Level Sensors

Level Measurement

Level is another common process variable that is measured in many

industries. The method used will vary widely depending on the
nature of the industry, the process, and the application.

Inventory:
-- a constant supply or storage of material
Control:
-- continuous, batch, blending, and mixing control
-- stabilize flow to the next process
Alarming:
-- hi/lo limits, safety shut down
Data Logging:
-- material quantities for inventory and billing purposes and
where regulatory requirements are necessary

What is measured?
The measured medium can be liquid, gas or
solid and stored in vessels (open/closed
tanks), silos, bins and hoppers.
Units of level can be expressed in:

feet (meters)
gallons (liters)
pounds (kilograms)
cubic volume (ft3, m3)

Methods ---- Direct or Indirect (inferential)

Hydrostatic Head
Float
Load Cells
Magnetic Level Gauge
Capacitance
Transmitters
Magnetostrictive
Ultrasonic
Microwave
Laser
Radar
Guided Wave Radar
Dip Stick
Vibration

Direct Methods
Direct methods sense the surface or interface of the
liquid and is not affected by changes in material
density (Specific Gravity)
Examples:

Dip Stick
Resistance Tapes
Sight Glass
Floats
Ultrasonic

Indirect Methods (Inferential)

Indirect methods infer liquid level by
measuring some other physical parameter
such as pressure, weight, or temperature.
Changing materials means a corrective factor
must be used or recalibrating the instrument.
Examples:
Hydrostatic head methods
Load Cells
Capacitance
Conductivity

Selection Criteria

When determining the type of level sensor that

should be used for a given application, there are a
series of questions that must be answered:
Open tank or closed tank?
Can the level sensor be inserted into the tank or
should it be completely external? Contact or noncontact?
Continuous measurement or point
measurement?
Direct or Indirect measurement?
What type of material is being measured? Liquid
or Solid? Clean or Slurry?

Selection Criteria

For all liquids you will need:

The system operating temperature with max.
and min. excursions?
two wide range expensive the sensor
The system operating pressure?

Check that system T and P do not conflict

with the materials of construction?

Selection Criteria

For Solids:
Bulk density
Be careful with very large silos as compaction at the
bottom can greatly change assume bulk densities
Flow characteristics?
Expected particle size distribution?
Is solid abrasive and/or corrosive and what is the
moisture/solvent content?

For Liquids
Dip Stick

Simple and cheap

Can be used with any wet

material and not affected by

density.
Can not be used with
pressurized tanks
Visual indication only (electronic
versions are available)
RodGauge - similar to a dipstick found in a car, it has weighted line markings to
indicate depth or volume

For Liquids
Sight Glass

Another simple direct

method of
measuring liquids.
Can be used in
pressurized tanks (as
long as the glass or
plastic tube can
handle the pressure)

Good for applications where non-contact measurement is needed (like

beverages)

For Liquids

Floats

Float rides the surface level to provide the measurement. Many

different styles are available. Usually used for pump control,
high/low level alarms and emergency shut-off

Liquid density does not affect measurement

For Liquids
Conductivity Level Measurement

Point Level Measurement

Continuous Level Measurement

Advantages and disadvantages

Low Cost
Conductive, non-coating liquids only
Insulating coatings can cause problems

For Liquids
Resistance Tape

The pressure of the fluid in the tank causes the

tape to short-circuit, thus changing the total
resistance of the measuring tape. An electronic
circuit measures the resistance; it's directly
related to the liquid level in the tank.

For Liquids
Bubblers

Bubblers allow the

indicator to be
located anywhere.
The air pressure in the
tube varies with the
head pressure of the
height of the liquid.

Instrument
input does not
matter
Regulated purge
system
(air or nitrogen)

Bottom of tube
determines
reference point
Cant be used in closed tanks or where purging a liquid is not allowed (soap). Very popular in the paper
industry because the air purge keeps the tube from plugging.

For Liquids
Bubblers

Advantages:

Instrument
input does not
matter

-- Easy installation

Regulated purge
system

-- Continuous reading providing

analogue or digital signal

(air or nitrogen)

-- No moving parts
-- Good accuracy and
repeatability

Bottom of tube
determines
reference point

For Liquids
Bubblers

Limitations:
-- Not suitable for pressurized
tanks

Instrument
input does not
matter
Regulated purge
system
(air or nitrogen)

-- Sediments may block tube or

probe

-- Tanks must be freely vented

Bottom of tube
determines
reference point

Hydrostatic Head Level Sensors

These methods infer level by measuring the

hydrostatic head produced by the liquid column.

A pressure sensing element is installed at the bottom

of the tank and pressure is converted to level.

Different liquid densities or closed tank applications

must be accounted for.

