Ultrasonidos Manual PDF

Nondestructive Examination (NDE) Technology and Codes
Student Manual
Volume 2
Chapter 8.0
Introduction to Ultrasonic Examination
NDE Technology and Codes Student Manual
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.0 INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION ............................................................. 1

Learning Objectives
8.1 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
8.2 Personnel Qualification and Certification ................................................................................. 1
8.2.1
ASME Section V ..................................................................................................... 1
8.2.2
ASME Section XI .................................................................................................... 2
8.3 Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
8.3.1
Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
8.3.2 Velocity4
8.3.3
Wavelength
......................................................................................................... 5
8.3.4
Transmission/Reflection .......................................................................................... 5
8.3.5
Attenuation...6
8.3.6
Instrumentation and Control .................................................................................... 6
8.3.7 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation .................................................................................. 6

8.3.7.1
Acoustic Impedance .............................................................................. 7
8.3.7.2
Reflection at Interfaces .......................................................................... 8
8.3.7.3
Fresnel Zone .......................................................................................... 8
8.3.7.4
Fraunhofer Zone (Far Field) .................................................................. 9
8.3.7.5
Dead Zone.............................................................................................. 9
8.3.8 Refraction
......................................................................................................... 9
8.3.8.1
Snells Law ............................................................................................ 9
8.3.8.2
First and Second Critical Angles ......................................................... 10
USNRC Technical Training Center
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8.3.9 Ultrasonic Examination Variables ......................................................................... 11

8.3.9.1 Equipment .................................................................................................. 11
8.3.9.2 Transducers ................................................................................................ 12
8.3.9.3 Couplant..................................................................................................... 13
8.3.9.4 Scanning Techniques ................................................................................. 13
8.3.9.5 Part Structure ............................................................................................. 13
8.3.9.6 Surface Condition ...................................................................................... 13
8.3.9.7 Part Geometry and Size ............................................................................. 13
8.3.9.8 Discontinuity Type, Shape, and Orientation ............................................. 14
8.4 Equipment.. .......................................................................................................................... 14
8.4.1 Ultrasonic Transducers .......................................................................................... 14
8.4.1.1
Types ................................................................................................... 14
8.4.1.2
Care of Transducers ............................................................................. 14
8.4.2 Base Pulse-Echo Instrumentation .......................................................................... 15
8.4.2.1
Time base ............................................................................................. 15
8.4.2.2
Clock .................................................................................................... 16
8.4.2.3
Pulse Repetition Rate........................................................................... 16
8.4.2.4
Pulser-Receiver .................................................................................... 16
8.4.2.5
Basic Controls...................................................................................... 16
8.4.2.6
Gates .................................................................................................... 17
8.5 Procedures. .............................................................................................................................. 17
8.5.1 Application of the Various Wave Modes .............................................................. 18
8.5.1.1
Compressional Wave Applications ..................................................... 18
8.5.1.2
Shear Waves ........................................................................................ 18
8.5.1.3
Surface Waves ..................................................................................... 18
8.5.1.4
Lamb Waves ........................................................................................ 18
8.5.2
Immersion Testing ................................................................................................. 18

8.5.2.1
Immersion Tanks and System Components ........................................ 18
8.5.2.2
Immersion Transducers ....................................................................... 19
8.5.3
Data Display ....................................................................................................... 20
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8.5.3.1
8.5.3.2
8.5.3.3
Table of Contents
A-Scan ................................................................................................. 20
B-Scan ................................................................................................. 20
C-Scan ................................................................................................. 20
8.5.4 Calibration Techniques .......................................................................................... 21

8.5.4.1
Linearity............................................................................................... 21
8.5.4.2
Distance Amplitude ............................................................................. 22
8.5.4.3
Resolution ............................................................................................ 23
8.5.4.4
Beam Profile ........................................................................................ 23
8.5.4.5
Test Block Parameters ......................................................................... 23
8.5.5 Unacceptable Techniques ...................................................................................... 23
8.5.5.1
Scanning Problems .............................................................................. 23
8.5.5.2
Interpretation Shortcomings ................................................................ 23
8.5.5.3
Report Format Problems ...................................................................... 23
8.6 Interpretation and Code Requirements .................................................................................... 24
8.6.1
Weld Calibration Standards ................................................................................... 24
8.6.2
Evaluation .............................................................................................................. 25
8.6.2.1
False Indications .................................................................................. 25
8.6.2.2
Nonrelevant Indications ....................................................................... 25
8.6.2.3
Relevant Discontinuity Indications ..................................................... 25
8.6.3
Recording............................................................................................................... 26
8.6.3.1
Use of Examination Forms .................................................................. 26
8.6.3.2
Recording Techniques ......................................................................... 26
8.7 Advantages and Limitations of Ultrasonic Examination......................................................... 26

8.7.1 Advantages ............................................................................................................ 26
8.7.2
Limitations ............................................................................................................. 26
LIST OF TABLES
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8-1 Acoustic Properties of Materials ................................................................................................... 28
LIST OF FIGURES
8-1 Wavelength29
8-2 Reflection, Transmission at an Interface ....................................................................................... 30
8-3 Block Diagram of a Typical Ultrasonic Instrument ...................................................................... 31
8-4 Particle Displacement by Longitudinal Waves ............................................................................. 32
8-5 Particle Displacement by Transverse Waves................................................................................. 33
8-6 Surface or Rayleigh Wave Modes ................................................................................................. 34
8-7 Plate or Lamb Wave Modes .......................................................................................................... 35
8-8 Constructive and Destructive Interference .................................................................................... 36
8-9 Near and Far Fields........................................................................................................................ 37
8-10 Near-to-Surface Reflector Within Dead Zone ......................................................................... 38
8-11 Dead Zone Check .................................................................................................................... 39
8-12 Angle Beam in Weld ............................................................................................................... 40
8-13 Angle Beam Transducer Assembly ......................................................................................... 41
8-14 Refraction and Reflection of Incident Compressional Wave at an Interface .......................... 42
8-15 Increasing Incident Angle in Probe Shoes (Wedges) With Second Medium of
Higher Velocity ....................................................................................................................... 43
8-16 Transducer Coupled to Test Piece ........................................................................................... 44
8-17 Immersion Test ........................................................................................................................ 45
8-18 Normal Compressional Wave Probe ....................................................................................... 46
8-19 Delay Line Probe ..................................................................................................................... 47
8-20 Calibration of Timebase for Delay Line Probe ....................................................................... 48
8-21 Dual Element Probe (Pitch-Catch) .......................................................................................... 49
8-22 Use of Reject ........................................................................................................................... 50
8-23 Typical Ultrasonic Tank and Bridge/Manipulator................................................................... 51
8-24 Bridge/Manipulator ................................................................................................................. 52
8-25 Flat and Contour-Corrected Transducers ................................................................................ 53
8-26 Focused-Beam Shortening in Metal ........................................................................................ 54
8-27 B-Scan Presentation ................................................................................................................. 55
8-28 C-Scan Presentation ................................................................................................................. 56
8-29 Typical C-Scan Recording....................................................................................................... 57
8-30 Basic Calibration Block ........................................................................................................... 58
8-31 Distance Calibration ................................................................................................................ 59
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8-32
8-33
8-34
8-35
8-36
8-37
8-38
8-39
8-40
8-41
Table of Contents
Distance Amplitude Calibration .............................................................................................. 60

Linear Reflector ....................................................................................................................... 61
Distance Amplitude Correction Curves ................................................................................... 62
Block A2 (IIW Block) ............................................................................................................. 63
Block A7 ............................................................................................................................... 64
Checking Beam Index Point .................................................................................................... 65
Checking Beam Angle ............................................................................................................. 66
Timebase Calibration for Shear Wave Probe Using A4 Block ............................................... 67
Timebase Calibration for Shear Wave Probe Using A2 Block Modified with Slots .............. 68
Timebase Calibration for Shear Wave Probe Using A2 Block Modified with 25 mm
Radius ..69
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Student Manual
8.0 INTRODUCTION
EXAMINATION
Chapter 8.0 Introduction to

Ultrasonic Examination
TO
Development of more advanced equipment in

the 1940's expanded the use of pulse-echo ultrasound, which derives information from the sound
making round trips, and required access to only
one side of the material. Another technique,
resonance testing, depends on the resonant frequency of the material being examined.
ULTRASONIC
Learning Objectives:
To enable the student to:
1. Understand the basic principles of the generation, transmission, and reflection of
ultra-sound.
8.2 Personnel Qualification and Certification

Of all the NDE methods, UT is the most
subjective and therefore depends greatly on the
qualifications and expertise of the examiner.
2. Know the personnel qualification and certification requirements.

3. Become familiar with the various techniques
used in ultrasonic examination (UT).
8.2.1 ASME Section V

The 2007 Edition with 2008 Addenda of the
ASME Code Section V requires that NDE personnel be qualified in accordance with either:
4. Understand the steps involved with calibration.

