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Chapter 3. Complex numbers

Carles Padr
Universitat Politcnica de Catalunya

2016-17, Semester 1

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3. Complex Numbers

Do We Need Anything beyond the Real Numbers?

As we will see during this course,
the real numbers are enough to model many physical phenomena,
and to solve many technological problems
But sometimes we need a larger set of numbers:
the complex numbers

We missed 2 in Q. What is missing in R?

x 2 0 for every real number x. Therefore, the equation
x2 + 1 = 0
does not have any real solution
Because of the same reason
(we cannot find a square root of any negative real number)
the equation
x2 x + 1 = 0
does not have any real solution
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3. Complex Numbers

Imagine Theres a Square Root of 1

Definition (Imaginary Unit)

We define the imaginary unit as a square root of 1,
and we use the symbol i to represent it. That is,
i 2 = 1
We are going to extend the real numbers to
the complex numbers by using this object

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3. Complex Numbers

The Complex Numbers

Definition (Complex Numbers)

The complex numbers are of the form
a+bi
where a and b are real numbers
The set of all complex numbers is represented by C
Definition (Real Part, Imaginary Part)
If z = a + b i is a complex number, with a, b R,
then a is called the real part of z, and we write <(z) = a
and b is called the imaginary part of z, and we write =(z) = b

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3. Complex Numbers

Examples of Complex Numbers

Some examples of complex numbers
4 i/2,

2.5 3.75 i,

1 + i,

7 + 5 i
2

Observe that
<(4 i/2) = 4 and =(4 i/2) = 1/2

<(2.5 3.75 i) = 2.5 and =(2.5 3.75 i) = 3.75


<

7 + 5 i
2


=

7
and =
2

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7 + 5 i
2

3. Complex Numbers


=

5
2

The Real Numbers Are Complex Numbers

If a is a real number, we can identify it to the complex number a + 0 i

that is, to a complex number with imaginary part equal to 0
Then
NZQRC
The complex numbers with real part equal to 0
that is, the ones of the form 0 + b i, are called purely imaginary

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3. Complex Numbers

Equality
Two complex numbers z1 , z2 C are equal, that is z1 = z2 ,
if and only if <(z1 ) = <(z2 ) and =(z1 ) = =(z2 )
Exercise
Let x, y be real numbers such that the two complex numbers
(2x 3y ) + 5 i and (x + 7) (x + y )i are equal.
Find the values of x and y .

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3. Complex Numbers

Equality
Two complex numbers z1 , z2 C are equal, that is z1 = z2 ,
if and only if <(z1 ) = <(z2 ) and =(z1 ) = =(z2 )
Exercise
Let x, y be real numbers such that the two complex numbers
(2x 3y ) + 5 i and (x + 7) (x + y )i are equal.
Find the values of x and y .
Solution
<((2x 3y ) + 5 i) = <((x + 7) (x + y )i) = 2x 3y = x + 7 =
x 3y = 7
=((2x 3y ) + 5 i) = =((x + 7) (x + y )i) = 5 = (x + y ) =
x + y = 5
Solving the system of linear equations, x = 2, y = 3

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3. Complex Numbers

Addition and Multiplication

We can add two complex numbers z1 = a + b i and z2 = c + d i, and
the result is also a complex number
z1 + z2 = (a + b i) + (c + d i) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
We can also multiply two complex numbers
z1 z2 = (a+b i)(c +d i) = ac +ad i +bc i +bd i 2 = (ac bd)+(ad +bc)i
We have used that i 2 = 1
Observe that
<(z1 z2 ) = ac bd and =(z1 z2 ) = ad + bc

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3. Complex Numbers

Addition and Multiplication

Exercise
Given the complex numbers
z1 =

1
+ 3i
2

and

z2 = 5

determine z1 + z2 , z1 z2 , and z1 z2

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3. Complex Numbers

i
2

Addition and Multiplication

Exercise
Given the complex numbers
z1 =

1
+ 3i
2

and

z2 = 5

i
2

determine z1 + z2 , z1 z2 , and z1 z2
Solution

z1 + z2 =


 
 
