Nondestructive Examination (NDE) Technology and Codes Student Manual Introduction To Ultrasonic Examination

Nondestructive Examination (NDE) Technology and Codes
Student Manual
Volume 2
Chapter 8.0
Introduction to Ultrasonic Examination

NDE Technology and Codes Student Manual Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.0 INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION ............................................................. 1
Learning Objectives
8.1 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
8.2 Personnel Qualification and Certification ................................................................................. 1
8.2.1 ASME Section V ..................................................................................................... 1
8.2.2 ASME Section XI .................................................................................................... 2
8.3 Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
8.3.1 Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
8.3.2 Velocity……………………………………………………………………………4
8.3.3 Wavelength ......................................................................................................... 5
8.3.4 Transmission/Reflection .......................................................................................... 5
8.3.5 Attenuation………………………………………………………………………...6
8.3.6 Instrumentation and Control .................................................................................... 6
8.3.7 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation .................................................................................. 6

8.3.7.1 Acoustic Impedance .............................................................................. 7
8.3.7.2 Reflection at Interfaces .......................................................................... 8
8.3.7.3 Fresnel Zone .......................................................................................... 8
8.3.7.4 Fraunhofer Zone (Far Field) .................................................................. 9
8.3.7.5 Dead Zone.............................................................................................. 9
8.3.8 Refraction ......................................................................................................... 9
8.3.8.1 Snell’s Law ............................................................................................ 9
8.3.8.2 First and Second Critical Angles ......................................................... 10
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8.3.9 Ultrasonic Examination Variables ......................................................................... 11

8.3.9.1 Equipment .................................................................................................. 11
8.3.9.2 Transducers ................................................................................................ 12
8.3.9.3 Couplant..................................................................................................... 13
8.3.9.4 Scanning Techniques ................................................................................. 13
8.3.9.5 Part Structure ............................................................................................. 13
8.3.9.6 Surface Condition ...................................................................................... 13
8.3.9.7 Part Geometry and Size ............................................................................. 13
8.3.9.8 Discontinuity Type, Shape, and Orientation ............................................. 14
8.4 Equipment….. .......................................................................................................................... 14
8.4.1 Ultrasonic Transducers .......................................................................................... 14

8.4.1.1 Types ................................................................................................... 14
8.4.1.2 Care of Transducers ............................................................................. 14
8.4.2 Base Pulse-Echo Instrumentation .......................................................................... 15

8.4.2.1 Time base ............................................................................................. 15
8.4.2.2 Clock .................................................................................................... 16
8.4.2.3 Pulse Repetition Rate........................................................................... 16
8.4.2.4 Pulser-Receiver .................................................................................... 16
8.4.2.5 Basic Controls...................................................................................... 16
8.4.2.6 Gates .................................................................................................... 17
8.5 Procedures. .............................................................................................................................. 17
8.5.1 Application of the Various Wave Modes .............................................................. 18

8.5.1.1 Compressional Wave Applications ..................................................... 18
8.5.1.2 Shear Waves ........................................................................................ 18
8.5.1.3 Surface Waves ..................................................................................... 18
8.5.1.4 Lamb Waves ........................................................................................ 18
8.5.2 Immersion Testing ................................................................................................. 18

8.5.2.1 Immersion Tanks and System Components ........................................ 18
8.5.2.2 Immersion Transducers ....................................................................... 19
8.5.3 Data Display ....................................................................................................... 20
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8.5.3.1 A-Scan ................................................................................................. 20

8.5.3.2 B-Scan ................................................................................................. 20
8.5.3.3 C-Scan ................................................................................................. 20
8.5.4 Calibration Techniques .......................................................................................... 21

8.5.4.1 Linearity............................................................................................... 21
8.5.4.2 Distance Amplitude ............................................................................. 22
8.5.4.3 Resolution ............................................................................................ 23
8.5.4.4 Beam Profile ........................................................................................ 23
8.5.4.5 Test Block Parameters ......................................................................... 23
8.5.5 Unacceptable Techniques ...................................................................................... 23

8.5.5.1 Scanning Problems .............................................................................. 23
8.5.5.2 Interpretation Shortcomings ................................................................ 23
8.5.5.3 Report Format Problems ...................................................................... 23
8.6 Interpretation and Code Requirements .................................................................................... 24
8.6.1 Weld Calibration Standards ................................................................................... 24
8.6.2 Evaluation .............................................................................................................. 25

8.6.2.1 False Indications .................................................................................. 25
8.6.2.2 Nonrelevant Indications ....................................................................... 25
8.6.2.3 Relevant Discontinuity Indications ..................................................... 25
8.6.3 Recording............................................................................................................... 26
8.6.3.1 Use of Examination Forms .................................................................. 26
8.6.3.2 Recording Techniques ......................................................................... 26
8.7 Advantages and Limitations of Ultrasonic Examination......................................................... 26
8.7.1 Advantages ............................................................................................................ 26
8.7.2 Limitations ............................................................................................................. 26
LIST OF TABLES
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8-1 Acoustic Properties of Materials ................................................................................................... 28
LIST OF FIGURES
8-1 Wavelength………………………………………………………………………………………29
8-2 Reflection, Transmission at an Interface ....................................................................................... 30
8-3 Block Diagram of a Typical Ultrasonic Instrument ...................................................................... 31
8-4 Particle Displacement by Longitudinal Waves ............................................................................. 32
8-5 Particle Displacement by Transverse Waves................................................................................. 33
8-6 Surface or Rayleigh Wave Modes ................................................................................................. 34
8-7 Plate or Lamb Wave Modes .......................................................................................................... 35
8-8 Constructive and Destructive Interference .................................................................................... 36
8-9 Near and Far Fields........................................................................................................................ 37
8-10 Near-to-Surface Reflector Within Dead Zone ......................................................................... 38
8-11 Dead Zone Check .................................................................................................................... 39
8-12 Angle Beam in Weld ............................................................................................................... 40
8-13 Angle Beam Transducer Assembly ......................................................................................... 41
8-14 Refraction and Reflection of Incident Compressional Wave at an Interface .......................... 42
8-15 Increasing Incident Angle in Probe Shoes (Wedges) With Second Medium of
Higher Velocity ....................................................................................................................... 43
8-16 Transducer Coupled to Test Piece ........................................................................................... 44
8-17 Immersion Test ........................................................................................................................ 45
8-18 Normal Compressional Wave Probe ....................................................................................... 46
8-19 Delay Line Probe ..................................................................................................................... 47
8-20 Calibration of Timebase for Delay Line Probe ....................................................................... 48
8-21 Dual Element Probe (Pitch-Catch) .......................................................................................... 49
8-22 Use of Reject ........................................................................................................................... 50
8-23 Typical Ultrasonic Tank and Bridge/Manipulator................................................................... 51
8-24 Bridge/Manipulator ................................................................................................................. 52
8-25 Flat and Contour-Corrected Transducers ................................................................................ 53
8-26 Focused-Beam Shortening in Metal ........................................................................................ 54
8-27 B-Scan Presentation ................................................................................................................. 55
8-28 C-Scan Presentation ................................................................................................................. 56
8-29 Typical C-Scan Recording....................................................................................................... 57
8-30 Basic Calibration Block ........................................................................................................... 58
8-31 Distance Calibration ................................................................................................................ 59
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8-32 Distance Amplitude Calibration .............................................................................................. 60

8-33 Linear Reflector ....................................................................................................................... 61
8-34 Distance Amplitude Correction Curves ................................................................................... 62
8-35 Block A2 (IIW Block) ............................................................................................................. 63
8-36 Block A7 ............................................................................................................................... 64
8-37 Checking Beam Index Point .................................................................................................... 65
8-38 Checking Beam Angle ............................................................................................................. 66
8-39 Timebase Calibration for Shear Wave Probe Using A4 Block ............................................... 67
8-40 Timebase Calibration for Shear Wave Probe Using A2 Block Modified with Slots .............. 68
8-41 Timebase Calibration for Shear Wave Probe Using A2 Block Modified with 25 mm
Radius …………………………………………………………………………………….….69
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NDE Technology and Codes Chapter 8.0 Introduction to
Student Manual Ultrasonic Examination
8.0 INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC Development of more advanced equipment in