5. Become familiar with the variables affecting
UT.
SNT-TC-1A (2006 Edition), or

ANSI/ASNT CP-189 (2006 Edition)
ACCP
6. Understand the common interpretation and

code requirements.
Qualification in accordance with a prior edition

of either SNT-TC-1A or CP-189 is considered
valid until recertification. Recertification must be
in accordance with SNT-TC-1A (2006 Edition),
CP-189 (2006 Edition) or ACCP .
7. Identify the advantages and limitation of UT.

8.1 History
Practical use of ultrasound for NDE began in
the 1920's. Sokolov was a major pioneer, using
the through-transmission technique whereby sound
is transmitted through the material, to a receiver.
Reduction in the received signal amplitude
indicated the possibility of discontinuities in the
path of the sound beam.
A Level II Ultrasonic Examiner, who is a high

school graduate, must complete one of following
for Section V and only the CP-189 requirements
for Section XI.
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experience consists of the sum of the hours

required for NDT Levels I and II.
3. The required minimum experience must be
documented by method and by hour with
supervisor or NDT Level III approval.
4. While fulfilling total NDT experience
requirement, experience may be gained in
more than one (1) method.
Minimum
experience hours must be met for each
method.
The SNT-TC-1A requirements are:

Training
Experience
Level I
40 hours
210* hrs /400**hrs
Level II
40 hours
630* hrs /1200 **hrs
NOTES:
1. To certify to Level II directly with no time
at Level I, the training and experience for
Level I and II shall be combined.
2. Training hours may be reduced with additional engineering or science study beyond
high school. Refer to Chapter 2 and
SNT-TC-1A.
3. There are no additional training requirements for Level III. Refer to Chapter 2 of
this manual for Level III requirements.
8.2.2 ASME Section XI

Ultrasonic examination is the most widely used
method for the detection and evaluation of piping
systems flaws during In-service Inspection (ISI)
of nuclear power plants. However, due to the
complexity of the method and the factors affecting
the examination, such as pipe geometry and
material type, the training and qualification of
examiners have been problematic and under
constant evaluation since the early 1980's.
The CP-189 requirements are:

Training
Experience
Level I
40 hours
200*/400**
Level II
40 hours
600*/1200**
During the mid-seventies, boiling water

reactors (BWRs) were found to contain extensive
intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) in
certain stainless steel piping. The NRC called for
increased examinations and for plant owners to
improve the effectiveness of ultrasonic examinations. The Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI), NRC, and plant owners conducted a
number of studies on the effectiveness of ISI
ultrasonic examiners and their ability to detect
IGSCC. The results showed qualified examiners
were missing critical discontinuities.
The
industry instituted special training and certification
examinations given through EPRI to better qualify
examiners to find IGSCC. It is critical to remem-
*Hours in UT/** Total Hours in NDE

NOTES:
1. Experience is based on the actual hours
worked in the specific method.
2. A person may be qualified directly to NDT
Level II with no time as certified Level I
providing the required training and
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ber that the requirements of CP-189 (1995 Editions) are minimum for Section XI. The specific
and practical examinations must be directed at the
specific techniques an examiner will use in the
field. To have examiners spend 80 percent of
their time doing erosion/corrosion (straight beam)
examinations and then administer a simple angle
beam practical examination is not adequate for the
performance of ISI weld examinations.
The requirements of Appendix VII are:

Classroo
m
Section XI requires that personnel performing

NDE be qualified and certified using a written
practice prepared in accordance with ANSI/ASNT
CP-189 as amended by Section XI. IWA 2314
states that the possession of an ASNT Level III
Certificate, which is required by CP-189, is not
required by Section XI. Section XI also states that
certifications to SNT-TC-1A or earlier editions of
CP-189 will remain valid until recertification at
which time CP-189 (1995 Edition) must be met.
Experience
Level I
40
40
250 hours
Level II
40
40
800 hours
Level III
40
Options
-see below
Option I - Graduate of a 4 year accredited

engineering or science college or university with a
degree in engineering or science, plus 2 years
experience in NDE in an assignment comparable to
that of an NDE Level II in the ultrasonic examination method. At least 1 year of this experience
shall be in nuclear applications and shall include
the actual performance of examinations and
evaluation of examination results. Also, it requires 4,200 hours of total experience with 2,100
hours in nuclear applications.
To assure that an examiner performing ISI

ultrasonic examinations is properly qualified,
ASME Section XI has added extensive requirements above the minimums as outlined in CP-189.
Specifically, Appendix VII was added to Section
XI. The following section outlines basic requirements for ASME Section XI. (Refer to ASME
Section XI, Appendix VII for detailed information.)
Option 2 - Completion with a passing grade of

at least the equivalent of 2 full years of engineering or science study at a university, college, or
technical school, plus 3 years experience in an
assignment comparable to that of a Level II in the
ultrasonic examination method. At least 2 years
of this experience shall be in nuclear applications
and shall include the actual performance of
examinations and evaluation of examination
results.
Also, it requires 6,300 hours of
experience with 4,200 hours in nuclear
applications.
The 2007 edition with 2008 addenda of Section

XI, requires certification to CP-189 - 1995 as
modified in ASME Section XI Mandatory
Appendix VII article VII 4000.
Laboratory
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"hertz" units as follows:
Option 3 - High school graduate, or equivalent, plus 4 years experience in an assignment

comparable to that of a Level II in the ultrasonic
examination method. Also, it requires 8,400
hours of experience with 4,200 hours in nuclear
applications.
Appendix VII also addresses NDE Instructor

Qualification, Annual Training (minimum of 10
hours per year), Examinations (with much emphasis on performance demonstration), and
Qualification Records.
The audible range, which is the range of human

hearing, is 20 Hz to 20 KHz. Ultrasound
encompasses all frequencies higher than 20 KHz.
UT utilizes only a portion of the ultrasonic range.
Most commercial UT is performed within the
range of 100 KHz to 25 MHz; a few applications
are performed both above and below this
frequency band. Actual examination frequency
depends on the frequency of the transducer
selected.
Appendix VII Supplement 1 contains the

minimum content for initial training courses.
8.3 Principles
Sound is the transmission of mechanical
energy, in the form of vibrations, through a material. Although sound can be propagated in all
three states of matter; solids, liquids, and gases,
factors such as type of sound wave, material
composition, and wavelength can make propagation difficult or impossible in a given situation.
8.3.1
8.3.2 Velocity
Velocity is the speed at which sound travels.
It is expressed as distance traveled per unit time.
The most common units of time in UT are the
second and microsecond (sec). A microsecond
is one millionth of a second.
Frequency
The velocity of sound depends upon:
Frequency is the rate of vibration or the number of vibrations per second. Because sound
waves are in motion, frequency can also be viewed
as the number of complete waves which pass a
given point during 1 second. One complete unit
of vibration is called a cycle. A cycle is
graphically represented by a sine curve and
consists of two opposing motions, such as forward
and backward, or up and down. The rate of
vibration, or cycles per second, is expressed in
Hertz (Hz) = cycles per second,

Kilohertz (KHz) = one thousand cycles per
second, and
Megahertz (MHz) = one million cycles per
second.
Density and elasticity of the material through

which sound is traveling,
Wave mode (the manner in which material

particles vibrate as sound travels through the
material), and
Material temperature, which has a minor effect

on sound velocity for temperatures greater than
150F.
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material offers to the passage of sound. It is the

product of the material's velocity and density. As
the impedance ratio increases between the
interfaces of two materials the greater the sound
reflection at this interface boundary and hence less
sound is transmitted into the second material. The
percentage of sound reflected from an interface,
where Z1 is the acoustic impedance of the medium
through which the sound is initially traveling, and
Z2 is the acoustic impedance of the medium that
the sound meets at the interface and is reflected, is
calculated as follows:
Several formulas used in UT employ material

velocity as a variable. The most convenient unit
for calculating these formulas is kilometers per
second (km/sec), although inches per second and
centimeters per microsecond are sometimes
encountered.
8.3.3 Wavelength
A vibration in motion is often called a sound
wave. A series of sound waves sent into an object
is often called a pulse.
(8-2)
% Sound reflected = (Z1-Z2)2/(Z1 +Z2)2 x 100
Wavelength is an important variable in UT and

is defined as the distance from one point on an
ultrasonic wave train to the next identical point
(e.g., from trough to trough or peak to peak)
(Figure 8-1).
Material discontinuities reflect sound because

they have an acoustic impedance different from the
material being examined (Figure 8-2). In addition
to acoustic impedance, a number of other factors
reduce the amplitude of the echo that the
transducer receives from a discontinuity. The
size, shape, and orientation of the reflector all
affect its echo response. Position of a reflector is
particularly important due to the effects of sound
beam geometry and material properties. The
more the sound beam has spread at the point of
reflector interception, the less will be the reflected
sound pressure per unit area. In addition, as
sound travels through test material, increased
scattering and absorption of the sound by the
material's own structure is experienced. When
examining thick sections, some type of
distance/amplitude correction (DAC) must be
considered to compensate for amplitude losses
caused by the sound beam and test material.
It is also defined as the distance sound travels