Hydrostatic Head Level Sensors

General Theory for Head Measurement

The Pressure exerted by the
Height of the liquid is:
Height (H)

Liquid
Density (D)

P = H x Density*
Pressure
PSI

If the Density of the liquid is

known then

H = Pressure
Density*
*Note: For liquids other than water, use the density of water 0.0361 lb/in3 as a
reference and multiply by the SG of the liquid.

Example
A dip stick measurement of the level of these 2 tanks indicates 30 feet of
liquid in both tanks. Calculate the pressure that each gauge will read if
tank 1 contains water (S.G. = 1) and tank 2 contains oil (S.G. = 0.85)

Height
(H)

Water
Density
(D)

Height
(H)

Oil
Density
(D)
Tank
2 PSI

Tank
1 PSI

P = ? psi

P = ? psi

Example
A dip stick measurement of the level of these 2 tanks indicates 30 feet of liquid
in both tanks. Calculate the pressure that each gauge will read if tank 1 contains
water (S.G. = 1) and tank 2 contains oil (S.G. = 0.85)

Height
(H)

Water
Density
(D)

Height
(H)

Oil
Density
(D)
Tank
2 PSI

Tank
1 PSI

P = H x Density

= 30 ft x 0.0361 lbs/in3
= (30 x 12) x 0.0361
= 13 psi

P = ? psi

Example
A dip stick measurement of the level of these 2 tanks indicates 30 feet of liquid
in both tanks. Calculate the pressure that each gauge will read if tank 1 contains
water (S.G. = 1) and tank 2 contains oil (S.G. = 0.85)

Height
(H)

Water
Density
(D)

Height
(H)

Oil
Density
(D)
Tank
2 PSI

Tank
1 PSI

P = H x Density x SG

P = H x Density x SG

= 30 ft x 0.0361 lbs/in3 x 1

= 30 ft x 0.0361 lbs/in3 x 0.85

= (30 x 12) x 0.0361

= (30 x 12) x 0.0361 x 0.85

= 13 psi

= 11 psi

Hydrostatic Head Level Sensors (Contd)

Practical Considerations when using head type

instruments
The reference point of the tank vs instrument input
must be considered.

Height
(H)

Liquid
Density (D)

Height
(H)

Liquid
Density (D)

Pressu
re PSI

Pressur
e PSI

This may not be practical in some applications where the tank elevation is below grade or
where a remote visual reading is required.

Hydrostatic Head Level Sensors (Contd)

Tank Elevations
Vertical rises and drops contribute to the
overall height and therefore head pressure.
Horizontal runs have no effect.
Height
(H)

Water
Density
(D)

Hydrostatic Head Level Sensors (Contd)

Closed Tank Applications

P (atmospheric)

Open tanks are vented to atmosphere so the

pressure at the bottom of the tank is only
due to the head pressure of the liquid.

P Head = h x D

P vapour

Closed tanks are not vented to atmosphere

so the pressure at the bottom of the tank
is due to the head pressure of the liquid
+ the vapour pressure above the surface.

P Head = (h x D) + P vapour

Magnetic Level Sensor

Used where the sight

glass level gauge can
not be used.
Magneto-resistive types
can provide an
electrical output.
Liquid/liquid interface (such as water and oil) can be measured by changing the
buoyancy of the magnetic float

Displacers

Not the same as a float.

The displacer is immersed in the tank and the

buoyant force of the liquid produces a torque

which is proportional the amount of liquid level.

The output force can

be converted to
provide a
proportional
pneumatic or
electrical continuous
output of tank level.

Displacers

Displacer side mounted unit

The displacer float size and
diameter is selected according
to the size of tank and the
height of the level to be
measured.
The output force can be converted
to provide a proportional
pneumatic or electrical
continuous output of level.
Advantages and disadvantages:
Very little movement of displacer
float
Affected by different liquid
densities
Limited to smaller tanks sizes

UltraSonic Level Measurement

Non-Contact direct level

sensor
Level is a function of the
time it takes an ultrasonic
pulse to hit the surface
and return
Limitations include:
Surface foam absorbs signal, agitation create reflections
High Pressure & High Temperatures affect the signal speed
Vapour and condensate create false echos

Radar Level Sensors (Microwave)

Similar to ultrasonic but at a much higher frequency (6.3 GHz)

Various designs
-- Frequency Modulated
Continuous Wave
-- Pulsed Wave
-- Guided Wave

These sensors have better performance in applications where vapour, dust or uneven surfaces exist.

Load Cells

Tank level is determined by

the weight of the quantity
of material
Load Cells (strain gauge
transducers) placed at the
bottom of the tank measure
the weight and then convert
it to an electrical signal.

