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Apr 13th - Apr 17th

Foundations over Salt-Encrusted Flats (Sabkha):

Profiles, Properties, and Design Guidelines
Waddah Akili
Geotechnical Engineering, Ames, Iowa

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 FOUNDATIONS OVER SALT-ENCRUSTED FLATS (SABKHA):
PROFILES, PROPERTIES, AND DESIGN GUIDELINES
Waddah Akili
Professor of Civil Engineering (Retired)
Principal, Geotechnical Engineering
Ames, Iowa-USA-50014

ABSTRACT

The evaporative and sedimentary environment that has prevailed over the southern shores of the Arabian Gulf region (eastern Saudi
Arabia, Qatar, and United Arab Emirates) has produced salt-encrusted flat areas known in Arabic as “sabkha”. Building activities on
sabkha areas have posed problems and challenges to the construction industry triggered primarily by the excessive salts present in
both the sediments and their shallow ground waters. The paper sheds light on the general setting of sabkha, including: its
development, its geology, its hydrogeology and the make up of its sediments. In general, sabkha sediments are cemented and
uncemented layers of sand /silt material, interbedded with pockets of clay and mud, where calcium carbonate and more recent
digenetic minerals (gypsum, anhydrite) serve as the principal cementing agent.

The geotechnical aspects of sabkha are addressed with particular reference to building foundations. Simplified soil profiles from
selected sabkha sites with Standard Penetration Test Results are shown. The effectiveness of some soil densification methods, as a
means of improving engineering properties of sabkha sediments, is explored. Arrival at appropriate foundation recommendations
hinges on a properly conducted site investigation, consistent with field conditions, with a geochemical component as an essential part
of the investigation. The most likely problems created by chemical changes within sabkha sediments are: settlement and strength loss
due to solution of flowing ground water, and the creation of a chemically aggressive environment in foundations.

INTRODUCTION

Salt-encrusted flat surfaces, known as “sabkha” in the Arabic- • puffy and hard surface often dotted with halite,
speaking countries, are common in the coastal and inland • lack of any vegetal cover over the surface,
areas of the Arabian Peninsula. These features are products of • highly saline ground water table (usually within two
the evaporative environment that has dominated the Arabian meters from surface), and
(Persian) Gulf area for several thousand years. See Fig. 1 for • readily visible precipitated salts (halite, anhydrite,
location of major sabkhas along the southern shores of the gypsum, and calcite) within the upper portion of the
Arabian Gulf. Conditions leading to the formation of these salt profile.
flats and their properties in the coastal and inland areas are
different, and Kinsman & Park (1969) refer to these features At most times, and in open terrain, sabkha’s hard surface is
as “coastal sabkha” and “continental sabkha” respectively. sufficiently strong and durable to serve as a substitute for
surfaced roads. Unfortunately, if the surface becomes wet due
The geomorphology, the geochemistry, and regional to occasional rainfall, flash floods or storm tides, the soluble
environmental parameters that influence the nature of sabkha salts (mainly halite)- which provide the cementation in the
sediments have been reported on by a number of investigators crust, dissolve and the sabkha becomes impassible (Ellis 1973;
(Kinsman 1969; Bush 1973; Evans et al.1969; Butler 1969; Fookes 1976).
Hsu & Seigenthaler 1969). In general terms, coastal sabkha
sediments are loose to moderately dense silt/sand material of Documented engineering type information on sabkha with
varying: size, composition, texture, and origin. Mud and clays reference to foundations and potential problems associated
are often interbedded with the sands and silts, as seams or with buildings on sabkha sediments has remained scanty. Ellis
pockets, or may be found down below towards the bottom. (1973) and Fookes (1976) have evaluated coastal sabkha in the
Some distinguishing features of sabkha deposits may include United Arab Emirates as road bases. Akili & Torrance (1981)
some or all of the following: have simulated sabkha sands in the laboratory and have

Paper No. 1.43 1

assessed strength associated with cementation using different development and the dominant features of the sabkha in the
percent cement in the sand. Further work on cemented sands coastal areas are different from those in inland areas. Coastal
with reference to sabkha layers, using a laboratory sabkhas are supratidal and are commonly a wedge of
penetrometer, was presented by Akili & Al-Joulani (1986). sediments overlain by supratidal facies that are overlain by
eolian facies. Figure 2 presents diagrammatically a
generalized cross-section from the Gulf waters to the inland
Iraq margin of a coastal sabkha. The inland portion of the sabkha
plain tends to have a brownish, salt-encrusted surface while
Iran that portion which is only slightly above the high tide level is
commonly covered with a greenish- black algal mat. Coastal
Kuwa it sabkha brines are primarily derived from the evaporation of
percolating sea waters at or below sabkha surface.