within the duration of one complete cycle.
Wavelength (represented by , the Greek letter
lambda) is calculated by dividing velocity (V) by
frequency (f), as follows:
(8-1)
(mm)
(km/sec)/f
8.3.4
Transmission/Reflection
(MHz)
Sound reflects when it strikes a surface called

an acoustic interface. An echo is therefore
defined as a reflection from an acoustic interface.
An acoustic interface is the boundary between two
materials with different acoustic impedances.
Acoustic impedance is defined as the opposition a
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8.3.5 Attenuation
8.3.7 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation
Sound amplitude decreases (as it propagates in

the material) are called sound attenuation. Attenuation is due to several factors:
Sound waves travel through materials by

displacing tiny particles of the material, generally
at the molecular level. Depending on the manner
in which vibrations are introduced, the particle
displacements exhibit certain behaviors, called
wave modes, as the vibrations travel.
Absorption - Sound is absorbed by the braking

effect on the particle motion. Lost energy is
converted to heat.
There are two basic wave modes, which differ

from each other depending on how material
particles move relative to the direction of
transmitted energy. Longitudinal waves (also
known as compressional waves) are characterized
by the particle motion being parallel to the
direction of wave travel (Figure 8-4). Transverse
waves (also known as shear waves), are defined by
particle motion perpendicular to wave travel
(Figure 8-5). The difference in wave motion causes
these wave modes to also differ from each other in
their relative velocity as well as in their ability to
propagate in the various states of matter.
Scatter - Grain boundaries of the material

cause the sound to scatter.
The amount of sound attenuation within a
material is governed by the density, elasticity,
grain size, and grain structure of the material.
These factors are affected by alloying, heat
treatment, working, etc.
8.3.6
Instrumentation and Control
Figure 8-3 shows a block diagram of a typical

ultrasonic flaw detection instrument. The pulse
generator (trigger, clock) transmits an electrical
pulse simultaneously to the transducer (search
unit) and the time base of the cathode ray tube
(CRT). The transducer converts the electrical pulse
into sound which is transmitted into the material.
The time base (sweep generator) generates the X
sweep across the CRT. When the sound pulse is
reflected back to the transducer, it is converted
back into an electrical pulse and is amplified
before being fed to the Y axis of the CRT. This
pulse deflects the time base vertically and produces
a peak.
Ultrasonic energy propagates through

materials in several different ways depending upon
the manner in which the particles within the
carrying medium move relative to the direction of
wave propagation.
There are four forms of wave propagation
through materials:
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Compression (or longitudinal),
Shear (or transverse),
Surface (or Rayleigh), and
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Compression - The term compression is

used to describe the wave propagation where the
particle motion is parallel to the direction of
propagation. The particles compress together, then
rarify (Figure 8-4). This motion passes the sound
energy along the material in the form of a wave. In
this case there is a change in volume of the
material, as particle motion takes place, within the
elastic limit.
Surface - Under certain conditions, surface or

Rayleigh waves only penetrate the surface of
material to a depth of one wavelength (Figure 8-6).
Surface waves travel at 88 to 95 percent the
velocity of shear waves and travel along the
surface in an elliptical wave motion.
Plate - For very thin plates, various plate or
Lamb waves are created (Figure 8-7). In this case
the plate acts as a wave guide, through which
symmetrical and asymmetrical modes can
simultaneously pass. The results obtained by the
use of plate waves are extremely complex, due to
the dispersive velocities of the waves that may
exist within the material being tested. Their
application in flaw detection is limited to
examination of plate, which will cause a change in
the complex screen display, frequency and phase,
and amplitude of signals.
Compression or longitudinal waves are

characterized by alternating zones of compression
(high particle density) and rarefaction (low particle
density) (Figure 8-4).
Longitudinal waves
develop particle motion in solids, liquids, and
gases, and their acoustic velocity is higher in any
given material than other types of waves as is their
wavelength for a given frequency.
The velocity of compressional waves depends
on the density and elasticity of the material.
8.3.7.1 Acoustic Impedance

Shear - The term shear is used to indicate
that the particle motion is at right angles to the
direction of propagation. In this case distortion is
caused by particle movement, with no change in
volume. Figure 8-5 illustrates the shear wave
particle motion. Shear waves have a velocity
approximately one-half that of compression waves
and a shorter wavelength than compression waves.
When sound is incident at an angle normal to

an interface of two media, some of the sound is
reflected and some of it is transmitted. The
amount of sound reflected and transmitted will
depend upon the characteristic acoustic impedance
of the two media.
Characteristic acoustic impedance (Z) of a
material is the product of the velocity of sound
through a material (V), and the density () of the
material as follows:
Shear or transverse waves are characterized by

alternating zones of peaks (upward particle
displacement) and troughs (downward particle
displacement) (Figure 8-5). Transverse waves
require rigidity and can travel in solids only, and
their acoustic velocity is approximately half the
velocity of longitudinal waves.
Z=Vx
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8.3.7.2 Reflection at Interfaces
8.3.7.3 Fresnel Zone (Near Field)
As mentioned in Section 8.3.4, the amount of

sound reflected at an interface may be calculated
by the formula:
The sound beam radiated close to the transducer consists of a tapering near field or Fresnel
zone beginning at the crystal surface, followed by a
spreading far field or Fraunhofer zone.
(8-4)
% Sound reflected = (Z 1- Z2)2/(Z1 + Z2)2 x 100
Sound originates on the crystal surface as a

number of individual point sources radiating
spherical waves. As the waves progress outward,
they interfere with each other (Figure 8-8).
Where;
Z1 and Z2 are the characteristic impedances of
Constructive interference occurs where waves

arriving at a point in phase reinforce each other.
Destructive interference occurs where waves
arriving at a point out of phase cancel each other.
The varying phase relationships cause varying
wave amplitudes. Because of these amplitude
variations, it is difficult to approximate reflector
size in the near field. Eventually, the waves
combine into a single spherical wave front. This
occurs at the so-called Yo point, which is the end of
the near field and the beginning of the far field
(Figure 8-9).
the two media. Table 8-1 lists the acoustic

impedance for various materials.
Applying the formula to a water/steel interface
it can be seen that 88 percent of the sound is
reflected while 12 percent is transmitted (Figure
8-2). At a metal/air interface there is virtually 100
percent reflection. This formula applies only when
the two media are in intimate contact. In practice
even two apparently smooth metal surfaces, in
close contact, will have an air gap caused by
minute surface irregularities and almost total
reflection occurs.
The length of the near field can be approximated by the following formula where N is near
field length, D is transducer crystal diameter, f is
test frequency, and V is velocity:
(8-5)
Near Field = D2 (mm) x f (MHz)/(4V (km/sec))
The basis of ultrasonic flaw detection is that

there is a difference in characteristic impedance
between the base material and any discontinuity,
whether it be a fatigue crack, a stress corrosion
crack, or a metallic inclusion. If there is no change
in characteristic impedance, there is no reflection
of the sound wave.
As near field length varies, the position of a

reflector relative to the Yo point likewise varies.
Sensitivity is optimized when the reflector is
positioned near the beginning of the far field.
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The near field contains areas of maximum and

minimum effects. This can be demonstrated if a
series of small reflectors of the same area, but at
varying depths, are scanned and a graph of signal
amplitude against distance is plotted. The end of
the near field is the point where the amplitude is
greatest.
ducer diameter, frequency, and material velocity.
8.3.7.4 Fraunhofer Zone (Far Field)
As beam spread is decreased, there is more

sound pressure per unit area, thereby increasing
echo amplitude. Beam spread is decreased by
increasing transducer diameter and/or increasing
frequency.
As the formulas indicate an increase in

diameter and/or frequency increases near field
length and reduces beam spread. Transducer
diameter and test frequency, therefore, have a
major effect on examination performance.
Beyond the near field is the Fraunhofer zone

(far field) (Figure 8-9). Here the beam diverges
and is referred to as beam spread. Through the far
field the sound behaves similar to a beam of light,
in that the sound pressure disperses according to
the Inverse Square Law (i.e., the intensity is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance) and travels in straight lines.
8.3.7.5 Dead Zone