EXAMINATION the 1940's expanded the use of pulse-echo ultra-
sound, which derives information from the sound
Learning Objectives: making round trips, and required access to only
one side of the material. Another technique,
To enable the student to: resonance testing, depends on the resonant fre-
quency of the material being examined.
1. Understand the basic principles of the genera-
tion, transmission, and reflection of 8.2 Personnel Qualification and Certification
ultra-sound.
Of all the NDE methods, UT is the most
2. Know the personnel qualification and certifi- subjective and therefore depends greatly on the
cation requirements. qualifications and expertise of the examiner.
3. Become familiar with the various techniques 8.2.1 ASME Section V

used in ultrasonic examination (UT).
The 2007 Edition with 2008 Addenda of the
4. Understand the steps involved with calibration. ASME Code Section V requires that NDE person-
nel be qualified in accordance with either:
5. Become familiar with the variables affecting
UT. SNT-TC-1A (2006 Edition), or
ANSI/ASNT CP-189 (2006 Edition)
6. Understand the common interpretation and ACCP
code requirements.
Qualification in accordance with a prior edition
7. Identify the advantages and limitation of UT. of either SNT-TC-1A or CP-189 is considered
valid until recertification. Recertification must be
8.1 History in accordance with SNT-TC-1A (2006 Edition),
CP-189 (2006 Edition) or ACCP .
Practical use of ultrasound for NDE began in
the 1920's. Sokolov was a major pioneer, using A Level II Ultrasonic Examiner, who is a high
the through-transmission technique whereby sound school graduate, must complete one of following
is transmitted through the material, to a receiver. for Section V and only the CP-189 requirements
Reduction in the received signal amplitude for Section XI.
indicated the possibility of discontinuities in the
path of the sound beam.
USNRC Technical Training Center 8−1 Rev 0409

experience consists of the sum of the hours

The SNT-TC-1A requirements are: required for NDT Levels I and II.
3. The required minimum experience must be
documented by method and by hour with
Training Experience
supervisor or NDT Level III approval.
Level I 40 hours 210* hrs /400**hrs 4. While fulfilling total NDT experience
requirement, experience may be gained in
Level II 40 hours 630* hrs /1200 **hrs
more than one (1) method. Minimum
experience hours must be met for each
NOTES: method.
1. To certify to Level II directly with no time 8.2.2 ASME Section XI

at Level I, the training and experience for
Level I and II shall be combined. Ultrasonic examination is the most widely used
2. Training hours may be reduced with addi- method for the detection and evaluation of piping
tional engineering or science study beyond systems’ flaws during In-service Inspection (ISI)
high school. Refer to Chapter 2 and of nuclear power plants. However, due to the
SNT-TC-1A. complexity of the method and the factors affecting
3. There are no additional training require- the examination, such as pipe geometry and
ments for Level III. Refer to Chapter 2 of material type, the training and qualification of
this manual for Level III requirements. examiners have been problematic and under
constant evaluation since the early 1980's.
The CP-189 requirements are:
During the mid-seventies, boiling water
Training Experience reactors (BWRs) were found to contain extensive
intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) in
Level I 40 hours 200*/400** certain stainless steel piping. The NRC called for
Level II 40 hours 600*/1200** increased examinations and for plant owners to
improve the effectiveness of ultrasonic examina-
*Hours in UT/** Total Hours in NDE
tions. The Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI), NRC, and plant owners conducted a
NOTES:
number of studies on the effectiveness of ISI
ultrasonic examiners and their ability to detect
1. Experience is based on the actual hours
IGSCC. The results showed qualified examiners
worked in the specific method.
were missing critical discontinuities. The
2. A person may be qualified directly to NDT
industry instituted special training and certification
Level II with no time as certified Level I
examinations given through EPRI to better qualify
providing the required training and
examiners to find IGSCC. It is critical to remem-

ber that the requirements of CP-189 (1995 Edi-

tions) are minimum for Section XI. The specific The requirements of Appendix VII are:
and practical examinations must be directed at the
specific techniques an examiner will use in the Classroo Laboratory Experience
field. To have examiners spend 80 percent of m
their time doing erosion/corrosion (straight beam)
Level I 40 40 250 hours
examinations and then administer a simple angle
beam practical examination is not adequate for the Level II 40 40 800 hours
performance of ISI weld examinations.
Level III 40 - Options
-see below
Section XI requires that personnel performing
NDE be qualified and certified using a written
Option I - Graduate of a 4 year accredited
practice prepared in accordance with ANSI/ASNT
engineering or science college or university with a
CP-189 as amended by Section XI. IWA 2314
degree in engineering or science, plus 2 years
states that the possession of an ASNT Level III
experience in NDE in an assignment comparable to
Certificate, which is required by CP-189, is not
that of an NDE Level II in the ultrasonic exami-
required by Section XI. Section XI also states that
nation method. At least 1 year of this experience
certifications to SNT-TC-1A or earlier editions of
shall be in nuclear applications and shall include
CP-189 will remain valid until recertification at
the actual performance of examinations and
which time CP-189 (1995 Edition) must be met.
evaluation of examination results. Also, it re-
quires 4,200 hours of total experience with 2,100
To assure that an examiner performing ISI
hours in nuclear applications.
ultrasonic examinations is properly qualified,
ASME Section XI has added extensive require-
Option 2 - Completion with a passing grade of
ments above the minimums as outlined in CP-189.
at least the equivalent of 2 full years of engi-
Specifically, Appendix VII was added to Section
neering or science study at a university, college, or
XI. The following section outlines basic require-
technical school, plus 3 years experience in an
ments for ASME Section XI. (Refer to ASME
assignment comparable to that of a Level II in the
Section XI, Appendix VII for detailed informa-
ultrasonic examination method. At least 2 years
tion.)
of this experience shall be in nuclear applications
and shall include the actual performance of
The 2007 edition with 2008 addenda of Section
examinations and evaluation of examination
XI, requires certification to CP-189 - 1995 as
results. Also, it requires 6,300 hours of
modified in ASME Section XI Mandatory
experience with 4,200 hours in nuclear
Appendix VII article VII 4000.
applications.

Option 3 - High school graduate, or equiva- "hertz" units as follows:

lent, plus 4 years experience in an assignment
comparable to that of a Level II in the ultrasonic • Hertz (Hz) = cycles per second,
examination method. Also, it requires 8,400 • Kilohertz (KHz) = one thousand cycles per
hours of experience with 4,200 hours in nuclear second, and
applications. • Megahertz (MHz) = one million cycles per
second.
Appendix VII also addresses NDE Instructor
Qualification, Annual Training (minimum of 10 The audible range, which is the range of human
hours per year), Examinations (with much empha- hearing, is 20 Hz to 20 KHz. Ultrasound
sis on performance demonstration), and encompasses all frequencies higher than 20 KHz.
Qualification Records. UT utilizes only a portion of the ultrasonic range.
Most commercial UT is performed within the
Appendix VII Supplement 1 contains the range of 100 KHz to 25 MHz; a few applications
minimum content for initial training courses. are performed both above and below this
frequency band. Actual examination frequency
8.3 Principles depends on the frequency of the transducer
selected.
Sound is the transmission of mechanical
energy, in the form of vibrations, through a mate- 8.3.2 Velocity
rial. Although sound can be propagated in all
three states of matter; solids, liquids, and gases, Velocity is the speed at which sound travels.
factors such as type of sound wave, material It is expressed as distance traveled per unit time.
composition, and wavelength can make propaga- The most common units of time in UT are the
tion difficult or impossible in a given situation. second and microsecond (μsec). A microsecond
is one millionth of a second.
8.3.1 Frequency
The velocity of sound depends upon:
Frequency is the rate of vibration or the num-
ber of vibrations per second. Because sound • Density and elasticity of the material through
waves are in motion, frequency can also be viewed
which sound is traveling,
as the number of complete waves which pass a
• Wave mode (the manner in which material
given point during 1 second. One complete unit
particles vibrate as sound travels through the
of vibration is called a cycle. A cycle is
material), and
graphically represented by a sine curve and
• Material temperature, which has a minor effect
consists of two opposing motions, such as forward
on sound velocity for temperatures greater than
and backward, or up and down. The rate of
150°F.
vibration, or cycles per second, is expressed in

material offers to the passage of sound. It is the

Several formulas used in UT employ material product of the material's velocity and density. As
velocity as a variable. The most convenient unit the impedance ratio increases between the
for calculating these formulas is kilometers per interfaces of two materials the greater the sound
second (km/sec), although inches per second and reflection at this interface boundary and hence less
centimeters per microsecond are sometimes sound is transmitted into the second material. The
encountered. percentage of sound reflected from an interface,
where Z1 is the acoustic impedance of the medium
8.3.3 Wavelength through which the sound is initially traveling, and
Z2 is the acoustic impedance of the medium that
A vibration in motion is often called a sound the sound meets at the interface and is reflected, is
wave. A series of sound waves sent into an object calculated as follows:
is often called a pulse.
(8-2)
Wavelength is an important variable in UT and % Sound reflected = (Z1-Z2)2/(Z1 +Z2)2 x 100
is defined as the distance from one point on an
ultrasonic wave train to the next identical point Material discontinuities reflect sound because
(e.g., from trough to trough or peak to peak) they have an acoustic impedance different from the
(Figure 8-1). material being examined (Figure 8-2). In addition
to acoustic impedance, a number of other factors
It is also defined as the distance sound travels reduce the amplitude of the echo that the
within the duration of one complete cycle. transducer receives from a discontinuity. The
size, shape, and orientation of the reflector all
Wavelength (represented by λ, the Greek letter affect its echo response. Position of a reflector is
lambda) is calculated by dividing velocity (V) by particularly important due to the effects of sound
frequency (f), as follows: beam geometry and material properties. The
more the sound beam has spread at the point of
λ (mm) = V (km/sec)/f (MHz) . reflector interception, the less will be the reflected
(8-1) sound pressure per unit area. In addition, as
sound travels through test material, increased
8.3.4 Transmission/Reflection scattering and absorption of the sound by the
material's own structure is experienced. When
Sound reflects when it strikes a surface called examining thick sections, some type of
an acoustic interface. An echo is therefore distance/amplitude correction (DAC) must be
defined as a reflection from an acoustic interface. considered to compensate for amplitude losses
An acoustic interface is the boundary between two caused by the sound beam and test material.
materials with different acoustic impedances.
Acoustic impedance is defined as the opposition a

