 6 A schematic view of the hydrometer test

1.5 Grading curves

Particle size (mm)

Figure 7 Typical grading curves

Well graded material

Poorly graded material

Well graded with some clay

Well graded with an excess of fines

Parameters Obtained From Grain Size Distribution Curve:

Coefficient of Gradation or Coefficient of Curvature Cc

SECTION 3: CONSISTENCY OF SOIL

Figure 8. Moisture content versus volume relation

Index from Atterberg Limits:

(LI) The Liquidity Index - This is defined as

depth of cone penetration

. The A- line distinguishes between organic (above)

SECTION 4: SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Liquid limit test

Plastic limit test

1. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) (ASTM D2487-11).

Gravel with some fines

Sand with some fines

Gravel with much fines

Sand with much fines

Sub-divisions Soil name

4.1.2 Classification of Fine-grained soils

1. To determine the suitability of different soils for various purposes

Well graded gravel or sand; may include fines

Sands and Gravels with excess fines

Low compressibility silts

High compressibility silts