The initial pulse is a technical necessity. It
limits the detectability of near-surface discontinuities. Reflectors in the dead zone, the non-resolvable area immediately beneath the surface, cannot
be detected (Figure 8-10). The dead zone is a
function of the width of the initial pulse which is
influenced by the probe type, test instrument
discontinuities and quality of the interface.
The spreading far field is characterized by a

predictable decrease in sound pressure per unit
area as distance from the transducer increases.
Because the near field contains numerous variations in sound pressure while the far field produces
predictable sound pressure, it is preferable to make
sound amplitude measurements in the far field for
the purpose of discontinuity severity evaluation.
The angle of beam spread in the far field can be
approximated by the following formula:
The dead zone can be verified with an International Institute of Welding (IIW) calibration block.
With the time base calibrated to 50 mm, and the
transducer on position A (Figure 8-11), the extent
of the dead zone can be inferred to be either less
than or greater than 5 mm. With the probe at
position B, the dead zone can be said to be either
less than or greater than 10 mm. This is done by
ensuring that the peak from the perspex insert
appears beyond the trailing edge of the initial pulse
start.
Excessive dead zones are generally
attributable to a probe with excessive ringing in the
crystal.
(8-6)
BSArc sin=1.22xV(km/sec)/D(mm) x f(MHz))
BS Arc sin is the angle of beam spread
V is the velocity of the material
D is the diameter of the transducer
F is the frequency of the transducer
Note that both the near field and beam spread
formulas are based on the same variables: transUSNRC Technical Training Center
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8.3.8 Refraction
In order for the maximum amplitude from a
reflector to be displayed, the axis of the sound
beam must be perpendicular to the reflector.
Straight beam transducers are not effective for
many reflectors that are angular to the examination
surface. When the largest face of the discontinuity is expected to be at an angular orientation to
the surface, angle beam transducers are best suited
to detect such discontinuities (Figure 8-12).
There are different ways of introducing angle
beams into the material, depending on the coupling
technique used. In order for angle beams to be
produced, the transducer's beam must be at an
angle to the surface. For contact testing,
transducers are affixed to angle wedges (Figure
8-13); immersion testing permits continuously
variable angulations of the transducer by means of
an adjustable manipulator assembly.
Angle beams are produced using the principle
of refraction. Refraction is the changing in the
angular direction of a sound beam when it passes
through an interface between two materials of
different acoustic velocity.
Consider a sound beam aimed perpendicular to
an interface. The sound beam approaching the
interface is called the incident beam and is therefore identified as being incident to the interface.
The angle of incidence (or incident angle) is the
angle between the axis of the incident beam and a
line drawn perpendicular to the interface.
The sound beam reflected from the interface is

called the reflected beam (Figure 8-14). The
angle of reflection (or reflected angle) is the angle
between the axis of the reflected beam and a line
drawn perpendicular to the interface at the point of
sonic impact. The angle of reflection is equal to
the angle of incidence.
When a sound beam is incident to an interface
at an angle other than 90, a phenomenon called
mode conversion occurs. That is, in addition to
the simple reflection described in the previous
paragraph, a portion of the incident beam's energy
converts at the interface to a beam of a different
wave mode and refracts at an angle other than the
angle of incidence. The angle at which the mode
converted beam refracts depends on the material
and is related by Snell's Law.
At certain incident angles, there may be two
refracted sound beams (Figure 8-14); one is a
refracted compressional wave, and another is a
refracted shear wave (mode conversion).
8.3.8.1 Snells Law
Relationship among incident, reflected, and
refracted angles depend upon the velocity
relationships of the various angles and are determined by Snells Law:
Sin (Incident) =
Sin (Refracted)
V1 (Material 1) (8-7)
V2 (Material 2)
Where;
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V1
V2
=
=
=
=
Incident angle
Refracted angle
Velocity in material 1
Velocity in material 2

8.3.9
Ultrasonic Examination Variables
The angle of refraction depends upon both

the incident angle and the ratio of velocities for
the materials through which the sound is
traveling. As the incident angle increases, the
refracted angles also increase (Figure 8-15). The
first critical angle is the incident angle that
causes the compression wave to be refracted at
UT is versatile in application. For pulse echo

examinations, indications are obtained when
sound pulses transmitted into the test object
reflect from surfaces such as discontinuities or
the back surface of the material. Assuming that
proper distance/amplitude correction has been
employed, higher amplitude signals indicate
reflections from larger reflectors. Pulse-echo is
clearly the preferred technique because access to
only one side of the object is required and
specific information is available from individual
reflectors.
90. The second critical angle is the incident

angle that causes the shear wave to be refracted
8.3.9.1 Equipment
8.3.8.2 First and Second Critical Angles
90. For example, a plastic wedge will produce

angle beams in carbon steel with the first critical
angle at 27.2 and the second critical angle at
55.8.
If the incident angle is between 0 and the
first critical angle, there will be two wave modes
in the material, compressional and shear. If the
incident angle is between the first and second
critical angles, there will be only one wave mode
in the material, a shear wave.
If the incident angle is above the second
critical angle, there will not be any refracted
beams in the material. Surface waves, however,
attain maximum amplitude in the material at an
incident angle in the range of the second critical
angle.
UT instruments are basically devices for

comparing conditions in the material to a reference standard. Consequently, an ultrasonic
instrument must be calibrated prior to use.
Calibration is the process of adjusting the
instrument to a reference standard.
Most UT instruments have A-Scan (time
versus amplitude) displays. Pulse echo equipment includes hand-held thickness gages with
digital display to multi-channel immersion
system installations with both CRT display and
recording output. Standard instruments are
suitable for a wide range of detection and
thickness measurement applications. These
instruments display time and amplitude
information on a CRT display.
Optional
accessory circuits include electronic distance
amplitude
correction,
monitor
gates,
digital
distance/thickness
readouts,
and
mathematical calculation circuitry for use in
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angle beam tests.

Ultrasonic thickness gages are similar in
concept to flaw detectors except that the CRT is
replaced by a digital display for thickness
readout only. Data recorders are often available
as accessories. However, the inability to verify
echoes on a CRT is sometimes considered a
limitation of digital only instruments. Some
gages now have an A-scan display to verify
digital data with signals.
Ultrasonic flaw detectors are considerably
more versatile than thickness gages.
To
estimate discontinuity size, the instrument is
adjusted so that a specific gain setting results in a
signal amplitude produced by a known size
reflector in a reference standard. To determine
the difference in echo amplitude between a
discontinuity signal and the reference signal, the
examiner adjusts the peak of the discontinuity
signal, using a calibrated gain control, to produce
the same amplitude as the reference signal. The
gain difference between the two signals is then
noted after corrections for factors such as
differences in distance and surface condition are
made.
The formula for converting decibels to

amplitude ratios is:
Amplitude Ratio = antilog (dB)/(20)
(8-9)
As indicated by the formulas, decibel values
are logarithmic and are added to perform multiplication and subtracted to perform division.
That is, to add decibels multiply ratios; to
subtract decibels divide ratios.
8.3.9.2 Transducers
In UT, the ear of the system is the transducer.
After transmitting sound, the transducer hears
echoes that result from the condition of the
material and relays the information back to the
instrument where it is visually displayed on the
CRT. The capabilities of a transducer, and for the
entire UT system, are for the most part described
by two terms: sensitivity and resolution.
Ultrasonic instruments typically have gain

controls calibrated in decibels, a logarithmic
unit. Because sound amplitudes can vary over a
wide range, decibels are used to compress this
range for convenient measurement of differences
in amplitude. The formula for converting an
amplitude ratio to decibels is:
Sensitivity - The sensitivity of a transducer is

its ability to detect reflections from small
discontinuities.
Transducer sensitivity is
measured by the amplitude of its response from a
reflection in a standard reference block. Precise
transducer sensitivity is unique to a specific
transducer. Even transducers of the same size,
frequency, and material by the same
manufacturer do not always produce identical
indications. Transducer sensitivity is rated by its
ability to detect a given size reflector, at a
specific depth, in a standard reference block.
dB=20log10(A1/A2)
(8-8)
Resolution - The resolution of a transducer

refers to its ability to display two signals from
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two reflectors close together in the sound path.

For example, a near-surface reflector and the
initial pulse - the ability to resolve the
near-surface reflector is a measure of resolution.
If a small discontinuity just beneath the surface is
masked by the initial pulse, it is not resolved.
8.3.9.3 Couplant
A liquid couplant is necessary to exclude the
air and serve as a medium for transmitting ultrasonic vibrations from the transducer to the object
being examined. There are two ways to accomplish this: 1) couplant is applied only to the test
surface between the contact transducer (Figure
8-16) and test material, and, 2) immersion
testing, where both the transducer and part or all
of the test object are immersed in water (Figure
8-17).
The primary advantage of contact testing is
portability. Contact testing also allows the transducer to be moved by hand over complex part
geometries and requires a lower initial
investment in equipment.
A variety of
couplants are available for contact testing.
Generally, the rougher the test surface, the more
viscous the couplant should be.
Immersion testing can be automated
facilitating high speed examination and
recording of results. Moreover, immersion tests
provide uniform coupling, are virtually immune
to transducer wear, and allow use of the higher
frequency transducers. In general, immersion
testing offers excellent control over test variables
and provides results of the highest quality.