Capacitance Level Detection (RF Level Probes)

RF Capacitance level sensors are similar in operation to conductivity sensors

and are typically used when non-conductive liquids are measured.

The only variable is the dielectric of the tank material that varies in proportion to the
level.
Conductive liquids like mineral water will short out the probe to the tank wall.
Good for solids

Can be used for non-liquids

RF capacitance
probes are used
in a wide range
of applications
and are
subjected to
certain
limitations such
as:

Electrode Coating
Low sensitivity
Temperature
Different materials
Shielding & noise

Summary
Level is measured by locating the boundary

between two media, called the interface

Level can be measured directly or indirectly
Noninvasive devices are preferred when the
material is corrosive, hazardous, sterile, or at a
high temperature or pressure

Creative Assignment!

HAZOP?????

Batch application using point level measurement

Detect if the level is

at a predetermined
point
Generally used to
detect either a lowlevel condition or
high-level condition
The output of a
point level sensor is
on-off, or 1 or 0
state digital signal
A batch process does NOT use a continuous level measurement device.

Flow Measurement

Principles Of Flow Measurement

Conversion of kinetic energy in the flowing
fluid into potential energy represented by a
differential pressure measured across a
restriction in the pipe.
Generation of counter emf in an electric field.
Doppler radar reflection of particles or
bubbles in the fluid.
Rotation of turbine wheel

Properties required for Measurement

Following properties are required for flow
measurement at operating conditions of flow;
Internal pipe dia
Viscosity
Density
Operating temperature
Operating pressure
Flow rate
Heat capacity
Compressibility (for gases)

Meter Selection Criteria

Meter selection involves the evaluation of tradeoffs between;
Accuracy
Precision
Bias Error

Range
Reliability
Pressure Drop
Reynolds Number
Cost
Capital cost
Operation cost
Maintenance cost

Accuracy
The closeness of agreement between measured
flow rate and actual flow rate.
Accuracy consists of two components,
a) Precision
Metering device ability to give same flow
readings for the same true value of flow
b) Bias Error
The offset of average measured value and true
value of flow caused by aging and drift in
installed equipment

Required Accuracy

Plant applications can be classified into three classes

Class I Sales custody transfer and others requiring high accuracy
Class II Material balance and equipment performance application
Class III General Purpose

Rangeability

It is the ability of a meter to cover the range of flow rates within specified limits of accuracy
As compared to non head type transmitters, differential pressure type transmitters, because
of square root relationship between flow and differential pressure, rangeability limitations
exist. Changing differential pressure from 100% to 10% will change flow rate from 100% to
30% only.
Comparison of DP and Flow rate

Discharge Coefficient
It is the constant accounting for frictional
losses due to the geometry of flow. The
discharge coefficient corrects the theoretical
flow rate equation for the influence of velocity
profile (Reynolds number). It is associated
with head type flow meters.
It is subjective to the factors such as: the size
of the orifice bore, the size of the pipe, fluid
velocity, fluid density, and fluid viscosity.

Discharge Coefficient for orifices and nozzles in various service with flange taps

Reynolds Number

Reynolds number is a dimensionless number expressing the ratio of the dynamic

forces to the drag forces of a fluid. Reynolds number is used as a way to correlate
the variations in flow meter coefficient of discharge (C) with changes in the fluid's
properties, flow rate, and meter geometry.
Re = (Density*Pipe ID* Velocity)/(Viscosity)
At low Reynolds numbers, the drag (viscous) forces dominate and flow is said to be
laminar in nature and at high Reynolds number drag forces become insignificant
and flow is said to be turbulent in nature.
Laminar flow exist at Re < 2000 and Turbulent flow exist at Re > 4000. In between
the two is buffer zone.

Laminar Flow

Turbulent Flow

Pressure Drop

Pressure drop is a reflection of the energy lost when a fluid is passed through a
flow meter. In most applications, pressure drop is a heavily weighted factor during
the meter selection process due to energy costs. As fluid passes through a flow
restriction in a pipe, the upstream static pressure decreases sharply and then
recovers somewhat down stream of the restriction. This difference between the
upstream static pressure and the final downstream static pressure is called the
pressure drop or permanent (unrecoverable) pressure loss.

Estimated permanent pressure loss for various differential pressure type flow meters

Straight Run Requirements

As the process fluid approaches the inlet of a flow meter, it is important that the
fluid velocity profile be not only flat as explained before but also reasonably
symmetrical about the longitudinal axis of the pipe. To obtain this desired
characteristic, it is necessary to provide long straight pipe runs upstream of the
meter which are free of any obstructions to the flow.
These straight run requirements differ by flow meter type, and are heavily
influenced by the piping geometry immediately ahead and preceding a meter.
Distortion and swirl can be caused by close-coupled elbows in different planes.
A general rule of thumb" is 20 pipe diameters upstream, and 5 pipe diameters
downstream.
Straight run requirements are lower for some of the non-head devices; in
particular, the following: magnetic, coriolis and multi-phase.
No straight run piping is required for positive displacement meters.