Bahra in Continental sabkhas are located inland and are often

Arabian associated with areas of dune sands. They are considered as
Qatar Gulf Gu lf of equilibrium deflation-sedimentation surfaces situated a set
Saudi
Oman height (about a meter) above the ground water table (Kinsman
Arabia
1969). Brines are the result of extensive evaporation losses of
water vapor at the surface. Groundwater in nearby dune areas
0 KM 200 UAE Oman may have very different ionic concentrations from the sabkha
brines. However, because the sabkha surface is very near the
groundwater table, evaporation of incoming groundwater
contributes to brine formation (Fookes et al. 1985).
Fig. 1. Map showing location of major sabkha flats along the Sabkha sediments, whether coastal or continental, reflect
southern coast of the Arabian Gulf. several sequences of sedimentation processes that are known
to have occurred in the Arabian Gulf region during recent
Fookes et al. (1985) have addressed chemical processes and geologic history. Coastal sabkha sediments contain sands,
geotechnical changes in sabkha soils and its waters, and have silts, mud and clays that are either totally marine derived, or
cited relevant case histories. Akili (1997) has evaluated some have been affected by marine environment during a sequence
of the sabkhas along the western coast of Qatar Peninsula, by of ingressions and regressions of Gulf waters over the coast.
means of open pits and borehole samples. The materials As a result of these transgressions, the sands and silts were
encountered in Qatar were, by and large, similar to those of reworked by the waters and intermixed with marine sediments
the sabkhas of eastern Saudi Arabia. which resulted in the formation of: carbonate sands and silts,
the bioclastic sands, the grey mud, and some of the clays. The
This paper is a further extension of earlier work by the author most notable process occurring today is the deposition of
(Akili & Torrance 1981; Akili & Ahmad 1986; Akili & wind-transported sands over coastal and continental sabkhas
Jackson 1998) on foundations in the arid coastal margins of (Fookes et al.1985). The depositional environment has
the southern shores of the Arabian Gulf. Use is made of produced quartzitic sand layers over original marine-derived
extensive field data collected from sabkha cites in eastern and/or marine- affected sediments.
Saudi Arabia and Qatar, with particular reference to building
foundations.
Dune Sabkha P lain Lagoon Barrier Tidal Inner
In this paper, the author touches on the geological and hydro- W ind Direction Area Shelf
Salty Surface A lgal
geological setting of sabkha, shows typical profiles in sabkha Mat
sediments, and examines the effectiveness of soil Gulf
10 M
improvement methods deployed in densifying sabkha sands. 5
St orm High Wat er W ater
As such, the paper provides pertinent observations on 1 KM
Common Minerals Normal High W ater
A ragonite/Calcite
foundations built over sabkha. The paper concludes by H alite/G ypsum/Anhydrite/Magnesite Low W ater
offering relevant recommendations for geotechnologists
involved with foundations over sabkha, and argues for the
Fig. 2. Generalized cross section across a typical coastal
need to carry out an “appropriate” site investigation prior to
sabkha with typical surface features.
design and construction of foundations in sabkha terrain.
Secondary minerals (salts) have formed within host sediments
(sands, silts, insoluble salts, clays, etc.) by precipitation from
BACKGROUND
concentrated brines (as in the case of gypsum) or by reaction
between the brines and the host sediments (as in the case of
Sabkha(s) are equilibrium geomorphic surfaces whose levels
dolomite). The most prevalent secondary minerals in sabkha
are largely determined by local ground water. The mode of