8.3.9.4 Scanning Techniques

Scanning technique is a motor skill of the
examiner requiring practice and experience.
Probe manipulation is related to the signals being
analyzed and correlated with the unseen beam
emanating from the transducer. An experienced
examiner almost has a sixth sense with the
transducer being his eyes and the CRT screen
being his vision. A minimum of 10% overlap
between scan passes is required.
8.3.9.5 Part Structure
Part structural changes can obscure areas to
be examined preventing access to a particular
examination area and in some cases preventing
the use of UT completely. Laminations may also
prevent the transmission of sound into regions of
a weld. Weld exams typically require a
compression wave exam of the base material that
the sound will pass through to locate such
laminar flaws.
8.3.9.6 Surface Condition
The rougher the surface the more viscous the
couplant required and the greater the scatter of
sound at the interface surface. Therefore, surface
condition has a considerable bearing on sensitivity, signal-to-noise ratios, and sound
transmission.
8.3.9.7 Part Geometry and Size
Part geometry can create internal mode conversion, spurious echoes, and complex CRT
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nuities but inevitably making interpretation

much more difficult. The size of the part also
effects attenuation due to increased beam range,
divergence, scatter, and absorption. The use of
larger, lower frequency transducers can provide
better sound transmission but at a sacrifice of
sensitivity and resolution.
8.3.9.8 Discontinuity Type, Shape, and Orientation
The type of discontinuity, its shape, and
orientation affect the amplitude of the reflected
signal. Sizing is therefore a very inexact science.
A discontinuity the size of the beam could result
in almost no response if it were of a certain
character, type, or orientation.
8.4 Equipment
8.4.1 Ultrasonic Transducers
Ultrasonic
transducers
behave
like
loudspeakers in that they convert electrical
energy to mechanical energy and they behave
like microphones in that they convert mechanical
energy back into electrical energy.
8.4.1.1 Types
Compression - A normal incident
compression probe is one which transmits a
pulse of compressional sound into the specimen
at right angles (normal) to its surface. Figure
8-18 shows a typical example of this type of
probe.
Delay Line - In order to facilitate the comUSNRC Technical Training Center

plete examination of thin sections, it is necessary

to eliminate the effect of the dead zone. A normal
compressional probe is mounted on a perspex
block so that the dead zone and part of the near
field are within the perspex (Figure 8-19). A
signal and multiple echoes from the perspex
interface, which, by use of the delay and range
controls, may be expanded on the time base so
that the echoes from the material being examined
appear between the first and second echoes from
the delay line (Figure 8-20). These probes may
be used for thickness measurement. The delay
line is normally made from plastic and ordered in
microseconds (S) delay dependent upon the
thickness of materials to be examined.
Dual Element (Pitch-Catch) - These probes
may be either compressional or shear wave. One
crystal is used as the transmitter and the other as
the receiver. With compressional probes the
crystals are mounted on perspex so that the dead
zone and some of the near field do not exist in the
material being examined, similar to the delay line
probe (Figure 8-21). This increases the
detect-ability of near-surface discontinuities.
Dual element probes may suffer from cross-noise
caused by sound interference between the two
crystals since couplant can seep into the sound
barrier cork material, and may result in an indication similar to a discontinuity.
8.4.1.2 Care of Transducers
Care of transducers is necessary to reduce
possibilities of impact damage, excessive wear,
stray electrical pulses, excessive heat, and
chemical contamination. Coaxial cables are
particularly vulnerable to damage and should not
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be unduly bent, knotted, or twisted. Petroleum

based couplants should not be used because they
can deteriorate rubber components.
display.
8.4.2
The function of the time base, also called

"sweep generator" in analog-display instruments,
is to establish a display of sound travel time on
the horizontal scale of the display.
The
horizontal scale can then be used for distance
readout. The range (coarse range, test range)
control adjusts the scale for the range of distance
to be displayed.
Base Pulse-Echo Instrumentation
The UT system includes: the instrument,

transducers, calibration standards, and the object
being examined. These elements function
together to form a chain of events during a
typical UT that can be summarized as follows:
The instrument's time base initiates readout

of time/distance information on the
horizontal scale of the display.
The instruments pulser electrically activates

the transducer, causing it to send sound
pulses into the test object. The activation
signal, called the initial pulse, is displayed as
a vertical signal on the CRT.
As sound travels through the test object, it

reflects from boundaries as well as from
discontinuities within the material.
A
reflection from the surface opposite the entry
surface is called a back reflection.
These reflections reach the transducer, which

converts them into electrical signals that are
displayed on the CRT.
Understanding the operation of UT

equipment may be simplified by referring to a
sample block diagram of an analog instrument
(Figure 8-3). A basic instrument contains
several circuits: power supply, clock (also called
synchronizer or timer), time base (called sweep
generator), pulser (also called transmitter),
receiver (also called receiver-amplifier), and the
8.4.2.1 Time base
For digital flaw detection instruments, there

is no sweep generator in the analog sense.
Instead, the horizontal axis of the display is
comprised of a series of divisions (usually about
200 dots are used in the horizontal direction of
the display).
Each division represents an
increment of time.
The amount of time
represented by each division is controlled by a
complex combination of software and hardware.
In order to establish a calibrated range for a
particular test, the sound velocity of the material
must be known or measured and entered into the
instrument. Then when the appropriate zero
offset has been entered, range settings are in
absolute units of metal path distance. As the
range is increased, the time interval represented
by each of the horizontal dots becomes larger.
For very large ranges, one division may represent
an entire echo waveform. For smaller ranges,
the same echo waveform is represented by
several divisions and the shape of the echo
waveform then becomes apparent. The important
thing to remember is that in a digital instrument
where the waveform has been converted from an
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analog signal to a digital waveform, the number

of points across the horizontal remains fixed and
the time interval represented by each division
changes as the range is adjusted.
8.4.2.2 Clock
The clock circuit initiates a chain of events
that results in one complete cycle of a UT
examination. The clock sends a trigger signal, at
a regular interval, to both the time base and to the
pulser. As the name clock' implies, this
trigger signal is repeated at a given frequency,
called the pulse repetition rate. On some
instruments pulse repetition rate is adjustable by
the examiner; other instruments do it
automatically.
8.4.2.3 Pulse Repetition Rate
The pulse repetition rate establishes the
number of times per second that a complete test
cycle will occur. In instruments with adjustable
pulse repetition rate, adjustment is made by a
pulse repetition rate control, sometimes labeled
REP RATE. Greater sound travel time requires
a longer test cycle and a lower pulse repetition
rate to provide the longer test cycle or interval.
8.4.2.4 Pulser-Receiver
The pulser emits the electrical signal that
activates the transducer. This signal, known as
the initial pulse, is quite brief, usually lasting
only several nanoseconds (billionths of a
second). The output of the initial pulse is in the
order of hundreds of volts; the brief duration
provides a fast rise time to the full voltage. The

pulser is connected via output connectors on the

instrument front panel to the transducer cable.
The pulser is also connected, internally, through
the receiver circuit, to the display, thus making
available (depending upon the delay setting) a
displayed initial pulse signal. This signal is, of
course, present whether or not a transducer is
connected to the instrument.
When a transducer is connected, it is in the
signal path between the pulser and the receiver
and its output is displayed.
8.4.2.5 Basic Controls
The amplifier multiplies the voltage of
signals passing through it in order to provide
adequate signal amplitude. The amount of
voltage multiplication, or amplification, is
controlled by gain controls. Calibrated gain
controls are adjustable in discrete units of
decibels (dB), the unit of measure for gain
multiplication. Calibrated gain controls are
intended for making decibel amplitude comparisons between reference standard amplitudes
and the amplitudes of signals returning from the
test material.
The REJECT control is intended for
preventing the display of undesired low
amplitude signals, called grass or hash, caused
by metal noise such as echoes from material
grain boundaries or inherent fine porosity
(Figure 8-22). There are two types of REJECT
controls installed on UT instruments: nonlinear
REJECT and the more recently linear REJECT
controls. Linear REJECT controls offer the
advantage in that they do not affect vertical
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linearity of the display.