Flow meter Selection

For general flow measurement, the orifice meter is currently the first choice. This
is primarily due to acceptable accuracy, wide industry acceptance, large published
databases from reputable calibration laboratories, and ease of calibration.
On the other hand, many companies are considering vortex meters as the meter of
choice, because of its lower cost. The major drawback of orifice and vortex flow
meters is the inability to check the meter operation without a prover.
As design pressure or pipe size increases, the availability of large-size inline flow
meters is reduced due to high costs thus favoring the use of insertion type flow
meters. However, insertion type flow meters of any type sample only one point in
the flow profile and the requirement for a flat, symmetrical and stable flow profile
discussed earlier becomes even more critical.

Flow Meter Selection

Flow Meter Selection

Flow measuring devices

Flow meters are broadly classified as;
Flow Meters

Variable Area

Mass Meters

Head Type

Non-Head
Type

Thermal
Meters

Turbine
Meter

Positive
Displacement
Meter

Ultrasonic
Meter

Magnetic
Meter

Head Or Differential Pressure Type Meters

They work on the principle of conversion of kinetic energy in the flowing fluid into
potential energy represented by a differential pressure measured across a
restriction in the pipe. The flow equation can be expressed as;

Orifice Meters

Concentric or Square Edge Orifice Meters

a)
b)
c)
a)
b)

The concentric, square edge orifice shown in Figure is the most commonly used of all
the orifice type flow meters for both liquid and vapor applications.

Advantages:
It is by far the least expensive to fabricate (100 to 300 US dollars)
The easiest to install or change.
If installed correctly, accuracies of 1.0 to 5.0 percent of full scale are possible.
Disadvantages:
below a Reynolds number of 10,000, the basic discharge coefficient changes markedly
with Reynolds number, and hence with flow rate. For this reason, concentric, square
edge orifices are not used in this region.
Secondly, because of the square root relationship between flow rate and differential
pressure, the flow rangeability of this device is severely limited without taking certain
measures, like using high-accuracy digital (Smart") or multiple differential pressure
transmitters.

Quadrant Edge Orifice

a)

b)

c)
a)

b)

Unlike the square edge orifice, the upstream edge of quadrant edge orifice, is machined into
a quarter circle or quadrant.

Advantages:
It gives a flow characteristic between that of the sharp edged plate and a flow nozzle, and
tests show the discharge coefficient to be quite constant down to a pipe Reynolds number
of 1000.
It is this phenomenon that makes the quadrant edge orifice useful in the viscous range
below a pipe Reynolds number of 10,000 where the dischargecoefficient (C) of a square
edged orifice is known to change appreciably with either flow rate or viscosity.
tis often found in liquid fuel to furnace applications
Disadvantages:
Its usefulness is limited, since the required radius of the quadrant becomes quite large with
increasing line size and d/D ratios, thus requiring a much thicker plate than normal and
giving many of the disadvantages of the flow nozzle.
The unrecoverable pressure loss across a quadrant edge is approximately the same as the
square edge orifice.

a)

a)
b)
c)

Eccentric Orifice

Eccentric orifices, unlike square edge orifices, do not have their flow opening (bore) in
the center of the plate, but rather tangent to a circle whose diameter is equal to 98
percent of that of the pipe

Advantages:
Eccentric orifices are often used to measure fluids that are in two phases, where the
primary phase is considerably larger in quantity than the secondary phase.
However, it is important to know which is the primary and secondary phase of the
fluid, as this is required to define the position of the bore on the plate, either at the
top or bottom. For liquids its at top and for vapors its at bottom.
Disadvantages:
Due to the forced change in fluid pattern as it enters the orifice and the inherent
distortion downstream, the accuracy of an eccentric orifice suffers.
Eccentric orifice discharge coefficients (C) are only reliable to 2 percent.
The unrecoverable pressure loss across an eccentric orifice is also large;
approximately the same as the square edge orifice.

Segmental Orifice

This meter design, as shown in Figure, has a wide opening at the bottom of the
plate to allow for free passage of the solids.
Similar to the eccentric orifice, the segment is tangent to a circle whose diameter
is equal to 98 percent of the pipe diameter.
During field installation, it is important that the segment opening is well aligned
and not covered by the inlet pipe or flange gasket.

Advantages:
a) Where there is a need to measure liquids containing solids, e.g. slurries.
b) Low cost.
Disadvantages:
The unrecoverable pressure loss across a segmental orifice is also large;
approximately the same as the square edge orifice.