8.3.5 Attenuation 8.3.7 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation
Sound amplitude decreases (as it propagates in Sound waves travel through materials by
the material) are called sound attenuation. Atten- displacing tiny particles of the material, generally
uation is due to several factors: at the molecular level. Depending on the manner
in which vibrations are introduced, the particle
Absorption - Sound is absorbed by the braking displacements exhibit certain behaviors, called
effect on the particle motion. Lost energy is wave modes, as the vibrations travel.
converted to heat.
There are two basic wave modes, which differ
Scatter - Grain boundaries of the material from each other depending on how material
cause the sound to scatter. particles move relative to the direction of
transmitted energy. Longitudinal waves (also
The amount of sound attenuation within a known as compressional waves) are characterized
material is governed by the density, elasticity, by the particle motion being parallel to the
grain size, and grain structure of the material. direction of wave travel (Figure 8-4). Transverse
These factors are affected by alloying, heat waves (also known as shear waves), are defined by
treatment, working, etc. particle motion perpendicular to wave travel
(Figure 8-5). The difference in wave motion causes
8.3.6 Instrumentation and Control these wave modes to also differ from each other in
their relative velocity as well as in their ability to
Figure 8-3 shows a block diagram of a typical propagate in the various states of matter.
ultrasonic flaw detection instrument. The pulse
generator (trigger, clock) transmits an electrical Ultrasonic energy propagates through
pulse simultaneously to the transducer (search materials in several different ways depending upon
unit) and the time base of the cathode ray tube the manner in which the particles within the
(CRT). The transducer converts the electrical pulse carrying medium move relative to the direction of
into sound which is transmitted into the material. wave propagation.
The time base (sweep generator) generates the X
sweep across the CRT. When the sound pulse is There are four forms of wave propagation
reflected back to the transducer, it is converted through materials:
back into an electrical pulse and is amplified
before being fed to the Y axis of the CRT. This • Compression (or longitudinal),
pulse deflects the time base vertically and produces • Shear (or transverse),
a peak. • Surface (or Rayleigh), and
• Plate (or Lamb).

Compression - The term “compression” is

used to describe the wave propagation where the Surface - Under certain conditions, surface or
particle motion is parallel to the direction of Rayleigh waves only penetrate the surface of
propagation. The particles compress together, then material to a depth of one wavelength (Figure 8-6).
rarify (Figure 8-4). This motion passes the sound Surface waves travel at 88 to 95 percent the
energy along the material in the form of a wave. In velocity of shear waves and travel along the
this case there is a change in volume of the surface in an elliptical wave motion.
material, as particle motion takes place, within the
elastic limit. Plate - For very thin plates, various “plate” or
Lamb waves are created (Figure 8-7). In this case
Compression or longitudinal waves are the plate acts as a wave guide, through which
characterized by alternating zones of compression symmetrical and asymmetrical modes can
(high particle density) and rarefaction (low particle simultaneously pass. The results obtained by the
density) (Figure 8-4). Longitudinal waves use of plate waves are extremely complex, due to
develop particle motion in solids, liquids, and the dispersive velocities of the waves that may
gases, and their acoustic velocity is higher in any exist within the material being tested. Their
given material than other types of waves as is their application in flaw detection is limited to
wavelength for a given frequency. examination of plate, which will cause a change in
the complex screen display, frequency and phase,
The velocity of compressional waves depends and amplitude of signals.
on the density and elasticity of the material.
8.3.7.1 Acoustic Impedance
Shear - The term “shear” is used to indicate
that the particle motion is at right angles to the When sound is incident at an angle normal to
direction of propagation. In this case distortion is an interface of two media, some of the sound is
caused by particle movement, with no change in reflected and some of it is transmitted. The
volume. Figure 8-5 illustrates the shear wave amount of sound reflected and transmitted will
particle motion. Shear waves have a velocity depend upon the characteristic acoustic impedance
approximately one-half that of compression waves of the two media.
and a shorter wavelength than compression waves.
Characteristic acoustic impedance (Z) of a
Shear or transverse waves are characterized by material is the product of the velocity of sound
alternating zones of peaks (upward particle through a material (V), and the density (ρ) of the
displacement) and troughs (downward particle material as follows:
displacement) (Figure 8-5). Transverse waves
require rigidity and can travel in solids only, and Z=Vxρ (8-3)
their acoustic velocity is approximately half the
velocity of longitudinal waves.

8.3.7.2 Reflection at Interfaces 8.3.7.3 Fresnel Zone (Near Field)
As mentioned in Section 8.3.4, the amount of The sound beam radiated close to the trans-
sound reflected at an interface may be calculated ducer consists of a tapering near field or Fresnel
by the formula: zone beginning at the crystal surface, followed by a
spreading far field or Fraunhofer zone.
(8-4) Sound originates on the crystal surface as a

% Sound reflected = (Z 1- Z2)2/(Z1 + Z2)2 x 100 number of individual point sources radiating
spherical waves. As the waves progress outward,
Where; they interfere with each other (Figure 8-8).
Z1 and Z2 are the characteristic impedances of Constructive interference occurs where waves
the two media. Table 8-1 lists the acoustic arriving at a point in phase reinforce each other.
impedance for various materials. Destructive interference occurs where waves
arriving at a point out of phase cancel each other.
Applying the formula to a water/steel interface The varying phase relationships cause varying
it can be seen that 88 percent of the sound is wave amplitudes. Because of these amplitude
reflected while 12 percent is transmitted (Figure variations, it is difficult to approximate reflector
8-2). At a metal/air interface there is virtually 100 size in the near field. Eventually, the waves
percent reflection. This formula applies only when combine into a single spherical wave front. This
the two media are in intimate contact. In practice occurs at the so-called Yo point, which is the end of
even two apparently smooth metal surfaces, in the near field and the beginning of the far field
close contact, will have an air gap caused by (Figure 8-9).
minute surface irregularities and almost total
reflection occurs. The length of the near field can be approxi-
mated by the following formula where N is near
The basis of ultrasonic flaw detection is that field length, D is transducer crystal diameter, f is
there is a difference in characteristic impedance test frequency, and V is velocity:
between the base material and any discontinuity, (8-5)
whether it be a fatigue crack, a stress corrosion Near Field = D2 (mm) x f (MHz)/(4V (km/sec))
crack, or a metallic inclusion. If there is no change
in characteristic impedance, there is no reflection As near field length varies, the position of a
of the sound wave. reflector relative to the Yo point likewise varies.
Sensitivity is optimized when the reflector is
positioned near the beginning of the far field.

The near field contains areas of maximum and ducer diameter, frequency, and material velocity.
minimum effects. This can be demonstrated if a
series of small reflectors of the same area, but at As the formulas indicate an increase in
varying depths, are scanned and a graph of signal diameter and/or frequency increases near field
amplitude against distance is plotted. The end of length and reduces beam spread. Transducer
the near field is the point where the amplitude is diameter and test frequency, therefore, have a
greatest. major effect on examination performance.
8.3.7.4 Fraunhofer Zone (Far Field) As beam spread is decreased, there is more
sound pressure per unit area, thereby increasing
Beyond the near field is the Fraunhofer zone echo amplitude. Beam spread is decreased by
(far field) (Figure 8-9). Here the beam diverges increasing transducer diameter and/or increasing
and is referred to as beam spread. Through the far frequency.
field the sound behaves similar to a beam of light,
in that the sound pressure disperses according to 8.3.7.5 Dead Zone
the Inverse Square Law (i.e., the intensity is
inversely proportional to the square of the dis- The initial pulse is a technical necessity. It
tance) and travels in straight lines. limits the detectability of near-surface discontinu-
ities. Reflectors in the dead zone, the non-resolv-
The spreading far field is characterized by a able area immediately beneath the surface, cannot
predictable decrease in sound pressure per unit be detected (Figure 8-10). The dead zone is a
area as distance from the transducer increases. function of the width of the initial pulse which is
Because the near field contains numerous varia- influenced by the probe type, test instrument
tions in sound pressure while the far field produces discontinuities and quality of the interface.
predictable sound pressure, it is preferable to make
sound amplitude measurements in the far field for The dead zone can be verified with an Interna-
the purpose of discontinuity severity evaluation. tional Institute of Welding (IIW) calibration block.
The angle of beam spread in the far field can be With the time base calibrated to 50 mm, and the
approximated by the following formula: transducer on position A (Figure 8-11), the extent
of the dead zone can be inferred to be either less
(8-6) than or greater than 5 mm. With the probe at
BSArc sin=1.22xV(km/sec)/D(mm) x f(MHz)) position B, the dead zone can be said to be either
BS Arc sin is the angle of beam spread less than or greater than 10 mm. This is done by
V is the velocity of the material ensuring that the peak from the perspex insert
D is the diameter of the transducer appears beyond the trailing edge of the initial pulse
F is the frequency of the transducer start. Excessive dead zones are generally
Note that both the near field and beam spread attributable to a probe with excessive ringing in the
formulas are based on the same variables: trans- crystal.