Controls marked DELAY and RANGE are
used to adjust the instruments time base for
proper display of distances. The delay control
shifts the vertical signals to the left and right
without altering the spacing between them. The
RANGE control expands or contracts the spacing
between vertical signals, corresponding to the
Range of the sound travel to be displayed.
The sound amplitudes of individual reflectors
returning to the transducer determine the relative
heights of the corresponding vertical signals on
the CRT. The GAIN control adjusts vertical
display sensitivity and therefore determines the
actual amplitude at which signals are displayed.
If the signal height of different size flat
bottomed holes located at the same distance from
the test surface are compared, the signal heights
will be proportional to the reflecting areas of the
holes. However, if a flat bottomed hole of an
identical reflecting area is located at a different
depth from the test surface, it will produce a
lower amplitude signal.
8.4.2.6 Gates
Most UT equipment is equipped with gates
that can be superimposed on the time base so that
a rapid response from a particular reflector can
be obtained when they reach a certain
predetermined amplitude. This can be adapted as
a go/no-go monitoring device for some
examinations. Gates can be set for an alarm to be
triggered at a pre-determined amplitude
(positive) with an increasing signal or (negative)

with a decreasing signal amplitude. Gates are

essential for some types of recording systems
where they also serve to provide information to
the recording devices or storage systems.
8.5 Procedure
UT is performed in accordance with an
approved procedure. Each procedure should
include at least the following information and
any information listed in the Essential and
Nonessential variables in section V:
Weld types and configurations to be examined, including thickness dimensions,

materials, or product form (casting, forging,
plate, etc.);
The surface or surfaces from which the

examination should be performed;
Surface condition;
Couplant;
Technique (straight beam, angle beam,

contact and/or immersion);
Angles and mode(s) of wave propagation in

the material;
Search unit type, frequency, and transducer

size(s);
Special search units, wedges, shoes, or saddles, if used, and type and length of search
unit cable;
Ultrasonic instrument type(s);
Description of calibration blocks;
Directions and extent of scanning;
Data to be recorded and method of recording

(manual or automatic);
Automatic alarm and recording equipment,

or both, if used;
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Rotating,
revolving,
mechanisms, if used;
Personnel qualification requirements; and
Review or qualification of the procedure as

required by the referencing Code section.
or
scanning
and grain structural.

Forgings - Grain-orientated discontinuities,
bursts, and flake are readily detected.
8.5.1.2 Shear Waves
8.5.1
Application of the Various Wave

Modes
To obtain maximum reflection amplitude in a

pulse echo examination, the sound beam must be
perpendicular to the discontinuity detected.
When this discontinuity is parallel to the sound
entry surface, a compressional wave transducer
provides the best response.
When the
discontinuity is obliquely oriented to the surface,
the sound beam must enter the material at an
angle that orients the beam perpendicular to the
discontinuity.
8.5.1.1 Compressional Wave Applications
Plate - Straight beam approach is best for
detection of laminations.
Thickness - A wide range of materials and
thickness, as well as corrosion/erosion can be
measured very accurately.
Pipe and Tubing - Radial longitudinal or

circumferential discontinuities caused by stress
corrosion and fatigue can be detected.
Welds - The more serious planar type
discontinuities including lack of fusion,
incomplete penetration, and cracks are best
detected with shear wave techniques.
8.5.1.3 Surface Waves
Surface waves can propagate around corners
and radii of holes to successfully detect
otherwise inaccessible discontinuities at the
surface.
8.5.1.4 Lamb Waves
Lamb waves are best for detecting lamination
and other discontinuities in a thin sheet.
8.5.2
Immersion Testing
Bar - Central axial inclusions, piping and

other discontinuities can be detected with a
simple compressional wave technique.
8.5.2.1 Immersion
Components
Castings - Porosity, gas holes, inclusions,

shrinkage,
and
other
typical
casting
discontinuities can be detected. Major limiting
variables include surface finish, configuration,
Immersion systems consist of a bridge and

manipulator, mounted on a water tank, a pulse
echo instrument and a recorder as shown in
Figure 8-23. Drive units move the bridge along
the tank side rails, while transversing units move
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the manipulator from side to side along the

bridge. Most of these units are automated,
although some early units are manually operated.
The ultrasonic tank may be of any size or
shape required to accommodate the test
specimen. Coverage of the specimen by a foot
or more of water is usually sufficient.
Adjustable brackets and lazy-susan turntables are
provided on the tank bottom for support of the
test specimen. The water in the tank is clean,
de-aerated water containing a wetting agent.
The water temperature is usually maintained at
ambient temperature.
Manipulators - The manipulator is primarily
intended to provide a means of scanning the test
specimen with an immersed transducer (Figure
8-24). The manipulator is mounted on a
traversing mechanism, which allows movement
of the manipulator from side to side. The
traversing mechanism is an integral component
of the bridge assembly. A search tube is usually
held rigid at right angles to the surface of the test
specimen. Locking knobs are provided on the
manipulator to allow positioning of the search
tube in two planes for angle-beam testing.
Bridges - When the manipulator is
automated, electric motors are added to power
the bridge carriage, the traversing mechanism,
and the up and down movement of the search
tube. The pulse-echo unit and the recording unit
are also mounted on the bridge, with all power
cords secured overhead to allow movement of
the bridge along the full length of the tank.
Wands - The support tube for the immersion

probe is sometimes called a wand. Its vertical

height can be adjusted to vary water path
distance and the adjuster which can manipulate
probe angle of incidence at the tip of the wand.
8.5.2.2 Immersion Transducers
Flat - The flat transducer operates under the
same considerations as regular compressional
transducers, except it does not have a protective
face, and it is waterproof. Near fields for these
probes are, of course, often four times greater
due to the slow water velocity compared to steel.
Focused - An acoustical lens is fitted to the
front of the transducer. Focused probes can be
manufactured to produce any focal length. Often
focused single axis, focused transducers allow
high resolution examination of immersed shafts
(converging parallel focus) or tubing from the
inside (diverging parallel focus).
Frontal units shaped to direct the sound
energy perpendicular to the surface at all points
on curved surfaces and radii are known as
contour-correction lenses. These cylindrical
lenses sharpen the front-surface indication by
evening out the sound-travel distance between
the transducer and the test surface.
A
comparison of flat and contoured transducers is
shown in Figure 8-25.
Other acoustic lenses focus the sound beam
from the transducer, much as light beams are
focused. Focused transducers concentrate the
sound energy into a long, narrow, blunt-pointed
beam of increased intensity, which is capable of
detecting very small discontinuities in a
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relatively small area. Focusing the sound beam

moves its point of maximum intensity toward the
transducer, but shortens its usable range. The
test specimen has the effect of a second lens; in
this case, the beam is defocused, as shown in
Figure 8-26. Defocusing increases intensity
which produces increased sensitivity; also,
moving the point of maximum intensity closer to
the transducer (which is also closer to the test
surface) improves the near-surface resolution.
The disturbing effects of rough surface and metal
noise are also reduced by concentrating the
sound energy into a smaller beam. This is true
simply because a smaller area is being looked at.
In a smaller area, the true discontinuity
indications are relatively large compared to the
combined noise of other nonrelevant indications.
The useful thickness range of focused
transducers is approximately 0.010 to 2 inches.
8.5.3
Data Display
UT instruments present examination data in

various ways. Display media include CRTs,
paper chart recorders, digital readouts, and
audible/visual alarms. Three basic types of
displays are designated: A-Scan, B-Scan, and
C-Scan.
8.5.3.1 A-Scan
A-Scan shows distance/time information as
the points where signals deflect vertically from
the horizontal baseline.
Size/amplitude
information is displayed as the height of the
vertical deflections.
Sound travels at different speeds in different

materials. However, the speed of sound is

constant in a uniform medium. This means that
sound will complete a round trip through a
specific distance in a specific amount of time. It
is therefore possible to measure distance by
measuring sound travel time.
8.5.3.2 B-Scan
B-Scan is a pictorial presentation (Figure
8-27). The display screen shows a side view of
the test object, displaying the profile of interfaces
reflecting the sound beam. B-Scan can show
the distance of a discontinuity from the
transducer, as well as discontinuity length along
the direction of transducer travel.
8.5.3.3 C-Scan
C-scan equipment is intended to provide a
permanent record of the examination when
high-speed automatic scanning is used. C-scan
equipment displays the discontinuities in a plan
view, but provides no depth or orientation
information.
The most commonly used recorders use a
chemically treated paper that is passed between a
printing bar and a helix equipped drum as shown
in Figure 8-28. The printing bar has a narrow
edge and is connected electrically to one of the
output terminals of the amplifier in the ultrasonic
test unit. The other terminal of the amplifier is
connected to the helix mounted on the drum. As
the drum turns, the contact point between the bar
and the helix moves back and forth across the
paper. Variations in electric current at the
contact point determine the amount of print-out
produced on the paper. One revolution of the
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drum produces one line of scan. The forward

movement of the paper is synchronized with the
forward movement of the transducer along the
test surface. The amplifier is also connected to
the oscilloscope so that, whenever a signal of
predetermined amplitude is displayed, a change
of current occurs in the printing bar contact. In
this manner, a record of the discontinuities is
produced as the transducer scans the test surface.
The C-scan recording indicates the projected
length and width of the discontinuity and the
outline of the test specimen as if viewed from
directly above the specimen. The C-scan recording does not indicate the depth of the
discontinuity in the test specimen.
Some
recorders produce a shaded scan line to indicate
the outline of the discontinuity. On others, the
discontinuity outline may be indicated by the
absence of the scan lines (Figure 8-29), where
the white (no line) areas represent the
discontinuities.
8.5.4
Calibration Techniques
Calibration should include the complete

ultrasonic examination system. The original
calibration should be performed on the basic
calibration block (Figure 8-30). Checks should
be made to verify the sweep range/distance calibration (Figure 8-31).
In all calibrations, it is important that maximum indications be obtained with the sound
beam oriented perpendicular to the axis of the
side-drilled holes and notches. The center line
of the search unit should be at least 1 inches
from the nearest side of the block (rotation of the

beam into the corner formed by the hole and the

side of the block may produce a higher amplitude
at a longer beam path; this beam path should not
be used for calibration).
For contact
examination, the temperature of the examination
and basic calibration blocks should be within 25o
F. For immersion examination, the couplant
temperature for calibration should be within 25o
F of the couplant temperature used in actual
scanning or appropriate compensations for angle
and sensitivity change should be made.
8.5.4.1 Linearity
Screen Height Linearity - The ultrasonic
instrument should provide linear vertical
presentation within 5 percent of the full screen
height for at least 80 percent of the calibrated
screen height (base line to maximum calibrated
screen point(s)). The procedure for evaluating
screen height linearity is normally provided and
should be performed at the beginning of each
period of extended use (or every 3 months,
whichever is less) for analog units and every 12
months for digital units.
Amplitude Control Linearity - The ultrasonic instrument should utilize an amplitude
control, accurate over its useful range to 20
percent of the nominal amplitude ratio, to allow
measurement of indications beyond the linear
range of the vertical display on the screen. The
procedure for evaluating amplitude control
linearity is normally provided. The calibration
time limits are the same as for Screen Height
Linearity.
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8.5.4.2 Distance Amplitude