Paper No. 1.43 2

are: calcite, gypsum, anhydrite, dolomite, magnesite, aragonite are layered and often cemented Degree of cementation varies
and halite. New secondary minerals continue to form while from lightly cemented to strongly cemented. Carbonate soils
older secondary minerals may undergo chemical and physical have been located at various sites within sabkha sediments, at
changes in response to the complex geochemical environment different depths. Readily visible crystalline salts are wide
of the sabkha. spread at the surface and below. The salts often encountered
include: anhydrite, gypsum, calcite, and halite.
The formation of secondary minerals and their relative
positions in sabkha sediments are largely dependent on the The author has examined a number of foundations
hydrology of the particular sabkha and the means by which the investigations’ reports and a fairly large number of boreholes
sabkha ground waters are replenished. The principal means of in sabkha terrain of eastern Saudi Arabia, and in the state of
replenishment in coastal sabkha are horizontally moving sea Qatar, looking for common characteristics, distinctive features
water and/or vertical downward water which inundate the and anomalies. Despite the complex nature of sabkha
surface of the sabkha as a result of flash floods, high tides, or sediments, i.e. varying: particle size, shape, soil origin, degree
occasional rainfall. Continental sabkha waters are replenished and type of cementation, etc. it was possible to broadly view
from continental water sources (perched water) or rainfall. the sabkha profile as made up of three zones:
When the vertical water is rainwater, it will dilute the
interstitial waters thus causing dissolution of soluble An upper zone: extends from the crusty puffy surface down
secondary minerals within the sabkha matrix. past the water table. This zone, one to three meters in depth,
includes the water table and the stratified thin cemented
The evaporative pumping mechanism appears to be the most sand/silt layers. Based on the Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
effective mechanism involved in causing the concentration of values, the encountered sediments in this zone are generally
brines in sabkha waters, and in the formation of evaporite medium dense to dense unless the surface has been inundated
(secondary) minerals (Butler 1969; Hsu &Schneider 1973). with rain water or high tide, which tends to wash away readily
Evaporation from the sabkha surface provides the energy for soluble salts responsible for particles’ cementation.
the upward movement of the saline interstitial waters by Dissolution invariably lowers the strength of the sediments
capillary action. In the absence of flood tides and rainfall (both and creates loose density conditions.
of which are infrequent and probably inadequate), the water
thus lost would be replenished by water entering laterally from An intermediate zone: may contain some or all of the
the sea side. Hsu and colleagues (1969, 1973) have following: loose quartzitic sands, calcareous sands, cemented
demonstrated that the amount of water that can be evaporated sand-silt layers, clay layers interbedded with sands, mud,
from the sabkha surface is substantial and is governed by the carbonate sands, and other marine-derived sediments. The
evaporation conditions of the atmosphere; since almost all of general condition in terms of SPT varies from very loose to
the sediments are capable of supplying water to the surface by medium dense. Based on available borehole logs, this zone
capillarity at the necessary rate. The upward movement of may vary in depth from few meters to over twelve meters.
saline ground water and its evaporation from the surface Within this zone, foundations (mostly shallow) are laid; thus
readily accounts for the development of the crust dominated its geotechnical characteristics are critical in arriving at
by halite and other soluble minerals, and in the evaporative appropriate decisions and/or foundation geometries.
regime there would be evaporation and solution concentration
at all levels above the water table such that some secondary A lower zone: In this zone, sediments tend to exhibit high
minerals would form within the sediment from the water table resistance to penetration by SPT. Materials encountered have
to the surface. Back diffusion of ions along the concentration included: dense to very dense sands and silts, strongly
gradient combined with the periodic reflux associated with cemented sands, shale, stiff clays, or diagenetic rock. Based on
storm tides could lead to additional concentration of the saline SPT results, refusal is within one or two meters of penetration.
interstitial waters (Hsu & Schneider 1973).
Range of SPT values, side by side with prevalent description
of materials encountered, for three selected sabkha cites, are
PROFILES AND PROPERTIES shown in Fig. 3.The SPT profiles shown tend to support the
categorization of sabkha deposits into the three broad zones
The shores of eastern Saudi Arabia, Qatar peninsula, and the referred to earlier as: upper zone, intermediate zone, and lower
United Arab Emirates have extensive sabkha flats, both zone respectively.
coastal and continental. They occupy roughly 20% of a coastal
strip (50 km wide by 1000 km long) that extends from Kuwait
in the north to the Sultanate of Oman in the east. See Fig. 1. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS
For engineering purposes, the sabkha sediments of eastern
Saudi Arabia and those on the western shores of Qatar are It seems appropriate when considering the broad
mostly sands and silts except in the shoreline extremities, categorization of sabkha, in terms of the three zones listed
where mud and clays tend to be more prevalent. The fines’ earlier, to focus attention on conditions and sediments within
content in the sands (silt & clay size) is significant. The sands

Paper No. 1.43 3

the intermediate zone. This zone is the most critical when construction, need to be taken to minimize and/or avert
foundations recommendations are to be made. excessive differential settlement.