 

1
i
1
1
9 5
+ 3i + 5
= +5 + 3
i= + i
2
2
2
2
2 2

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3. Complex Numbers

Addition and Multiplication

Exercise
Given the complex numbers
z1 =

1
+ 3i
2

and

z2 = 5

i
2

determine z1 + z2 , z1 z2 , and z1 z2
Solution


z1 z2 =

 
 
 

1
i
1
1
11 7
+ 3i 5
= 5 + 3+
i = + i
2
2
2
2
2 2

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3. Complex Numbers

Addition and Multiplication

Exercise
Given the complex numbers
z1 =

1
+ 3i
2

and

z2 = 5

i
2

determine z1 + z2 , z1 z2 , and z1 z2
Solution
z1 z2 =




1
i
5 1
3
+ 3i
5
= + i + 15 i i 2 =
2
2
2 4
2

=

5 3
+
2 2


+

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1
61
+ 15 i = 1 +
i
4
4

3. Complex Numbers

Conjugation
Observe that
(i)2 = (i)(i) = i 2 = 1
That is, both i and i are square roots of 1
So, they play a similar role in this game
Definition (Conjugate of a Complex Number)
The conjugate of a complex number
z = a+bi

(a, b R)

is the complex number

z = a + b(i) = a b i

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3. Complex Numbers

Conjugation

Theorem (Properties of Conjugation)

z=z
z = z if and only if z R
z1 + z2 = z1 + z2
z1 z2 = z1 z2
zz is a real number for every z C
If z 6= 0, then zz is a positive real number

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3. Complex Numbers

Conjugation
Theorem (Properties of Conjugation)
z=z
z = z if and only if z R
z1 + z2 = z1 + z2
z1 z2 = z1 z2
zz is a real number for every z C
If z 6= 0, then zz is a positive real number
Proof
Let z1 = a + b i and z2 = c + d i
z1 + z2 = (a + c) + (b + d)i = (a + c) (b + d)i

z1 + z2 = (a b i) + (c d i) = (a + c) (b + d)i
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3. Complex Numbers

Conjugation
Theorem (Properties of Conjugation)
z=z
z = z if and only if z R
z1 + z2 = z1 + z2
z1 z2 = z1 z2
zz is a real number for every z C
If z 6= 0, then zz is a positive real number
Proof
Let z1 = a + b i and z2 = c + d i
z1 z2 = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i = (ac bd) (ad + bc)i

z1 z2 = (a b i)(c d i) = (ac bd) (ad + bc)i

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3. Complex Numbers

Conjugation
Theorem (Properties of Conjugation)
z=z
z = z if and only if z R
z1 + z2 = z1 + z2
z1 z2 = z1 z2
zz is a real number for every z C
If z 6= 0, then zz is a positive real number
Proof
Let z = a + b i
zz = (a + b i)(a b i) = a2 ab i + ba i b2 i 2 = a2 + b2 R
Observe that z 6= 0 if and only if a 6= 0 or b 6= 0
In this case, a2 + b2 > 0
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3. Complex Numbers

Division
By using conjugation we can determine z1 /z2
for every pair of complex numbers z1 , z2 C with z2 6= 0
Indeed, let z1 = a + b i and z2 = c + d i, with c 6= 0 or d 6= 0
z1
a+bi
(a + b i)(c d i)
=
=
=
z2
c+di
(c + d i)(c d i)
(ac + bd) + (ad + bc)i
ac + bd
bc ad
= 2
+ 2
i
2
2
2
c +d
c +d
c + d2
In particular,
=

z2
1
1
cdi
cdi
=
=
= 2
=
2
z2
c+di
(c + d i)(c d i)
c +d
z2 z2
Observe that i(i) = i 2 = 1, and hence