8.3.8 Refraction The sound beam reflected from the interface is

called the reflected beam (Figure 8-14). The
In order for the maximum amplitude from a angle of reflection (or reflected angle) is the angle
reflector to be displayed, the axis of the sound between the axis of the reflected beam and a line
beam must be perpendicular to the reflector. drawn perpendicular to the interface at the point of
Straight beam transducers are not effective for sonic impact. The angle of reflection is equal to
many reflectors that are angular to the examination the angle of incidence.
surface. When the largest face of the discon-
tinuity is expected to be at an angular orientation to When a sound beam is incident to an interface
the surface, angle beam transducers are best suited at an angle other than 90°, a phenomenon called
to detect such discontinuities (Figure 8-12). mode conversion occurs. That is, in addition to
the simple reflection described in the previous
There are different ways of introducing angle paragraph, a portion of the incident beam's energy
beams into the material, depending on the coupling converts at the interface to a beam of a different
technique used. In order for angle beams to be wave mode and refracts at an angle other than the
produced, the transducer's beam must be at an angle of incidence. The angle at which the mode
angle to the surface. For contact testing, converted beam refracts depends on the material
transducers are affixed to angle wedges (Figure and is related by Snell's Law.
8-13); immersion testing permits continuously
variable angulations of the transducer by means of At certain incident angles, there may be two
an adjustable manipulator assembly. refracted sound beams (Figure 8-14); one is a
refracted compressional wave, and another is a
Angle beams are produced using the principle refracted shear wave (mode conversion).
of refraction. Refraction is the changing in the
angular direction of a sound beam when it passes 8.3.8.1 Snell’s Law
through an interface between two materials of
different acoustic velocity. Relationship among incident, reflected, and
refracted angles depend upon the velocity
Consider a sound beam aimed perpendicular to relationships of the various angles and are deter-
an interface. The sound beam approaching the mined by Snell’s Law:
interface is called the incident beam and is there-
fore identified as being incident to the interface. Sin α (Incident) = V1 (Material 1) (8-7)
The angle of incidence (or incident angle) is the Sin β (Refracted) V2 (Material 2)
angle between the axis of the incident beam and a
line drawn perpendicular to the interface. Where;

α = Incident angle 8.3.9 Ultrasonic Examination Variables

β = Refracted angle
V1 = Velocity in material 1 UT is versatile in application. For pulse echo
V2 = Velocity in material 2 examinations, indications are obtained when
sound pulses transmitted into the test object
8.3.8.2 First and Second Critical Angles reflect from surfaces such as discontinuities or
the back surface of the material. Assuming that
The angle of refraction depends upon both proper distance/amplitude correction has been
the incident angle and the ratio of velocities for employed, higher amplitude signals indicate
the materials through which the sound is reflections from larger reflectors. Pulse-echo is
traveling. As the incident angle increases, the clearly the preferred technique because access to
refracted angles also increase (Figure 8-15). The only one side of the object is required and
first critical angle is the incident angle that specific information is available from individual
causes the compression wave to be refracted at reflectors.
90°. The second critical angle is the incident
angle that causes the shear wave to be refracted 8.3.9.1 Equipment
90°. For example, a plastic wedge will produce
angle beams in carbon steel with the first critical UT instruments are basically devices for
angle at 27.2° and the second critical angle at comparing conditions in the material to a refer-
55.8°. ence standard. Consequently, an ultrasonic
instrument must be calibrated prior to use.
If the incident angle is between 0° and the Calibration is the process of adjusting the
first critical angle, there will be two wave modes instrument to a reference standard.
in the material, compressional and shear. If the
incident angle is between the first and second Most UT instruments have A-Scan (time
critical angles, there will be only one wave mode versus amplitude) displays. Pulse echo equip-
in the material, a shear wave. ment includes hand-held thickness gages with
digital display to multi-channel immersion
If the incident angle is above the second system installations with both CRT display and
critical angle, there will not be any refracted recording output. Standard instruments are
beams in the material. Surface waves, however, suitable for a wide range of detection and
attain maximum amplitude in the material at an thickness measurement applications. These
incident angle in the range of the second critical instruments display time and amplitude
angle. information on a CRT display. Optional
accessory circuits include electronic distance
amplitude correction, monitor gates,
digital distance/thickness readouts, and
mathematical calculation circuitry for use in

angle beam tests.

The formula for converting decibels to
Ultrasonic thickness gages are similar in amplitude ratios is:
concept to flaw detectors except that the CRT is
replaced by a digital display for thickness Amplitude Ratio = antilog (dB)/(20)
readout only. Data recorders are often available (8-9)
as accessories. However, the inability to verify As indicated by the formulas, decibel values
echoes on a CRT is sometimes considered a are logarithmic and are added to perform multi-
limitation of digital only instruments. Some plication and subtracted to perform division.
gages now have an A-scan display to verify That is, to add decibels multiply ratios; to
digital data with signals. subtract decibels divide ratios.
Ultrasonic flaw detectors are considerably 8.3.9.2 Transducers

more versatile than thickness gages. To
estimate discontinuity size, the instrument is In UT, the ear of the system is the transducer.
adjusted so that a specific gain setting results in a After transmitting sound, the transducer hears
signal amplitude produced by a known size echoes that result from the condition of the
reflector in a reference standard. To determine material and relays the information back to the
the difference in echo amplitude between a instrument where it is visually displayed on the
discontinuity signal and the reference signal, the CRT. The capabilities of a transducer, and for the
examiner adjusts the peak of the discontinuity entire UT system, are for the most part described
signal, using a calibrated gain control, to produce by two terms: sensitivity and resolution.
the same amplitude as the reference signal. The
gain difference between the two signals is then Sensitivity - The sensitivity of a transducer is
noted after corrections for factors such as its ability to detect reflections from small
differences in distance and surface condition are discontinuities. Transducer sensitivity is
made. measured by the amplitude of its response from a
reflection in a standard reference block. Precise
Ultrasonic instruments typically have gain transducer sensitivity is unique to a specific
controls calibrated in “decibels”, a logarithmic transducer. Even transducers of the same size,
unit. Because sound amplitudes can vary over a frequency, and material by the same
wide range, decibels are used to compress this manufacturer do not always produce identical
range for convenient measurement of differences indications. Transducer sensitivity is rated by its
in amplitude. The formula for converting an ability to detect a given size reflector, at a
amplitude ratio to decibels is: specific depth, in a standard reference block.
dB=20log10(A1/A2) Resolution - The resolution of a transducer

(8-8) refers to its ability to display two signals from

two reflectors close together in the sound path. 8.3.9.4 Scanning Techniques
For example, a near-surface reflector and the
initial pulse - the ability to resolve the Scanning technique is a motor skill of the
near-surface reflector is a measure of resolution. examiner requiring practice and experience.
If a small discontinuity just beneath the surface is Probe manipulation is related to the signals being
masked by the initial pulse, it is not resolved. analyzed and correlated with the unseen beam
emanating from the transducer. An experienced
8.3.9.3 Couplant examiner almost has a sixth sense with the
transducer being his “eyes” and the CRT screen
A liquid couplant is necessary to exclude the being his “vision”. A minimum of 10% overlap
air and serve as a medium for transmitting ultra- between scan passes is required.
sonic vibrations from the transducer to the object
being examined. There are two ways to accom- 8.3.9.5 Part Structure
plish this: 1) couplant is applied only to the test
surface between the contact transducer (Figure Part structural changes can obscure areas to
8-16) and test material, and, 2) immersion be examined preventing access to a particular
testing, where both the transducer and part or all examination area and in some cases preventing
of the test object are immersed in water (Figure the use of UT completely. Laminations may also
8-17). prevent the transmission of sound into regions of
a weld. Weld exams typically require a
The primary advantage of contact testing is compression wave exam of the base material that
portability. Contact testing also allows the trans- the sound will pass through to locate such
ducer to be moved by hand over complex part laminar flaws.
geometries and requires a lower initial
investment in equipment. A variety of 8.3.9.6 Surface Condition
couplants are available for contact testing.
Generally, the rougher the test surface, the more The rougher the surface the more viscous the
viscous the couplant should be. couplant required and the greater the scatter of
sound at the interface surface. Therefore, surface
Immersion testing can be automated condition has a considerable bearing on sensitiv-
facilitating high speed examination and ity, signal-to-noise ratios, and sound
recording of results. Moreover, immersion tests transmission.
provide uniform coupling, are virtually immune
to transducer wear, and allow use of the higher 8.3.9.7 Part Geometry and Size
frequency transducers. In general, immersion
testing offers excellent control over test variables Part geometry can create internal mode con-
and provides results of the highest quality. version, spurious echoes, and complex CRT
displays possibly masking signals from disconti-