Integral Orifice

Integral orifices come in standard pipe sizes of 0.5 in. (12.3 mm), 1.0 in. (25.4 mm),
and 1.5 in. (37.7 mm).
They also come in two different styles: a straight through design and a U-bend
design.
For these meter sizes, the orifice bore can range from 0.010 in. (0.25 mm) to 1.184 in.
(30.07 mm).

Advantages:
a) Integral orifices are normally used to measure very low flow rates. Typically, for
liquid flow rates down to 0.04 gal/min. (0.015 l/m), and for gases as low as 0.9
standard cubic ft/hr (25 standard liters/hour).
b) Accuracy is 2.0 percent of full scale.
Disadvantages:
a) Due to these very small clearances, the use of these devices in dirty services
should be avoided and the use of strainers should be considered.

Elbow Meter

Flow measurement using elbow taps utilizes the differential pressure developed by
centrifugal force as the direction of fluid flow is changed in a piping elbow.
Advantages:
a) Since most piping installations already have elbows, installation costs are
minimal.
b) repeatability is good, so elbow meters are usually found in flow control
applications where absolute accuracy is unimportant.

Disadvantages:
a) Since a low differential pressure is developed, elbow meters are only suitable for
high fluid velocities, typically greater than 5 ft/s (1.5 m/s).
b) Because of the sensitivity to flow velocity distribution, long upstream lengths are
required. A minimum of 25 diameters upstream and 10 diameters downstream
are recommended.
c) Accuracy is poor, with best achievable being around +4.25% to -4.25%.

Segmental Wedge Meter

a)
b)

c)

d)

The Taylor segmental wedge flow element is similar in nature to the segmental
orifice. The major difference being the Taylor wedge is fabricated as a spool piece
pipe section which has a V-notch (segmental wedge) cut into the center.

Advantages:
Accuracy is quoted to be in the range of 0.5 to 5.0 percent.
its ability to maintain the square root flow relationship over a much lower value of
Reynolds number than any other differential producing element is an advantage
over orifices. The Wedge meter's discharge coefficient is constant down to a
Reynolds number of 300.
It can handle difficult to measure fluids that fall into the categories of hot, viscous,
corrosive, erosive, and liquids with solids (slurries).
It can also handle fluids that tend to flash or solidify when dead ended in a typical
flow transmitter.
Disadvantages:
Compared to other differential flow elements, the segmental Wedge element will
have a significantly higher initial cost. Cost increases linearly with pipe size.

Venturi Tube

a)

b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
a)
b)

Venturi Tube is a contoured flow element which can be used in both liquid and gas applications. The inlet
section of this flow element is typically angled to less than 21 degrees to reduce the chances of vapor
bubbles forming in the throat section which will cause the meter to read incorrectly and can lead to
cavitation.

Advantages:
The Venturi tube is the most expensive differential pressure device, but is sometimes justified when net
pressure loss is expensive, such as the suction line to a cat cracker air blower. The net pressure loss of a
properly designed venturi is about 10% of the gross differential pressure from inlet to throat.
Venturi tubes are also sometimes found in applications with liquids containing solids (slurries), as its
design provides for unobstructed flow through the element without any chance of solids buildup.
Calibrated accuracy is in the range of 0.5 to 1.5 percent.
In addition to the standard set of pressure taps (inlet, throat) for measuring the developed differential
pressure across the tube,
Venturi's can also be constructed with a system of pressure taps which project radially into the pipe and
feed into a common
chamber known as a piezometer ring. This arrangement provides for an average pressure measurement
around the
circumference of the stream, and is usually found in low pressure applications.
Disadvantages:
Most expensive differential pressure device.
Venturi tube applications require Reynolds numbers of 75,000 or more, as this is the region where their
discharge coefficient(C) is constant.

Lo Loss Tube or Dall Tube

a)
b)
c)
d)

Advantages:
Shorter in length and less expensive than the classic Venturi, but not as
inexpensive as an orifice plate.
These flow elements can be used in both liquid and gas applications.
Calibrated accuracy is about 1.0 percent.
These flow elements have exceptionally low permanent pressure loss compared
to any other differential producer.

Disadvantages:
a) These flow elements require Reynolds numbers of 125,000 or more, as this is the
region where their discharge coefficient (C) is constant. Outside of this region,
the flow accuracy is reduced.
b) More sensitive than a Venturi to deposits left by dirty or solid containing
streams.
c) Unlike the Venturi, the pressure sensing taps on these devices are only in the
order of 0.125 in. (3.18 mm) in diameter, and can be prone to plugging.