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1
= i
i

3. Complex Numbers

Division

Exercise
Express

3 + 5i
in the form a + b i
2i

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3. Complex Numbers

Division

Exercise
Express

3 + 5i
in the form a + b i
2i

Solution
3 + 5i
(3 + 5i)(2 + i)
(6 5) + (10 + 3)i
1 13
=
=
= +
i.
2i
(2 i)(2 + i)
5
5
5
And we can check




 

1 13
2 13
1 26
+
i (2 i) =
+
+ +
i = 3 + 5i
5
5
5
5
5
5

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3. Complex Numbers

The Complex Plane

We saw that the real numbers can be represented by points on a line
We can represent the complex numbers as points on a plane
We identify the complex number z = a + b i to the vector (a, b)

Image from Wikipedia Complex number

The real numbers lie on the real axis (horizontal)

and the purely imaginary numbers lie on the imaginary axis (vertical)
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3. Complex Numbers

Addition in the Complex Plane

The addition of complex numbers corresponds
to the addition of vectors in the plane R2

Image from Wikipedia Complex number

In the drawing, a, b C
That is, we use the parallelogram rule

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3. Complex Numbers

Modulus of a Complex Number

Definition (Modulus of a Complex Number)
The modulus (also called absolute value)
of a complex number z = a + b i is
p

|z| = zz = a2 + b2

Image from Wikipedia Complex number

Observe that |z| is the length of the vector (a, b)

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3. Complex Numbers

Properties of the Modulus

Theorem (Properties of the Modulus)

1

|z| R and |z| 0

|z| = 0 if and only if z = 0

|z1 + z2 | |z1 | + |z2 |

|z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 |

|z| = |z|

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3. Complex Numbers

Argument of a Complex Number

Definition (Argument of a Complex Number)
An argument of a complex number z = x + y i
is any real number such that
x = r cos

and

y = r sin

where r = |z|. That is, corresponds to the angle (in radians)

from the positive real axis to the vector (x, y )

Image from Wikipedia Complex number

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3. Complex Numbers

Argument of a Complex Number

Image from Wikipedia Complex number

If is an argument of z = x + y i with x 6= 0
then tan = y /x
If is an argument of z then
+ 2k is also an argument of z for all k Z
Definition (Principal Argument)
The principal argument of a complex number z 6= 0
is the only argument of z with <
We write = arg(z)
Observe that arg(0) is undetermined
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3. Complex Numbers

Argument of a Complex Number

Image from Wikipedia Complex number

If z = x + y i 6= 0, then

arctan(y /x)

arctan(y /x) +
arg(z) = arctan(y /x)

/2

/2
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if x
if x
if x
if x
if x

>0
< 0 and y
< 0 and y
= 0 and y
= 0 and y

3. Complex Numbers

0
<0
>0
<0

Polar Form and Trigonometric Form

If we know the modulus r and an argument of a complex number z,

we can determine it
z = r (cos + i sin )
This is called the trigonometric form of z
Observe that
<(z) = r cos

and

=(z) = r sin

The pair (r , ) is the polar form of z

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3. Complex Numbers

Modulus and Argument. Examples

Exercise
Find the modulus and the principal argument of the complex number
z = 3 3i
Express it in trigonometric form

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3. Complex Numbers

Modulus and Argument. Examples

Exercise
Find the modulus and the principal argument of the complex number
z = 3 3i
Express it in trigonometric form
Solution
The modulus is
|z| =

32 + (3)2 = 18 = 3 2

Since the real part of z is positive, the principal argument is



3

arg(z) = arctan
= arctan(1) =
3
4

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3. Complex Numbers

Modulus and Argument. Examples

Exercise
Find the modulus and the principal argument of the complex number
z = 3 3i
Express it in trigonometric form
Solution
Trigonometric form
 
 