nuities but inevitably making interpretation plete examination of thin sections, it is necessary
much more difficult. The size of the part also to eliminate the effect of the dead zone. A normal
effects attenuation due to increased beam range, compressional probe is mounted on a perspex
divergence, scatter, and absorption. The use of block so that the dead zone and part of the near
larger, lower frequency transducers can provide field are within the perspex (Figure 8-19). A
better sound transmission but at a sacrifice of signal and multiple echoes from the perspex
sensitivity and resolution. interface, which, by use of the delay and range
controls, may be expanded on the time base so
8.3.9.8 Discontinuity Type, Shape, and Orien- that the echoes from the material being examined
tation appear between the first and second echoes from
the delay line (Figure 8-20). These probes may
The type of discontinuity, its shape, and be used for thickness measurement. The delay
orientation affect the amplitude of the reflected line is normally made from plastic and ordered in
signal. Sizing is therefore a very inexact science. microseconds (μS) delay dependent upon the
A discontinuity the size of the beam could result thickness of materials to be examined.
in almost no response if it were of a certain
character, type, or orientation. Dual Element (Pitch-Catch) - These probes
may be either compressional or shear wave. One
8.4 Equipment crystal is used as the transmitter and the other as
the receiver. With compressional probes the
8.4.1 Ultrasonic Transducers crystals are mounted on perspex so that the dead
zone and some of the near field do not exist in the
Ultrasonic transducers behave like material being examined, similar to the delay line
loudspeakers in that they convert electrical probe (Figure 8-21). This increases the
energy to mechanical energy and they behave detect-ability of near-surface discontinuities.
like microphones in that they convert mechanical Dual element probes may suffer from cross-noise
energy back into electrical energy. caused by sound interference between the two
crystals since couplant can seep into the sound
8.4.1.1 Types barrier cork material, and may result in an indica-
tion similar to a discontinuity.
Compression - A normal incident
compression probe is one which transmits a 8.4.1.2 Care of Transducers
pulse of compressional sound into the specimen
at right angles (normal) to its surface. Figure Care of transducers is necessary to reduce
8-18 shows a typical example of this type of possibilities of impact damage, excessive wear,
probe. stray electrical pulses, excessive heat, and
chemical contamination. Coaxial cables are
Delay Line - In order to facilitate the com- particularly vulnerable to damage and should not

be unduly bent, knotted, or twisted. Petroleum display.

based couplants should not be used because they
can deteriorate rubber components. 8.4.2.1 Time base
8.4.2 Base Pulse-Echo Instrumentation The function of the time base, also called
"sweep generator" in analog-display instruments,
The UT system includes: the instrument, is to establish a display of sound travel time on
transducers, calibration standards, and the object the horizontal scale of the display. The
being examined. These elements function horizontal scale can then be used for distance
together to form a chain of events during a readout. The range (coarse range, test range)
typical UT that can be summarized as follows: control adjusts the scale for the range of distance
to be displayed.
• The instrument's time base initiates readout
of time/distance information on the For digital flaw detection instruments, there
horizontal scale of the display. is no sweep generator in the analog sense.
• The instrument’s pulser electrically activates Instead, the horizontal axis of the display is
the transducer, causing it to send sound comprised of a series of divisions (usually about
pulses into the test object. The activation 200 dots are used in the horizontal direction of
signal, called the initial pulse, is displayed as the display). Each division represents an
a vertical signal on the CRT. increment of time. The amount of time
• As sound travels through the test object, it represented by each division is controlled by a
reflects from boundaries as well as from complex combination of software and hardware.
discontinuities within the material. A
reflection from the surface opposite the entry In order to establish a calibrated range for a
surface is called a back reflection. particular test, the sound velocity of the material
• These reflections reach the transducer, which must be known or measured and entered into the
converts them into electrical signals that are instrument. Then when the appropriate zero
displayed on the CRT. offset has been entered, range settings are in
absolute units of metal path distance. As the
Understanding the operation of UT range is increased, the time interval represented
equipment may be simplified by referring to a by each of the horizontal dots becomes larger.
sample block diagram of an analog instrument For very large ranges, one division may represent
(Figure 8-3). A basic instrument contains an entire echo waveform. For smaller ranges,
several circuits: power supply, clock (also called the same echo waveform is represented by
synchronizer or timer), time base (called sweep several divisions and the shape of the echo
generator), pulser (also called transmitter), waveform then becomes apparent. The important
receiver (also called receiver-amplifier), and the thing to remember is that in a digital instrument
where the waveform has been converted from an

analog signal to a digital waveform, the number pulser is connected via output connectors on the
of points across the horizontal remains fixed and instrument front panel to the transducer cable.
the time interval represented by each division The pulser is also connected, internally, through
changes as the range is adjusted. the receiver circuit, to the display, thus making
available (depending upon the delay setting) a
8.4.2.2 Clock displayed initial pulse signal. This signal is, of
course, present whether or not a transducer is
The clock circuit initiates a chain of events connected to the instrument.
that results in one complete cycle of a UT
examination. The clock sends a trigger signal, at When a transducer is connected, it is in the
a regular interval, to both the time base and to the signal path between the pulser and the receiver
pulser. As the name “clock”' implies, this and its output is displayed.
trigger signal is repeated at a given frequency,
called the pulse repetition rate. On some 8.4.2.5 Basic Controls
instruments pulse repetition rate is adjustable by
the examiner; other instruments do it The amplifier multiplies the voltage of
automatically. signals passing through it in order to provide
adequate signal amplitude. The amount of
8.4.2.3 Pulse Repetition Rate voltage multiplication, or amplification, is
controlled by gain controls. Calibrated gain
The pulse repetition rate establishes the controls are adjustable in discrete units of
number of times per second that a complete test decibels (dB), the unit of measure for gain
cycle will occur. In instruments with adjustable multiplication. Calibrated gain controls are
pulse repetition rate, adjustment is made by a intended for making decibel amplitude com-
pulse repetition rate control, sometimes labeled parisons between reference standard amplitudes
REP RATE. Greater sound travel time requires and the amplitudes of signals returning from the
a longer test cycle and a lower pulse repetition test material.
rate to provide the longer test cycle or interval.
The REJECT control is intended for
8.4.2.4 Pulser-Receiver preventing the display of undesired low
amplitude signals, called grass or hash, caused
The pulser emits the electrical signal that by metal noise such as echoes from material
activates the transducer. This signal, known as grain boundaries or inherent fine porosity
the initial pulse, is quite brief, usually lasting (Figure 8-22). There are two types of REJECT
only several nanoseconds (billionths of a controls installed on UT instruments: nonlinear
second). The output of the initial pulse is in the REJECT and the more recently linear REJECT
order of hundreds of volts; the brief duration controls. Linear REJECT controls offer the
provides a fast rise time to the full voltage. The advantage in that they do not affect vertical

linearity of the display. with a decreasing signal amplitude. Gates are

essential for some types of recording systems
Controls marked DELAY and RANGE are where they also serve to provide information to
used to adjust the instruments time base for the recording devices or storage systems.
proper display of distances. The delay control
shifts the vertical signals to the left and right 8.5 Procedure
without altering the spacing between them. The
RANGE control expands or contracts the spacing UT is performed in accordance with an
between vertical signals, corresponding to the approved procedure. Each procedure should
Range of the sound travel to be displayed. include at least the following information and
any information listed in the Essential and
The sound amplitudes of individual reflectors Nonessential variables in section V:
returning to the transducer determine the relative
heights of the corresponding vertical signals on • Weld types and configurations to be exam-
the CRT. The GAIN control adjusts vertical ined, including thickness dimensions,
display sensitivity and therefore determines the materials, or product form (casting, forging,
actual amplitude at which signals are displayed. plate, etc.);
• The surface or surfaces from which the
If the signal height of different size flat examination should be performed;
bottomed holes located at the same distance from • Surface condition;
the test surface are compared, the signal heights • Couplant;
will be proportional to the reflecting areas of the • Technique (straight beam, angle beam,
holes. However, if a flat bottomed hole of an contact and/or immersion);
identical reflecting area is located at a different
• Angles and mode(s) of wave propagation in
depth from the test surface, it will produce a
the material;
lower amplitude signal.
• Search unit type, frequency, and transducer
size(s);
8.4.2.6 Gates
• Special search units, wedges, shoes, or sad-
dles, if used, and type and length of search
Most UT equipment is equipped with “gates”
unit cable;
that can be superimposed on the time base so that
• Ultrasonic instrument type(s);
a rapid response from a particular reflector can
• Description of calibration blocks;
be obtained when they reach a certain
predetermined amplitude. This can be adapted as • Directions and extent of scanning;
a “go/no-go” monitoring device for some • Data to be recorded and method of recording
examinations. Gates can be set for an alarm to be (manual or automatic);
triggered at a pre-determined amplitude • Automatic alarm and recording equipment,
(positive) with an increasing signal or (negative) or both, if used;