Flow Nozzle

a)

a)
b)
c)

A flow nozzle is usually used to measure steam flow, and particularly steam at high
temperatures and pressures such as in a boiler outlet line.
The elliptical design of its entrance cone (see figure) lends itself to steam
applications which normally tend to wear away the sharp edge of an orifice plate,
especially when the steam approaches its saturation point.
Flow nozzles come in a variety of designs. They range from simple line insertable
elements, like Figure, which are clamped between two pipe flanges to complete
flanged spool piece pipe sections.

Advantages:
From a maintenance standpoint, the flanged spool piece design is preferred as it
provides for easy removal during element inspection.
Disadvantages:
Similar to an orifice plate, the permanent pressure loss through a nozzle is
relatively high. It is approximately 30 to 95 % of the differential pressure (meter DP
range) developed across the element.
Flow nozzles also have a higher initial cost.
Calibrated accuracy is 1.0 percent at best.

Pitot Tube and Averaging Pitots

a)
b)

a)
b)

c)

These are line insertable devices which can be installed into a flow stream through a tap in the wall of the
pipe. An Annubar is one vendor's particular design of an averaging pitot tube and is widely used in the
industry.

Advantages:
These devices can be used to measure both liquids and gases.
Pitot tubes and averaging pitots are typically found in applications requiring a flow measurement in large
pipe sizes or rectangular ducts 10 in. (250 mm) and larger where conventional flow elements would be
very expensive to fabricate, and may not be justifiable on cost. Pitot tubes and averaging pitots do not
work well in dirty streams, or streams containing solids.
Disadvantages:
A pitot tube or averaging pitot should not be used in an application where accuracy is important.
These flow elements are highly dependent on velocity profile. Typical calibrated accuracy is 3 percent. If a
pitot tube is used, it is recommended that a pipe traverse be made to determine the point of average
velocity upon which to locate the pitot element. The dp they generate is same as of orifice.
Do not work well in dirty streams, or streams containing solids.

Pitot-Venturi Tube

a)
b)

c)
a)
b)
c)

The Pitot-Venturi tube, is an outgrowth from the Pitot tube.

Advantages:
It can be used to measure both liquids and gases.
However, the advantage of this flow element is its ability to develop roughly
fifteen times the differential flow signal of the standard Pitot tube.
Accuracy is roughly 1.0 percent, if properly installed and calibrated.
Disadvantages:
These flow elements are highly dependent on velocity profile.
The permanent pressure loss they generate is same as of orifice.
Do not work well in dirty streams, or streams containing solids.

NON-HEAD TYPE METERS

Turbine Meter

A turbine meter derives its name from its operating principle. A turbine wheel (rotor) is
set in the path of the flowing fluid. As the fluid enters the open volume between the
blades of the rotor, it is deflected by the angle of the blades and imparts a force that
causes the rotor to turn. The speed at which the rotor turns has a linear relationship to
the flow rate over a specified range.
Several methods are used to transmit this motion to a readout device. In modern
applications, however, the usual method is to use an electrical signal. A pickup coil
containing a permanent magnet is usually mounted on the meter body. As each blade tip
of the rotor passes the coil, it changes the magnetic flux and produces a pulse. Each pulse
that is generated corresponds to a fixed quantity of volume which has passed through the
meter. This ratio of pulses per unit volume is defined as the meter factor" of the turbine
meter.

Advantages:
a) Excellent accuracy and good range ability (roughly 10:1).
b) Turbine meters, and their associated flow straighteners, typically have about 8 - 10 psi
(55.2 - 69 kPa) pressure drop across them at normal rated flow.
c) They are also used in gas applications, but the orifice plate is still the preferred choice for
gas applications due to lower installed cost.
d) They also have a longer service life than do positive displacement meters.

Disadvantages:
a) Turbine meters are expensive
b) They are usually limited to clean liquid applications, for obvious reasons. When properly
designed and installed, they can achieve accuracies in the order of 0.2 percent of reading
when calibrated against a suitable prover.

Turbine Meter
c) Fluid viscosity and flow rate play a major role in the decision whether to use a
turbine meter. d) In general, turbine meters perform better with low viscosity liquids
(such as propane, gasoline, kerosene, or diesel oil) and under fully developed
turbulent flow (Reynolds number above 10,000).
e) Turbine meters should not be used on liquids that contain waxy components that
may collect on the surfaces of the meter and
effect its cross-sectional flow area.
f) Precautions such as over speeding protection and the installation of upstream
strainers must be strictly followed for reliable performance. Additionally air
eliminators must be used in the case of liquid service.

Turbine Meter
Figure presents guidelines for when to select between turbine meters and
positive displacement meters.