3 3 i = 3 2 cos
+ i sin
4
4
Recall that
  2
cos
=
4
2

and

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2
sin
=
4
2

3. Complex Numbers

Modulus and Argument. Examples

Exercise
Find the modulus and the principal argument of the complex number

z = 3+i
Express it in trigonometric form

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3. Complex Numbers

Modulus and Argument. Examples

Exercise
Find the modulus and the principal argument of the complex number

z = 3+i
Express it in trigonometric form
Solution
The modulus is
r
|z| =

 2

3 + 12 = 4 = 2

Since the real part of z is negative and the imaginary part is positive,
the principal argument is


1

arg(z) = arctan
+ = + =
6
6
3
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3. Complex Numbers

Modulus and Argument. Examples

Exercise
Find the modulus and the principal argument of the complex number

z = 3+i
Express it in trigonometric form
Solution
Trigonometric form
 

 

5
5
+ i sin
3 + i = 2 cos
6
6

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3. Complex Numbers

Conjugation on the Complex Plane

If is an argument of the complex number z,
then is an argument of its conjugate z
The moduli are the same: |z| = |z|

Image from Wikipedia Complex number

z = z if and only if z R
z + z = 2<(z) and z z = 2i =(z)
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3. Complex Numbers

Complex Exponential and Eulers Formula

The real exponential function x 7 ex
can be extended to the complex numbers by the
Eulers Formula
ei = cos + i sin
This formula will be justified by using power series
at the end of this course
Observe that the modulus of ei is |ei | = cos2 + sin2 = 1
and that is an argument for ei
Then, for every complex number z = a + bi,
ez = ea+bi = ea ebi = ea (cos b + i sin b)
Observe that ea and b are, respectively,
the modulus and an argument of ea+bi

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3. Complex Numbers

Exponential Form
As a consequence of Eulers Formula, a complex number z
with modulus r and argument can be expressed as
z = rei = r (cos + i sin )
This is called the exponential form of the complex number z
The exponential form is commonly used
in electronics, engineering and physics
Convenient when multiplying, dividing
or taking roots of complex numbers
We can present here a very nice formula
ei + 1 = 0
involving the five most remarkable numbers: 0, 1, i, e,

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3. Complex Numbers

Exponential Form. Examples

Exercise

Express the complex numbers 3 3 i and 3 + i

in exponential form

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3. Complex Numbers

Exponential Form. Examples

Exercise

Express the complex numbers 3 3 i and 3 + i

in exponential form
Solution
We found before the moduli and arguments
of those complex numbers
So, their exponential forms are

3 3 i = 3 2 ei/4 ,

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3 + i = 2 e5i/6

3. Complex Numbers

Exponential Form. Multiplication and Conjugation

How to multiply complex numbers in exponential form:
z1 z2 = (r1 ei1 )(r2 ei2 ) = r1 r2 ei(1 +2 )
The modulus of the product of two complex numbers
is the product of their moduli
|z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 |
An argument of the product of two complex numbers
is found by adding their arguments

1 is an argument of z1
= 1 + 2 is an argument of z1 z2
2 is an argument of z2
Conjugation
rei = r ei = rei
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3. Complex Numbers

de Moivres Formula
From Eulers formula
cos =

ei + ei
2

and

sin =

ei ei
2i

de Moivres Formula
For every integer n Z
(cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n
This is because (ei )n = eni
Therefore,
cos n =

eni + eni
2

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and

sin n =

3. Complex Numbers

eni eni
2i

Applications
Most trigonometric equalities can be derived from
Eulers formula and de Moivres formula
For example, since
ei1 ei2 = ei(1 +2 )
and, on the other hand,
ei(1 +2 ) = cos(1 + 2 ) + i sin(1 + 2 )
and
ei1 ei2 = (cos 1 + i sin 1 )(cos 2 + i sin 2 ) =
(cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 ) + i(cos 1 sin 2 + sin 1 cos 2 )
we can conclude that
cos(1 + 2 ) = cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2
sin(1 + 2 ) = cos 1 sin 2 + sin 1 cos 2
and hence
cos 2 = cos2 sin2 ,
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sin 2 = 2 sin cos