• Rotating, revolving, or scanning and grain structural.

mechanisms, if used;
• Personnel qualification requirements; and Forgings - Grain-orientated discontinuities,
• Review or qualification of the procedure as bursts, and flake are readily detected.
required by the referencing Code section.
8.5.1.2 Shear Waves
8.5.1 Application of the Various Wave
Modes Pipe and Tubing - Radial longitudinal or
circumferential discontinuities caused by stress
To obtain maximum reflection amplitude in a corrosion and fatigue can be detected.
pulse echo examination, the sound beam must be
perpendicular to the discontinuity detected. Welds - The more serious planar type
When this discontinuity is parallel to the sound discontinuities including lack of fusion,
entry surface, a compressional wave transducer incomplete penetration, and cracks are best
provides the best response. When the detected with shear wave techniques.
discontinuity is obliquely oriented to the surface,
the sound beam must enter the material at an 8.5.1.3 Surface Waves
angle that orients the beam perpendicular to the
discontinuity. Surface waves can propagate around corners
and radii of holes to successfully detect
8.5.1.1 Compressional Wave Applications otherwise inaccessible discontinuities at the
surface.
Plate - Straight beam approach is best for
detection of laminations. 8.5.1.4 Lamb Waves
Thickness - A wide range of materials and Lamb waves are best for detecting lamination
thickness, as well as corrosion/erosion can be and other discontinuities in a thin sheet.
measured very accurately.
8.5.2 Immersion Testing
Bar - Central axial inclusions, piping and
other discontinuities can be detected with a 8.5.2.1 Immersion Tanks and System
simple compressional wave technique. Components
Castings - Porosity, gas holes, inclusions, Immersion systems consist of a bridge and
shrinkage, and other typical casting manipulator, mounted on a water tank, a pulse
discontinuities can be detected. Major limiting echo instrument and a recorder as shown in
variables include surface finish, configuration, Figure 8-23. Drive units move the bridge along
the tank side rails, while transversing units move

the manipulator from side to side along the probe is sometimes called a wand. Its vertical
bridge. Most of these units are automated, height can be adjusted to vary water path
although some early units are manually operated. distance and the adjuster which can manipulate
probe angle of incidence at the tip of the wand.
The ultrasonic tank may be of any size or
shape required to accommodate the test 8.5.2.2 Immersion Transducers
specimen. Coverage of the specimen by a foot
or more of water is usually sufficient. Flat - The flat transducer operates under the
Adjustable brackets and lazy-susan turntables are same considerations as regular compressional
provided on the tank bottom for support of the transducers, except it does not have a protective
test specimen. The water in the tank is clean, face, and it is waterproof. Near fields for these
de-aerated water containing a wetting agent. probes are, of course, often four times greater
The water temperature is usually maintained at due to the slow water velocity compared to steel.
ambient temperature.
Focused - An acoustical lens is fitted to the
Manipulators - The manipulator is primarily front of the transducer. Focused probes can be
intended to provide a means of scanning the test manufactured to produce any focal length. Often
specimen with an immersed transducer (Figure focused single axis, focused transducers allow
8-24). The manipulator is mounted on a high resolution examination of immersed shafts
traversing mechanism, which allows movement (converging parallel focus) or tubing from the
of the manipulator from side to side. The inside (diverging parallel focus).
traversing mechanism is an integral component
of the bridge assembly. A search tube is usually Frontal units shaped to direct the sound
held rigid at right angles to the surface of the test energy perpendicular to the surface at all points
specimen. Locking knobs are provided on the on curved surfaces and radii are known as
manipulator to allow positioning of the search contour-correction lenses. These cylindrical
tube in two planes for angle-beam testing. lenses sharpen the front-surface indication by
evening out the sound-travel distance between
Bridges - When the manipulator is the transducer and the test surface. A
automated, electric motors are added to power comparison of flat and contoured transducers is
the bridge carriage, the traversing mechanism, shown in Figure 8-25.
and the up and down movement of the search
tube. The pulse-echo unit and the recording unit Other acoustic lenses focus the sound beam
are also mounted on the bridge, with all power from the transducer, much as light beams are
cords secured overhead to allow movement of focused. Focused transducers concentrate the
the bridge along the full length of the tank. sound energy into a long, narrow, blunt-pointed
beam of increased intensity, which is capable of
Wands - The support tube for the immersion detecting very small discontinuities in a

relatively small area. Focusing the sound beam materials. However, the speed of sound is
moves its point of maximum intensity toward the constant in a uniform medium. This means that
transducer, but shortens its usable range. The sound will complete a round trip through a
test specimen has the effect of a second lens; in specific distance in a specific amount of time. It
this case, the beam is defocused, as shown in is therefore possible to measure distance by
Figure 8-26. Defocusing increases intensity measuring sound travel time.
which produces increased sensitivity; also,
moving the point of maximum intensity closer to 8.5.3.2 B-Scan
the transducer (which is also closer to the test
surface) improves the near-surface resolution. B-Scan is a pictorial presentation (Figure
The disturbing effects of rough surface and metal 8-27). The display screen shows a side view of
noise are also reduced by concentrating the the test object, displaying the profile of interfaces
sound energy into a smaller beam. This is true reflecting the sound beam. B-Scan can show
simply because a smaller area is being looked at. the distance of a discontinuity from the
In a smaller area, the true discontinuity transducer, as well as discontinuity length along
indications are relatively large compared to the the direction of transducer travel.
combined noise of other nonrelevant indications.
The useful thickness range of focused 8.5.3.3 C-Scan
transducers is approximately 0.010 to 2 inches.
C-scan equipment is intended to provide a
8.5.3 Data Display permanent record of the examination when
high-speed automatic scanning is used. C-scan
UT instruments present examination data in equipment displays the discontinuities in a plan
various ways. Display media include CRTs, view, but provides no depth or orientation
paper chart recorders, digital readouts, and information.
audible/visual alarms. Three basic types of The most commonly used recorders use a
displays are designated: A-Scan, B-Scan, and chemically treated paper that is passed between a
C-Scan. printing bar and a helix equipped drum as shown
in Figure 8-28. The printing bar has a narrow
8.5.3.1 A-Scan edge and is connected electrically to one of the
output terminals of the amplifier in the ultrasonic
A-Scan shows distance/time information as test unit. The other terminal of the amplifier is
the points where signals deflect vertically from connected to the helix mounted on the drum. As
the horizontal baseline. Size/amplitude the drum turns, the contact point between the bar
information is displayed as the height of the and the helix moves back and forth across the
vertical deflections. paper. Variations in electric current at the
contact point determine the amount of print-out
Sound travels at different speeds in different produced on the paper. One revolution of the

drum produces one line of scan. The forward beam into the corner formed by the hole and the
movement of the paper is synchronized with the side of the block may produce a higher amplitude
forward movement of the transducer along the at a longer beam path; this beam path should not
test surface. The amplifier is also connected to be used for calibration). For contact
the oscilloscope so that, whenever a signal of examination, the temperature of the examination
predetermined amplitude is displayed, a change and basic calibration blocks should be within 25o
of current occurs in the printing bar contact. In F. For immersion examination, the couplant
this manner, a record of the discontinuities is temperature for calibration should be within 25o
produced as the transducer scans the test surface. F of the couplant temperature used in actual
scanning or appropriate compensations for angle
The C-scan recording indicates the projected and sensitivity change should be made.
length and width of the discontinuity and the
outline of the test specimen as if viewed from 8.5.4.1 Linearity
directly above the specimen. The C-scan record-
ing does not indicate the depth of the Screen Height Linearity - The ultrasonic
discontinuity in the test specimen. Some instrument should provide linear vertical
recorders produce a shaded scan line to indicate presentation within ± 5 percent of the full screen
the outline of the discontinuity. On others, the height for at least 80 percent of the calibrated
discontinuity outline may be indicated by the screen height (base line to maximum calibrated
absence of the scan lines (Figure 8-29), where screen point(s)). The procedure for evaluating
the white (no line) areas represent the screen height linearity is normally provided and
discontinuities. should be performed at the beginning of each
period of extended use (or every 3 months,
8.5.4 Calibration Techniques whichever is less) for analog units and every 12
months for digital units.
Calibration should include the complete
ultrasonic examination system. The original Amplitude Control Linearity - The ultra-
calibration should be performed on the basic sonic instrument should utilize an amplitude
calibration block (Figure 8-30). Checks should control, accurate over its useful range to ± 20
be made to verify the sweep range/distance cali- percent of the nominal amplitude ratio, to allow
bration (Figure 8-31). measurement of indications beyond the linear
range of the vertical display on the screen. The
In all calibrations, it is important that maxi- procedure for evaluating amplitude control
mum indications be obtained with the sound linearity is normally provided. The calibration
beam oriented perpendicular to the axis of the time limits are the same as for Screen Height
side-drilled holes and notches. The center line Linearity.
of the search unit should be at least 1½ inches
from the nearest side of the block (rotation of the