By comparing reflectors in the far field with
reference reflectors, and by applying distance
laws and correcting for material loss attenuation,
the reflecting area of reflectors in the far field can
be estimated. The narrowness of the sound beam
at the beginning of the far field applies more
sound pressure per unit area to reflectors, thus
optimizing sensitivity. Using laws of distance,
loss of echo amplitude can be calculated as same
size reflectors are moved outward along the
sound beam axis in the far field (Figure 8-32).
There are two rules of distance; one rule for
infinite reflectors and one for small reflectors.
An infinite reflector intercepts the entire
sound beam. The echo amplitude of an infinite
reflector is inversely proportional to distance.
As the distance to an infinite reflector is doubled,
echo amplitude decreases six decibels.
A small reflector intercepts only a portion of
the sound beam. The echo amplitude of a small
reflector is inversely proportional to the square
of distance. As the distance to the small
reflector is doubled, echo amplitude decreases 12
dB.
When the amplitude of a small disk-shaped
reflector at 3 inches of depth is compared to an
echo from the same size reflector at 6 inches of
depth (Figure 8-33), the echo returning from 6
inches of depth will be 12 dB lower. That is, the
echo from 6 inches of depth will have 25 percent
of the echo height of the echo from 3 inches of
depth.

In addition to amplitude losses resulting from

beam spread, there are also amplitude losses
caused by the structure of the test material. This
form of attenuation results from scattering of
sound by coarse grain structure or fine porosity
or from conversion of sound into heat by
absorption. Material loss attenuation tends to
occur at a linear rate. That is, material losses
occur at a rate of a certain number of decibels per
linear unit of measure; for example, a rate of 1
dB per inch.
Thus, if there are two small disk-shaped
reflectors of the same size, one at 3 inches of
depth, the other at 6 inches of depth, and the rate
of material loss is 1 dB per inch, the echo from 6
inches of depth will be 15 dB weaker than the
echo from 3 inches of depth. Of the 15 dB of
sound loss, 12 dB are lost because of beam
spread and 3 dB are lost because of material
losses.
In order to estimate reflector severity, some
correction must be made for echo amplitude
variations caused by distance factors. One
method is to construct a DAC curve on the
display screen (Figure 8-34). This is done by
marking on the display the echo peaks from a
given size reflector at a series of depths. The
reflector used for this procedure is normally one
that represents the critical discontinuity size,
the maximum acceptable reflector amplitude. A
more convenient solution is to use electronic
distance amplitude compensation, whereby the
test instrument can be adjusted to correct echo
amplitudes for distance variations.
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8.5.4.3 Resolution
calibration block.
Resolution can be established using either the

IIW block (Figure 8-35) or other blocks
manufactured specifically for that purpose. The
resolution
capability
of
a
particular
probe/instrument combination can also be
objectively determined with a step wedge. The
resolution can be determined by locating the
thinnest step that can be resolved.
8.5.5 Unacceptable Techniques
8.5.4.4 Beam Profile

The beam width can be plotted by scanning
across a suitable small reflector (transverse hole)
at the depth required. The signal is maximized
from the reflector and set to approximately
mid-screen height (50 percent full screen height
(FSH)) and the signal amplitude increased by 20
dB then scanned away from the reflector until the
signal returns to pre-set amplitude. The surface
is marked at the probe index (probe center for
compressional probes), then scanned in the
opposite direction and marked on the surface
again. The distance marked is the 20 dB beam
width at the depth checked. Both shear wave
and compressional wave transducer widths can
be plotted by this approach.
8.5.4.5 Test Block Parameters
The basic calibration block(s) containing
basic calibration reflectors to establish
a
primary reference response of the equipment and
to construct a distance-amplitude correction
curve is typically as shown in Figure 8-34. The
basic calibration reflectors should be located
either in the component material or in a basic
8.5.5.1 Scanning Problems

An unacceptable scanning problem prevents
discontinuities from being located with high
reliability. Generally, the use of a calibration
specimen with an artificial reflector matching the
object under examination, proves the scanning
efficiency. An unacceptable example of this
would be a curved surface of a tube being
examined with a flat probe. Scanning would
be difficult since signal transmission is
intermittent and probe handling very critical.
8.5.5.2 Interpretation Shortcomings
Interpretation shortcomings are frequent.
Most originate from mode conversion signals
interfering with actual discontinuity signals, or
from incorrectly calibrated time base.
Inexperience is always identified in this area as
demands can be quite complex.
8.5.5.3 Report Format Problems
Non-standardized reports give rise to missing
information. Comprehensive information on
reports is essential to prevent plant down times
until the missing information is found. Another
problem relates to ambiguities in drawings in
text that can also result in incorrect decisions or
extended down times.
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8.6 Interpretation and Code Requirements
equally spaced along the time base.
8.6.1
Resolution - Compression Transducers.

This check can be conducted on the A2 block as
shown in Figure 8-35.
Weld Calibration Stanards
To maintain the integrity of any UT

examination it is necessary to regularly verify the
performance of the equipment. This section
describes the methods used to calibrate and
check the performance of UT instruments and
probes.
Calibration Blocks - Figures 8-35 and 8-36
show calibration blocks recommended by
common standards/specifications.
These are
normally manufactured from steel but can also
be made from other materials to suit specific
examination requirements.
NOTE: English unit blocks are dimensional
in inches but are not precisely the same as metric
blocks. For each 25 mm read 1 inch (actual
25 mm = 0.98425 inches.)
Sensitivity - A broad definition for ultrasonic
sensitivity is the ability of the system to be able
to detect and display a response from the smallest
reflector. Sensitivity is primarily influenced by
the wavelength, the transducer, and the
characteristics of the material being examined.
As frequency increases, wavelength decreases,
which results in an increase in sensitivity.
Time base Linearity - This UT instrument
check is carried out to ensure that there is a linear
relationship between the time base position of
signals and distance. The check is carried out
using a compressional probe to obtain a bottom
echo with multiples and ensuring that they are
Shear Wave Probes - This check is done by

resolving the steps of the A7 block (Figure 8-36).
Beam Exit Point - To check the beam exit
point (probe index) of a shear wave probe, it is
placed on the A2 block and aimed at the 100 mm
radius. When the signal is maximized, the exit
point should align with the center of the scale,
which is the center of the 100 mm radius (Figure
8-37).
Refraction Angle - The refraction angle
(beam angle) of a shear wave probe is checked
on the A2 block as shown in Figure 8-38 a, b, and
c. The angle is measured by noting the angle
that aligns with the probe index when the signal
is maximized. The actual refracted angle should
fall within the designated probe angle 2.
Compression Probes - To calibrate the time
base to 100 mm of steel, the probe should be
placed on the 25 mm thick portion of the A2
block and the bottom echo positioned at 2.5 on
the time base with repeats at 5.0, 7.5, and 10.
The length of the time base now represents 100
mm of steel. Similarly the time base can be
calibrated to any suitable distance by obtaining a
back echo and repeats from any of the
dimensions of the calibration blocks.
Shear Wave Probes - Figures 8-39, 8-40,

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and 8-41 show methods of calibrating the time

base for shear wave probes. That part of the
ultrasonic beam that is within the wedge is
delayed off the CRT to set the transmission point
to zero.
8.6.2
Evaluation
8.6.2.1 False Indications

the finger at the reflection point on the specimen

is a good way to confirm their non-relevance.
Intergranular Reflectors - Intergranular
reflectors are only found on coarser grained
materials.
Reflector sizes are even and
distributed throughout the materials. Reduced
gain settings or cautious use of the REJECT
control should be considered.
Couplant - Couplant can cause false

indications during buildup on the front of shear
wave probes, particularly those probes of high
angles 70o to 90o. When working in thin
materials, typically weldments of to inches
or less, false indications may become apparent
from couplant.
8.6.2.3 Relevant Discontinuity Indications
Spurious Electrical - Electrical interference

is normally easily interpreted. Ghost signals
moving across the CRT screen or standing
signals are fairly common. These are easily
identified because they have no correlation with
probe motion.
Length - Length must be plotted using some

objective measuring system. Commonly 6 dB or
20 dB drop methods are utilized to achieve some
degree of accuracy in sizing.
8.6.2.2 Nonrelevant Indications

Part Geometry - Part geometry creates the
majority of nonrelevant indications. These
indications come from the reflections boundaries
and other built-in reflectors.
Surface
Irregularities
Surface
irregularities can also cause signals that are
nonrelevant. Weld crowns and roots are
particularly a common source of reflected signals
that could be misinterpreted. Provided access is
available, dampening of these signals by placing
Amplitude - Amplitude of relevant discontinuity indications has to be carefully monitored.