Positive Displacement Meter

a)
b)

c)

a)
b)
c)
d)

Positive displacement (PD) meters measure volumetric flow by continuously separating

(isolating) a flow stream into discrete volumetric segments, counting them, and then
returning it to the flowing stream.
Like the turbine meter, PD meters contain electronic pickup coils that generate pulses
corresponding to the fixed volume of product that has passed through the meter. This
ratio of pulses per unit volume is defined as the meter factor" of the PD meter.
Advantages:
PD meters are very accurate.
They are slightly higher in cost than turbine meters, but with equal rangeability (10:1). PD
meters typically have about 3 - 7 psi (20.7 - 48.3 kPa) pressure drop across them at
normal rated flow.
When designed and installed properly, PD meters achieve accuracies in the order of 0.2
percent of reading.
Disadvantages:
Sensitive to viscosity.
They are predominantly found in liquid applications in most products sold at marketing
terminals.
Precautions are necessary, in liquid service meters, to prevent the passage of vapor or air.
This is by including the installation of air eliminators. Strainers are a must for these
meters to remove sediment.
To maintain accuracy, they require routine calibration.

Positive Displacement Meter

Vortex Shedding Meter

The vortex flow meter measures liquids, gases, and steam flow rates using the principle of
vortex shedding (Von Karman vortices). The transmitter produces either an electronic analog
or pulse rate signal that is linearly proportional to the volumetric flow rate.
The phenomenon of vortex shedding occurs whenever a non-streamlined obstruction
(typically called a bluff body) is placed in a flowing stream. As fluid passes around this
obstruction, the fluid stream cannot follow the sharp contours and becomes separated. High
velocity liquid particles flow past the lower velocity (or stationary) particles in the vicinity of
the body to form a shear layer. It is this shear layer that breaks down after some length of
travel into well-defined vortices as shown in Figure.
Vortices are rotational flow zones that form alternately on each side of the bluff body with a
frequency proportional to the liquid flow rate. Differential pressure occurs as the vortices are
formed and shed. This alternating pressure or force variation is used to actuate a sealed
sensor such as a strain gauge or piezoelectric crystal to produce a frequency proportional to
vortex shedding.

Vortex Shedding Meter

a)
a)
b)
c)
d)

e)

Advantages:
Maintenance costs are low.
Disadvantages:
Initial costs are relatively high.
They also have a very high rangeability of 10:1.
Pressure loss about equal to an orifice plate.
Vortex meters should not be used in pulsating flow service, as the flow-induced
pressure pulsations are detected as vortex pressure pulsations, causing highly
inaccurate readings.
They should not be used in liquids with entrained dirt because the dirt will
become lodged in the bluff body. When sizing a vortex meter the Reynolds
number should be calculated at both the upper and lower flow range to be sure
that it falls in the operating range of the vortex meter.

Magnetic Flow Meter

The magnetic flow meter measures flow according to Faraday's law of magnetic
induction, which states that the voltage induced in a conductor moving through a
magnetic field is proportional to the velocity of the conductor. In process
applications, the conductor" is the process fluid itself. The faster it flows, the
greater the voltage induced across the electrodes of the meter.

Magnetic Flow Meter

a)
b)
c)
a)
b)

Advantages:
The magnetic flow meter can accommodate solids in suspension, as well
as most corrosive fluids.
Accuracy is 1.0 percent of full scale, where the output is linear with flow
rate.
Because there is no obstruction in the flow path, these meters have no
inherent permanent pressure loss.
Disadvantages:
fluid to be measured is conductive. If not, the meter will not work. Most
liquid hydrocarbons do not have sufficient conductivity for measurement
by a magnetic meter.
Magnetic meters are relatively expensive and are usually plagued by zerooffset problems (no-flow indication). Since the flow tube of most magnetic
flow meters are lined, it is very important that the correct liner be
selected for compatibility with the process fluid to be measured.
Polyurethane and PTFE are the two most common liner materials.

Ultrasonic Flow Meter

Tare non-intrusive devices, meaning they mount external to the pipe.

A typical clamp-on ultrasonic meter consists of two transducers mounted opposite
each other on the pipe, and generally positioned so that the sound beams from
the transducers cross at a 45 degree angle as shown in Figure.
Two methods that are used to convert the signals into velocity are through
Dopplers Effect and time of flight (difference in transit time).

Advantages:
a)
b)
c)
d)

Accuracies range from 1 to 5 percent.

No permanent pressure losses.
Reliability is high.
Good repeatability.

Disadvantages:
a) Cost is too high.
b) Suitability with severe T & P conditions to be checked.

Variable Area Meter-Rotameter

a)
b)
c)
a)

As fluid moves up the tube, the float rises in proportion to the flow rate. The tube is designed to give a
constant drop across the float by varying its cross sectional area. The tube may be made of glass, with an
armor shroud as the meter body for air, water, or nitrogen services. For process services, glass is
prohibited so the tube is stainless steel, with the indicating mechanism operated by magnetic coupling to
the float. Float selection is very important, as the float shape is used to compensate for viscosity effects.