8.5.4.2 Distance Amplitude In addition to amplitude losses resulting from

beam spread, there are also amplitude losses
By comparing reflectors in the far field with caused by the structure of the test material. This
reference reflectors, and by applying distance form of attenuation results from scattering of
laws and correcting for material loss attenuation, sound by coarse grain structure or fine porosity
the reflecting area of reflectors in the far field can or from conversion of sound into heat by
be estimated. The narrowness of the sound beam absorption. Material loss attenuation tends to
at the beginning of the far field applies more occur at a linear rate. That is, material losses
sound pressure per unit area to reflectors, thus occur at a rate of a certain number of decibels per
optimizing sensitivity. Using laws of distance, linear unit of measure; for example, a rate of 1
loss of echo amplitude can be calculated as same dB per inch.
size reflectors are moved outward along the
sound beam axis in the far field (Figure 8-32). Thus, if there are two small disk-shaped
There are two rules of distance; one rule for reflectors of the same size, one at 3 inches of
infinite reflectors and one for small reflectors. depth, the other at 6 inches of depth, and the rate
of material loss is 1 dB per inch, the echo from 6
An infinite reflector intercepts the entire inches of depth will be 15 dB weaker than the
sound beam. The echo amplitude of an infinite echo from 3 inches of depth. Of the 15 dB of
reflector is inversely proportional to distance. sound loss, 12 dB are lost because of beam
As the distance to an infinite reflector is doubled, spread and 3 dB are lost because of material
echo amplitude decreases six decibels. losses.
A small reflector intercepts only a portion of In order to estimate reflector severity, some
the sound beam. The echo amplitude of a small correction must be made for echo amplitude
reflector is inversely proportional to the square variations caused by distance factors. One
of distance. As the distance to the small method is to construct a DAC curve on the
reflector is doubled, echo amplitude decreases 12 display screen (Figure 8-34). This is done by
dB. marking on the display the echo peaks from a
given size reflector at a series of depths. The
When the amplitude of a small disk-shaped reflector used for this procedure is normally one
reflector at 3 inches of depth is compared to an that represents the “critical discontinuity size”,
echo from the same size reflector at 6 inches of the maximum acceptable reflector amplitude. A
depth (Figure 8-33), the echo returning from 6 more convenient solution is to use electronic
inches of depth will be 12 dB lower. That is, the distance amplitude compensation, whereby the
echo from 6 inches of depth will have 25 percent test instrument can be adjusted to correct echo
of the echo height of the echo from 3 inches of amplitudes for distance variations.
depth.

8.5.4.3 Resolution calibration block.
Resolution can be established using either the 8.5.5 Unacceptable Techniques

IIW block (Figure 8-35) or other blocks
manufactured specifically for that purpose. The 8.5.5.1 Scanning Problems
resolution capability of a particular
probe/instrument combination can also be An unacceptable scanning problem prevents
objectively determined with a step wedge. The discontinuities from being located with high
resolution can be determined by locating the reliability. Generally, the use of a calibration
thinnest step that can be resolved. specimen with an artificial reflector matching the
object under examination, proves the scanning
8.5.4.4 Beam Profile efficiency. An unacceptable example of this
would be a curved surface of a tube being
The beam width can be plotted by scanning examined with a flat probe. Scanning would
across a suitable small reflector (transverse hole) be difficult since signal transmission is
at the depth required. The signal is maximized intermittent and probe handling very critical.
from the reflector and set to approximately
mid-screen height (50 percent full screen height 8.5.5.2 Interpretation Shortcomings
(FSH)) and the signal amplitude increased by 20
dB then scanned away from the reflector until the Interpretation shortcomings are frequent.
signal returns to pre-set amplitude. The surface Most originate from mode conversion signals
is marked at the probe index (probe center for interfering with actual discontinuity signals, or
compressional probes), then scanned in the from incorrectly calibrated time base.
opposite direction and marked on the surface Inexperience is always identified in this area as
again. The distance marked is the 20 dB beam demands can be quite complex.
width at the depth checked. Both shear wave
and compressional wave transducer widths can 8.5.5.3 Report Format Problems
be plotted by this approach.
Non-standardized reports give rise to missing
8.5.4.5 Test Block Parameters information. Comprehensive information on
reports is essential to prevent plant down times
The basic calibration block(s) containing until the missing information is found. Another
basic calibration reflectors to establish a problem relates to ambiguities in drawings in
primary reference response of the equipment and text that can also result in incorrect decisions or
to construct a distance-amplitude correction extended down times.
curve is typically as shown in Figure 8-34. The
basic calibration reflectors should be located
either in the component material or in a basic

8.6 Interpretation and Code Requirements equally spaced along the time base.
8.6.1 Weld Calibration Stanards Resolution - Compression Transducers.

This check can be conducted on the A2 block as
To maintain the integrity of any UT shown in Figure 8-35.
examination it is necessary to regularly verify the
performance of the equipment. This section Shear Wave Probes - This check is done by
describes the methods used to calibrate and resolving the steps of the A7 block (Figure 8-36).
check the performance of UT instruments and
probes. Beam Exit Point - To check the beam exit
point (probe index) of a shear wave probe, it is
Calibration Blocks - Figures 8-35 and 8-36 placed on the A2 block and aimed at the 100 mm
show calibration blocks recommended by radius. When the signal is maximized, the exit
common standards/specifications. These are point should align with the center of the scale,
normally manufactured from steel but can also which is the center of the 100 mm radius (Figure
be made from other materials to suit specific 8-37).
examination requirements.
Refraction Angle - The refraction angle
NOTE: English unit blocks are dimensional (beam angle) of a shear wave probe is checked
in inches but are not precisely the same as metric on the A2 block as shown in Figure 8-38 a, b, and
blocks. For each “25 mm” read “1 inch” (actual c. The angle is measured by noting the angle
25 mm = 0.98425 inches.) that aligns with the probe index when the signal
is maximized. The actual refracted angle should
Sensitivity - A broad definition for ultrasonic fall within the designated probe angle ±2°.
sensitivity is the ability of the system to be able
to detect and display a response from the smallest Compression Probes - To calibrate the time
reflector. Sensitivity is primarily influenced by base to 100 mm of steel, the probe should be
the wavelength, the transducer, and the placed on the 25 mm thick portion of the A2
characteristics of the material being examined. block and the bottom echo positioned at 2.5 on
As frequency increases, wavelength decreases, the time base with repeats at 5.0, 7.5, and 10.
which results in an increase in sensitivity. The length of the time base now represents 100
mm of steel. Similarly the time base can be
Time base Linearity - This UT instrument calibrated to any suitable distance by obtaining a
check is carried out to ensure that there is a linear back echo and repeats from any of the
relationship between the time base position of dimensions of the calibration blocks.
signals and distance. The check is carried out
using a compressional probe to obtain a bottom
echo with multiples and ensuring that they are Shear Wave Probes - Figures 8-39, 8-40,

and 8-41 show methods of calibrating the time the finger at the reflection point on the specimen
base for shear wave probes. That part of the is a good way to confirm their non-relevance.
ultrasonic beam that is within the wedge is
delayed off the CRT to set the transmission point Intergranular Reflectors - Intergranular
to zero. reflectors are only found on coarser grained
materials. Reflector sizes are even and
8.6.2 Evaluation distributed throughout the materials. Reduced
gain settings or cautious use of the REJECT
8.6.2.1 False Indications control should be considered.
Couplant - Couplant can cause false 8.6.2.3 Relevant Discontinuity Indications

indications during buildup on the front of shear
wave probes, particularly those probes of high Amplitude - Amplitude of relevant disconti-
angles 70o to 90o. When working in thin nuity indications has to be carefully monitored.
materials, typically weldments of ½ to ¾ inches Often some careful probe manipulation and extra
or less, false indications may become apparent use of couplant increase the amplitude, so care
from couplant. must be taken.
Spurious Electrical - Electrical interference Length - Length must be plotted using some
is normally easily interpreted. “Ghost” signals objective measuring system. Commonly 6 dB or
moving across the CRT screen or standing 20 dB drop methods are utilized to achieve some
signals are fairly common. These are easily degree of accuracy in sizing.
identified because they have no correlation with
probe motion. Signal Shape - Shape helps to determine the
type of discontinuity. For example, a fatigue
8.6.2.2 Nonrelevant Indications crack gives a sharp single peak, whereas
wormhole porosity gives a broader and much
Part Geometry - Part geometry creates the more varying attenuated signal in comparison.
majority of nonrelevant indications. These
indications come from the reflections boundaries Orientation - Orientation must be
and other “built-in” reflectors. determined by angulating the probe, maximizing
the signal and plotting reflector position from
Surface Irregularities - Surface maximum signal response positions along its
irregularities can also cause signals that are length. To avoid missing signals, angulations
nonrelevant. Weld crowns and roots are should be constantly adjusted in a sweep motion
particularly a common source of reflected signals of the beam during scanning. This allows for
that could be misinterpreted. Provided access is differing discontinuity orientation.
available, dampening of these signals by placing