3. Complex Numbers

Applications

Exercise
Express cos 3 and sin 3 in terms of powers of cos and sin

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3. Complex Numbers

Applications

Exercise
Express cos 3 and sin 3 in terms of powers of cos and sin
Solution
cos 3 + i sin 3 = (cos + i sin )3 =
cos3 + 3i cos2 sin + 3i 2 cos sin2 + i 3 sin3 =
(cos3 3 cos sin2 ) + i(3 cos2 sin sin3 )
Therefore,
cos 3 = cos3 3 cos sin2
sin 3 = 3 cos2 sin sin3

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3. Complex Numbers

Applications
The following exercises provide useful tricks to compute integrals
Exercise
Express cos2 and sin2 in terms of sines and cosines
of integer multiples of

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3. Complex Numbers

Applications
The following exercises provide useful tricks to compute integrals
Exercise
Express cos2 and sin2 in terms of sines and cosines
of integer multiples of
Solution
Take z = ei = cos + i sin . Then
cos =
and
cos2 =
sin2 =

z + z 1
2

and

sin =

z z 1
2i

(z + z 1 )2
z 2 + z 2
1
1 + cos 2
=
+ =
4
4
2
2

(z z 1 )2
z 2 + z 2
1
1 cos 2
=
+ =
4
4
2
2
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3. Complex Numbers

Applications

Exercise
Express cos3 in terms of sines and cosines
of integer multiples of

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3. Complex Numbers

Applications

Exercise
Express cos3 in terms of sines and cosines
of integer multiples of
Solution
Take z = ei = cos + i sin . Then
cos3 =

(z + z 1 )3
z 3 + 3z + 3z 1 + z 3
=
=
8
8

z 3 + z 3
3(z + z 1 )
cos 3 + 3 cos
+
=
8
8
4

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3. Complex Numbers

Applications
Exercise
Express cos x cos y as a sum of sines and cosines
Do the same for cos x sin y and sin x sin y

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3. Complex Numbers

Applications
Exercise
Express cos x cos y as a sum of sines and cosines
Do the same for cos x sin y and sin x sin y
Solution

cos x cos y =

eix + eix eiy + eiy

=
2
2

1 i(x+y )
(e
+ ei(xy ) + ei(x+y ) + ei(xy ) ) =
4


1 ei(x+y ) + ei(x+y )
ei(xy ) + ei(xy )
+
=
2
2
2
=

cos(x + y ) cos(x y )
+
2
2
Similar computations apply to cos x sin y and sin x sin y
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3. Complex Numbers

Square Roots
Given a R, how many real solutions
does the equation x 2 a = 0 have?

If a > 0, it has two real solutions: a, a

If a < 0, it does not have any real solution
If a = 0, it has one real solution: 0 (double solution)
In contrast, for every z C, z 6= 0,
the equation x 2 z = 0 has two complex solutions
Indeed
If z = rei , then
 1 2
r 2 ei 2
= rei = z

and

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r 2 ei 2

2

3. Complex Numbers

= rei = z

Square Roots. Example

Exercise
Find the square roots of the complex number z = 1 + i

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3. Complex Numbers

Square Roots. Example

Exercise
Find the square roots of the complex number z = 1 + i
Solution
First we express z in exponential form

1 + i = 2ei/4 = 21/2 ei/4

The square roots of z = 1 + i are
21/4 ei/8 = 21/4 (cos(/8) + i sin(/8))
and
21/4 ei/8 = 21/4 (cos(/8) + i sin(/8))

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3. Complex Numbers

Quadratic Equations
If a, b, c C, with a 6= 0, the quadratic equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
has two complex solutions (or one complex double solution)
That is, there exist complex numbers z1 , z2 C (maybe z1 = z2 )
such that
ax 2 + bx + c = a(x z1 )(x z2 )
(equality of polynomials)
The well-known formula
x=

b2 4ac
2a

also applies here

That is, the solutions are
z1 =

b + u1
2a

and

z2 =

b + u2
2a

where u1 , u2 are the square roots of the complex number b2 4ac

(u1 = u2 = 0 if b2 4ac = 0)
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3. Complex Numbers