Advantages:
Variable area meters come in sizes from 0.25 - 6 in. (6 - 150 mm), and are accurate to 2.0 percent.
The smaller meters are usually called purge meters. These are used to regulate small flows for purging
differential pressure transmitter sensing lines for flow and level applications, where solids and slurries
are present.
They are also found in analyzer applications to set the flow in sample loops.
Disadvantages:
Application is highly dependent on viscosity of fluids.

Coriolis (Mass) Type

The Coriolis type flow meter (Figure) measures fluid mass and density based on the Coriolis effect. The
meter consists of one or two flow tubes enclosed in a sensor housing. These tubes are vibrated at their
natural frequency by an electromagnetic drive coil located at the center of the bend in the tube. The
vibration is similar to that of a tuning fork, completing a full cycle about 80 times each second.
As fluid flows into the sensor tube, it is forced to take on the vertical momentum of the vibrating tube.
When the tube is moving upward during half of its vibration cycle, the fluid flowing into the sensor resists
being forced upward by pushing down on the tube.
Having the tube's upward momentum as it travels around the tube bend, the fluid flowing out of the
sensor resists having its vertical motion decreased by pushing up on the tube. All of this causes the tube(s)
to twist.
When the tube is moving downward during the second half of its vibration cycle, it twists in the opposite
direction. This tube twisting characteristic is a result of the Coriolis effect. The amount of sensor tube twist
is directly proportional to the mass flow rate of the fluid flowing through the tube.

Coriolis (Mass) Type

a)

Advantages:
Coriolis type flow meters are typically found in applications desiring an accurate mass flow rate,
without the need to measure and correct a volumetric flow rate by applying product temperature
and density compensation to get to mass flow. Coriolis meter accuracy is on the order of 0.5
percent of rate.
Disadvantages:

a) First, it is imperative to maintain its flow tubes full at all times. For liquid streams, it is
recommended that the flow tubes be mounted vertically downward, so as to eliminate
a potential vapor trap.
b) For batch plants where flushing & draining are required between batches, this may not
be possible. If the meter is located in a vertical line, fluid flow should be pumped up
through the meter, and not down.
c) Second, when installing the meter in the line, locate the meter upstream of control
valves, and support only the process pipe not the meter. The meter should not be
rigidly supported. Third, it is very important to select the correct materials of
construction for the flow tubes. Secondary pressure containment is also a requirement
to avoid product release to the atmosphere. Additionally, to maintain the targeted
accuracy of the Coriolis meter that are used in Custody Transfer measurement, regular
operational checks and proving of the equipment's performance should be made.
Details of the proving and calibrating intervals are included in the HMP's.
d) Coriolis meters are currently limited in size to 6 in. for liquid service, and generate a
higher permanent pressure loss than other meters. For gases, application of Coriolis
meters is limited by pressure, molecular weight and flow rate so an instrument
specialist should be consulted to verify the feasibility of the use of a coriolis meter in
the application. Again, pressure drop will be a major factor.

Thermal Meter
The thermal meter is a liquid or gas flow sensor which consists of
three temperature elements (usually two matched RTDs and a low
power heater) installed in the flow stream.
The low power heater is used to preferentially heat one of the
RTDs.
This configuration creates a temperature differential between at
least two of the temperature elements, and is greatest when there
is a no flow condition.
As flow rate increases, heat is dissipated from the flow sensor
causing the temperature differential to decrease.
This measurement of temperature differential is inversely related to
flow rate.
The thermal meter has a fairly wide rangeability, usually 100:1 or
more. Typical accuracy is on the order of 2.0 percent of full scale
reading.

Multi-Phase
Their application is primarily in the oil production industry, where their high cost is
justified by eliminating the two- or three-phase well stream test separators and
their associated meters and controls.
Several types of these meters exist. One type temporarily separates the gas and
liquid phases, and uses a sampling technique to measure the oil and water utilizing
a coriolis meter.
The most common type uses a homogenizer to make a pseudo single-phase which
is metered with a conventional venturi section, and two gamma-ray sources to
calculate the oil and water fractions of the stream.
Accuracies are 5% up to a gas volume fraction of 0.95.
The third type is only suitable for plug flow, and utilizes a multi-electrode
capacitance or conductance probe to measure the plug flow (assumed to be the
gas velocity), the fraction of the tube in plug flow, and the liquid phase flow.
All three of these devices depend on microprocessor-based electronics to perform
the massive statistical calculations required. Being a very difficult measurement
type, this usually is left to a specialist to design and implement.

Discussion & Questions?