Location - Range calibration must be 8.7 Advantages and Limitations of Ultra

accurate to correctly locate the discontinuity in sonic Examination
the beam path. Plotters and scale cross sectional
drawings help to locate a discontinuity. 8.7.1 Advantages
8.6.3 Recording UT has the following advantages:
8.6.3.1 Use of Examination Forms • Penetration is relatively deep in a given

material.
Examination forms are generally designed to • Much of the equipment is portable, light-
meet the requirements of the code or weight, and battery powered.
specification. In all cases, however, examination • Access to only one side of the material is
forms are necessary. required in most cases.
• Measuring thickness and locating
8.6.3.2 Recording Techniques discontinuities is highly accurate.
• It has the capability for volumetric examina-
The following techniques are or have been in tion.
use for recording UT signals:
• It is suitable for go/no-go conditions.
• There is no danger from radiation or other
• Cross sectional and plan drawings with
such hazards.
plotted discontinuity locations,
• Computer recorded ultrasound signals with 8.7.2 Limitations
XY plot positions,
• C-scan recordings, UT also has several limitations:
• Zip scan recordings,
• Delta scan recordings, • The test object must be able to support the
• P-scan weldment recordings, and propagation of sound without excessive
• Plotting directly on specimens or losses.
components. • A liquid couplant is required to conduct
sound between the ultrasonic transducer and
In all cases, however, it is the code or specimen.
specification that determines the techniques of • The interpretation requires a highly trained
recording. and experienced examiner.
• Discontinuities just beneath the surface (dead
zone) may not be detectable.
• Discontinuity orientation is a factor that re-
quires careful technique development.

• Surface conditions must be considered.

• Part shape/configuration can be a limitation.

NDE Technology and Codes Chapter 8.0
Introduction to
Student Manual Ultrasonicc Examination
Table 8-1 Acoustic

A Properties of Materials

NDE Technology and Codes Chapter 8.0
Introduction to

NDE Technology and Codes Chapter 8.0 Inttroduction to
Figure 8-1 Wavelength

Figure 8-2 Refflection, Transmission at an Interface

(Immersion Testing
T with Pulse/Echo Technique)
Figure 8-3 Block Diiagram of a Typical Ultrasonic Instrument

Figure 8-4 Particcle Displacement by Longitudinal Waves

Figure 8-5 Partiicle Displacement by Transverse Waves

Figure 8-6 Surface or Rayleigh Wave Modes

Figure 8-7
8 Plate or Lamb Wave Modes

Figure 8-8 Con

nstructive and Destructive Interference

Figu
ure 8-9 Near and Far Fields

Figure 8-10 Nearr-to-Surface Reflector Within Dead Zone

Figure 8-11 Dead Zone Check

Figurre 8-12 Angle Beam in Weld

Figure 13 Angle
A Beam Transducer Assembly

Figure 8-14 Refraction

R and Reflection of Incident
Comprressional Wave at an Interface

Figure 8-15 Increasiing Incident Angle in Probe Shoes (Wedges)

With Seccond Medium of Higher Velocity

Figure 8-16 Transducer Coupled to Test Piece

Fig
gure 8-17 Immersion Test

Figure 8-18 Normal

N Compressional Wave Probe

Fig
gure 8-19 Delay Line Probe

Figure 8-20 Calib

bration of Timebase for Delay Line Probe

Figure 8-21 Dual Element Probe (Pitch-Catch)

F
Figure 8-22 Use of Reject

Figure 8-23 Typicall Ultrasonic Tank and Bridge/Manipulator

Figure 8-24 Bridge/Manipulator

Figure 8-25 Fla

at and Contour-Corrected Transducers

Figure 8-26 Focused-Beam Shortening in Metal

Figure 8-27 B-Scan Presentation

Figurre 8-28 C-Scan Presentation

Figure 8-29
8 Typical C-Scan Recording

Figuree 8-30 Basic Calibration Block

Figurre 8-31 Distance Calibration

Figure 8-32
2 Distance Amplitude Calibration

Fig
gure 8-33 Linear Reflector

Figure 8-34 Diistance Amplitude Correction Curves

Figurre 8-35 Block A2 (IIW Block)

Figure 8-36 Block A7

Figure 8-37 Checking Beam Index Point

Figurre 8-38 Checking Beam Angle

alibration for Shear Wave Probe Using A4 Blocck

Figure 8-39 Timebase Ca

Figure 8-40 Time Ba

ase Calibration for Shear Wave Probe Using
A2 Block Modified with Slots

Figure 8-41 Time Basee Calibration for Shear Wave Probe Using A2
Block Modified with 25mm Radius

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What are some principles of ultrasonic examination?

What are some principles of ultrasonic examination?

What factors can affect ultrasonic examination?

What factors can affect ultrasonic examination?

Nondestructive Examination (NDE) Technology and Codes

Introduction to Ultrasonic Examination

8.0 INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION ............................................................. 1

8.2 Personnel Qualification and Certification ................................................................................. 1

8.2.1 ASME Section V ..................................................................................................... 1

8.2.2 ASME Section XI .................................................................................................... 2

8.3.3 Wavelength ......................................................................................................... 5

8.3.4 Transmission/Reflection .......................................................................................... 5

8.3.6 Instrumentation and Control .................................................................................... 6

8.3.7 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation .................................................................................. 6

USNRC Technical Training Center 8−i Rev 0409

8.3.9 Ultrasonic Examination Variables ......................................................................... 11

8.4 Equipment….. .......................................................................................................................... 14

8.4.1 Ultrasonic Transducers .......................................................................................... 14

8.4.2 Base Pulse-Echo Instrumentation .......................................................................... 15

8.5 Procedures. .............................................................................................................................. 17

8.5.1 Application of the Various Wave Modes .............................................................. 18

8.5.2 Immersion Testing ................................................................................................. 18

8.5.3 Data Display ....................................................................................................... 20

USNRC Technical Training Center 8−ii Rev 0409

8.5.3.1 A-Scan ................................................................................................. 20

8.5.4 Calibration Techniques .......................................................................................... 21

8.5.5 Unacceptable Techniques ...................................................................................... 23

8.6 Interpretation and Code Requirements .................................................................................... 24

8.6.1 Weld Calibration Standards ................................................................................... 24

8.6.2 Evaluation .............................................................................................................. 25

8.7 Advantages and Limitations of Ultrasonic Examination......................................................... 26

8.7.1 Advantages ............................................................................................................ 26

8.7.2 Limitations ............................................................................................................. 26

USNRC Technical Training Center 8−iii Rev 0409

8-1 Acoustic Properties of Materials ................................................................................................... 28

USNRC Technical Training Center 8−iv Rev 0409

8-32 Distance Amplitude Calibration .............................................................................................. 60

USNRC Technical Training Center 8−v Rev 0409

8.0 INTRODUCTION TO ULTRASONIC Development of more advanced equipment in

3. Become familiar with the various techniques 8.2.1 ASME Section V

USNRC Technical Training Center 8−1 Rev 0409

experience consists of the sum of the hours

1. To certify to Level II directly with no time 8.2.2 ASME Section XI

USNRC Technical Training Center 8−2 Rev 0409

ber that the requirements of CP-189 (1995 Edi-

USNRC Technical Training Center 8−3 Rev 0409

Option 3 - High school graduate, or equiva- "hertz" units as follows:

USNRC Technical Training Center 8−4 Rev 0409

material offers to the passage of sound. It is the

USNRC Technical Training Center 8−5 Rev 0409

8.3.5 Attenuation 8.3.7 Ultrasonic Wave Propagation

USNRC Technical Training Center 8−6 Rev 0409

Compression - The term “compression” is

USNRC Technical Training Center 8−7 Rev 0409

8.3.7.2 Reflection at Interfaces 8.3.7.3 Fresnel Zone (Near Field)

(8-4) Sound originates on the crystal surface as a

USNRC Technical Training Center 8−8 Rev 0409

USNRC Technical Training Center 8−9 Rev 0409

8.3.8 Refraction The sound beam reflected from the interface is