Often some careful probe manipulation and extra
use of couplant increase the amplitude, so care
must be taken.
Signal Shape - Shape helps to determine the

type of discontinuity. For example, a fatigue
crack gives a sharp single peak, whereas
wormhole porosity gives a broader and much
more varying attenuated signal in comparison.
Orientation - Orientation must be
determined by angulating the probe, maximizing
the signal and plotting reflector position from
maximum signal response positions along its
length. To avoid missing signals, angulations
should be constantly adjusted in a sweep motion
of the beam during scanning. This allows for
differing discontinuity orientation.
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Location - Range calibration must be

accurate to correctly locate the discontinuity in
the beam path. Plotters and scale cross sectional
drawings help to locate a discontinuity.
8.7 Advantages and Limitations of Ultra

sonic Examination
8.7.1
Advantages
UT has the following advantages:
8.6.3 Recording
8.6.3.1 Use of Examination Forms
Penetration is relatively deep in a given

material.
Examination forms are generally designed to

meet the requirements of the code or
specification. In all cases, however, examination
forms are necessary.
Much of the equipment is portable, lightweight, and battery powered.
Access to only one side of the material is

required in most cases.
Measuring
thickness
and
discontinuities is highly accurate.
It has the capability for volumetric examination.
It is suitable for go/no-go conditions.
There is no danger from radiation or other

such hazards.
8.6.3.2 Recording Techniques

The following techniques are or have been in
use for recording UT signals:
Cross sectional and plan drawings with

plotted discontinuity locations,
Computer recorded ultrasound signals with

XY plot positions,
C-scan recordings,
Zip scan recordings,
Delta scan recordings,
P-scan weldment recordings, and
Plotting directly
components.
8.7.2
locating
Limitations
UT also has several limitations:
on
specimens
The test object must be able to support the

propagation of sound without excessive
losses.
A liquid couplant is required to conduct

sound between the ultrasonic transducer and
specimen.
The interpretation requires a highly trained

and experienced examiner.
Discontinuities just beneath the surface (dead

zone) may not be detectable.
Discontinuity orientation is a factor that requires careful technique development.
or
In all cases, however, it is the code or

specification that determines the techniques of
recording.
826
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Surface conditions must be considered.
Part shape/configuration can be a limitation.

827
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Introduction to
Student Manual
Chapter 8.0
Ultrasonicc Examination
Table 8-1 Acoustic

A
Properties of Materials
828
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Introduction to
Student Manual
Chapter 8.0
829
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Chapter 8.0 Inttroduction to

Figure 8-1 Wavelength
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Student Manual

Figure 8-2 Refflection, Transmission at an Interface

(Immersion Testing
T
with Pulse/Echo Technique)
Figure 8-3 Block Diiagram of a Typical Ultrasonic Instrument

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Figure 8-4 Particcle Displacement by Longitudinal Waves

832
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Student Manual

Figure 8-5 Partiicle Displacement by Transverse Waves
833
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Student Manual

Figure 8-6 Surface or Rayleigh Wave Modes
834
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Figure 8-7
8 Plate or Lamb Wave Modes
835
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Student Manual

Figure 8-8 Con

nstructive and Destructive Interference
836
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Student Manual

Figu
ure 8-9 Near and Far Fields
844
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Figure 8-10 Nearr-to-Surface Reflector Within Dead Zone
838
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Student Manual

Figure 8-11 Dead Zone Check
838
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Student Manual

Figurre 8-12 Angle Beam in Weld
839
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Figure 13 Angle
A
Beam Transducer Assembly
841
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Student Manual

Figure 8-14 Refraction

R
and Reflection of Incident
Comprressional Wave at an Interface
842
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Student Manual

Figure 8-15 Increasiing Incident Angle in Probe Shoes (Wedges)

With Seccond Medium of Higher Velocity
843
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Figure 8-16 Transducer Coupled to Test Piece
844
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Fig
gure 8-17 Immersion Test
845
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Figure 8-18 Normal

N
Compressional Wave Probe
846
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Fig
gure 8-19 Delay Line Probe
847
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Figure 8-20 Calib

bration of Timebase for Delay Line Probe
848
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Figure 8-21 Dual Element Probe (Pitch-Catch)
849
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F
Figure
8-22 Use of Reject
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Figure 8-23 Typicall Ultrasonic Tank and Bridge/Manipulator
851
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Student Manual

Figure 8-24 Bridge/Manipulator
852
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Figure 8-25 Fla

at and Contour-Corrected Transducers
853
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Figure 8-26 Focused-Beam Shortening in Metal
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Figure 8-27 B-Scan Presentation
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Figurre 8-28 C-Scan Presentation
856
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Figure 8-29
8
Typical C-Scan Recording
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Figuree 8-30 Basic Calibration Block
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Figurre 8-31 Distance Calibration
859
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Figure 8-32
2 Distance Amplitude Calibration
860
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Fig
gure 8-33 Linear Reflector
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Figure 8-34 Diistance Amplitude Correction Curves
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Figurre 8-35 Block A2 (IIW Block)
863
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Figure 8-36 Block A7
864
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Figure 8-37 Checking Beam Index Point
865
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Figurre 8-38 Checking Beam Angle
866
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alibration for Shear Wave Probe Using A4 Blocck

Figure 8-39 Timebase Ca
867
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Figure 8-40 Time Ba

ase Calibration for Shear Wave Probe Using
A2 Block Modified with Slots
868
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Figure 8-41 Time Basee Calibration for Shear Wave Probe Using A2
Block Modified with 25mm Radius
869
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Nondestructive Examination (NDE) Technology and Codes

NDE Technology and Codes Student Manual

8.0 INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION ............................................................. 1

ASME Section V ..................................................................................................... 1

ASME Section XI .................................................................................................... 2

Instrumentation and Control .................................................................................... 6

8.3.7 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation .................................................................................. 6

NDE Technology and Codes Student Manual

8.3.9 Ultrasonic Examination Variables ......................................................................... 11

Immersion Testing ................................................................................................. 18

Data Display ....................................................................................................... 20

USNRC Technical Training Center

NDE Technology and Codes Student Manual

8.5.4 Calibration Techniques .......................................................................................... 21

Weld Calibration Standards ................................................................................... 24

8.7 Advantages and Limitations of Ultrasonic Examination......................................................... 26

NDE Technology and Codes Student Manual

8-1 Acoustic Properties of Materials ................................................................................................... 28

NDE Technology and Codes Student Manual

Distance Amplitude Calibration .............................................................................................. 60

USNRC Technical Training Center

NDE Technology and Codes

Chapter 8.0 Introduction to

Development of more advanced equipment in

8.2 Personnel Qualification and Certification

2. Know the personnel qualification and certification requirements.

8.2.1 ASME Section V

4. Understand the steps involved with calibration.

SNT-TC-1A (2006 Edition), or

6. Understand the common interpretation and

Qualification in accordance with a prior edition

7. Identify the advantages and limitation of UT.

USNRC Technical Training Center

A Level II Ultrasonic Examiner, who is a high

NDE Technology and Codes

Chapter 8.0 Introduction to

experience consists of the sum of the hours

The SNT-TC-1A requirements are:

210* hrs /400**hrs

630* hrs /1200 **hrs

8.2.2 ASME Section XI

The CP-189 requirements are:

During the mid-seventies, boiling water

*Hours in UT/** Total Hours in NDE

NDE Technology and Codes

Chapter 8.0 Introduction to

The requirements of Appendix VII are:

Section XI requires that personnel performing

Option I - Graduate of a 4 year accredited

To assure that an examiner performing ISI

Option 2 - Completion with a passing grade of

The 2007 edition with 2008 addenda of Section

USNRC Technical Training Center

NDE Technology and Codes

Chapter 8.0 Introduction to

"hertz" units as follows:

Option 3 - High school graduate, or equivalent, plus 4 years experience in an assignment

Appendix VII also addresses NDE Instructor

The audible range, which is the range of human