Quadratic Equations. Example

Exercise
Find the complex solutions of the quadratic equation x 2 + x + 1 = 0

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3. Complex Numbers

Quadratic Equations. Example

Exercise
Find the complex solutions of the quadratic equation x 2 + x + 1 = 0
Solution
b2 4ac = 3

The square roots of 3 are i 3 and i 3

Therefore, the solutions of the quadratic equation are

1 + i 3
1 i 3
z1 =
and z2 =
2
2

Observe that z2 = z1
This is because the equation has real coefficients,
but it does not have any real solution

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3. Complex Numbers

Cube Roots
Every real number has one real cube root
In contrast, every nonzero complex number
has three complex cube roots
The cube roots of z = rei are

r 3 ei 3 ,

r 3 ei

+2
3

and

r 3 ei

+4
3

Indeed, if k Z,


r 3 ei

+2k
3

3

= rei(+2k ) = rei e2k i = rei = z

Because e2k i = 1 for every k Z

On the other hand,
ei

+2(k +3)
3

= ei

+2k
3

e2i = ei

+2k
3

which means that there are only three distinct complex numbers of
+2k
the form ei 3 with k Z
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3. Complex Numbers

Cube Roots. Example

Exercise
Find the cube roots of the complex number z = i

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3. Complex Numbers

Cube Roots. Example

Exercise
Find the cube roots of the complex number z = i
Solution
The modulus is |i| = 1 and the principal argument is = arg(i) = /2
That is, i = ei/2
The cube roots of z = i are

e
ei

i
3

+2
3

and
ei

=e

= ei

+4
3

i 6

5
6

3
i
+
2
2

3
i
= cos(5/6) + i sin(5/6) =
+
2
2

= ei

= cos(/6) + i sin(/6) =

9
6

= cos(3/2) + i sin(3/2)) = i

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3. Complex Numbers

n-th Roots of Unity

If n Z, n > 0, the equation x n 1 = 0 has n complex solutions:
1, e
That is,
e
Or, if n = e

2i
n

2k i
n

2i
n

, ,e

4i
n

for

, ...,e

2(n1)k i
n

k = 0, . . . , n 1

,
1, n1 , n2 , . . . , nn1

Image from Wikipedia Complex number

These are the n-th roots of unity

If z is an n-th root of unity, so is z
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3. Complex Numbers

n-th Roots of a Complex Number

For every positive integer n,

every nonzero complex number z C has n distinct n-th roots
Take n = e2i/n , an n-th root of unity, z = rei , and
1

= r ne

i
n

Then the n-th roots of z are:

, n , n2 , . . . , nn1
Observe that, if k Z
nk

n

= n nnk = z (nn ) = z

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3. Complex Numbers

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Theorem (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

For every polynomial
x n + an1 x n1 + + a1 x + a0
with complex coefficients (ai C), there exists n complex numbers
z1 , . . . zn C (maybe not all distinct) such that
x n + an1 x n1 + + a1 x + a0 = (x z1 ) (x zn )
That is, every complex polynomial with degree n has exactly n roots,
if we count them with their multiplicities

Calculus - telecom BCN

3. Complex Numbers

Factorization of Real Polynomials

If z = a + b i C, with b 6= 0, the polynomial
(x z)(x z) = x 2 2ax + (a2 + b2 )
has real coefficients, and it does not have any real root
Consider a real polynomial
p = x n + an1 x n1 + + a1 x + a0

with

ai R

If z C satisfies p(z) = 0, then p(z) = p(z) = 0

So the real polynomial p may have some real roots
and the non-real roots come into pairs z, z
We can factorize p in irreducible real polynomials of the forms
(x a) with a R and
x 2 + bx + c with b, c R and b2 4c < 0
In particular, every real polynomial with odd degree
has at least one real root
Calculus - telecom BCN

3. Complex Numbers