The decision on the type of foundation and the selection of an • The potential adverse reactions and chemical changes that
appropriate site improvement method is highly dependent on: may influence sediment properties and foundations
the type of sediments and their relative density; degree of embedded in them. This would invariably include the
cementation and the evaporites providing the cementation; corrosion problems in the concrete and steel, resulting
from high concentration of chlorides and sulphates in
Descript ion
sabkha brines.
Blows / 0.3 m
10 20 30 40 50
0
Fine sand (Dense) • The inability to properly assess by conventional probes
the degree of cementation of sabkha sands, particularly in
3 Calcareous silty sand
(Loose to med.) the light to moderately cemented range. Cementation has,
Depth, m

6 both, positive and negative attributes in the context of

Calcareous redish brown foundation design over sabkha sites.
fine sand
9 (Dense to very dense)
Refusal • Due to the high water table of sabkha and the nature of
12
sabkha sediments, drainage of wastewater and irrigation
Project: 100 bed hospi tal , Ju bail (6 borin gs) water of built facilities (housing, industrial parks, etc.) is
0
10 20 30 40 50 difficult and requires a well- planned disposal system.
Fine to med. sand Discharge of waste and irrigation water through soak
(Loose to med.) ways, as currently practiced, could cause a rise in
3
Calcareous silty sand groundwater level coupled with intermixing of water
Depth, m

6 wit h clay pocket s

(Loose to med.) sources, leading to dissolution of some soluble salts thus
undermining the strength and stability of the layers
9 Fine to med. gray sand
(Dense to very dense) supporting the foundation.
12 Refusal

Project: Desaltin g pl ant, S afaniya (12 borings)

• The evaporative pumping mechanism moves soluble salts
10 20 30 40 50
from the water table towards the surface where they
0 precipitate when water evaporates. The salt crystals thus
Silt y sand
(Med. t o dense) developed may form blisters at man-made surfaces
3
Silt y sand (pavements, concrete foundations, basements) causing
(Very loose t o loose) cracking particularly in pavements (Fookes & French,
Depth, m

6
1977) but potentially in any porous material. Counter
9 Calcareous sand + silty measures to deal with this problem and help reduce
sand cemented in places blistering have been outlined (French et al. 1982).
12 (Med. t o very dense)
Refusal
15 • Carbonate and gypsum contents in the sabkha sediments
could be a trouble source of shallow foundations. High
Project: Sewage treatment plant, Ras Tanu ra (6 borin gs)
carbonate content (above 20 percent by total weight) may
undermine foundations by carbonate leaching. Alternate
Fig. 3. Simplified soil profile data from three selected sabkha hydration and dehydration of gypsum-rich layers under
sites typical of material encountered, showing ranges of the hot and humid conditions that characterize the sabkha
standard penetration test results (SPT) in terms of blows per environment, is usually accompanied by volume changes
0.3 m. that could contribute to differential settlement and
foundation instability.
percent fines within the uncemented layers; and percent
carbonates, chlorides, and sulphates in the brines. Some of the
• The combination of loose sands with lightly cemented
noted problems and potential safe guards may include some or
grains in sabkha sediments may be susceptible to collapse
all of the following:
upon wetting or due to an increase in vertical stress. The
collapse, referred to here, is not necessarily the sudden or
• Because sabkha sediments are highly variable materials in the catastrophic break down of soil structure, but rather
vertical and horizontal extents, chances are that these the slow type (years versus months) of relatively small
variations (layer thickness, relative density, degree of magnitude(less than 1% percent). It is therefore highly
cementation, and type and percentage salts in sediments) recommended that the collapse potential of the sabkha site
would manifest themselves in extreme variations in be addressed.
compressibility characteristics. Precautionary measures
and safeguards during site exploration, design, and

Paper No. 1.43 4

• Chemical reactions, precipitation and solution within In order to increase the effectiveness of the compaction
sabkha sediments, are greatly enhanced if ground water process, and consequently the relative density of loose sabkha
flow- in and/or out of these sediments is relatively high. sands within the intermediate zone, the sabkha crust should be
In the long range, these on-going activities (reactions, broken down prior to compaction. Excavation to depth slightly
precipitation, solution) could undermine the stability of a above groundwater, replacement by a granular fill, and
foundation unless precautionary measures are taken. It is compaction of the fill by vibratory rollers, is practiced and
highly recommended that the anticipated flow regime of appears effective in densifying deeper strata of sabkha
groundwater, in and out of the site, be mapped out and sediments. However, if dewatering is required, this approach
parameters such as: hydraulic conductivity, porosity and becomes uneconomical.
flow velocity, be estimated.
In sabkhas where the crust is firm and the soil is medium
As noted above, sabkha sediments are extremely sensitive to dense to dense in the upper zone all year round, the placement
changes in conditions that, directly or indirectly, affect the and compaction of a select fill on top of the surface may prove
equilibrium chemistry of the sediments and their physical effective in sustaining the loads of a light structure. The final
properties. It is highly recommended that extreme caution be thickness of the fill placed shall be such that the pressure bulb
exercised when considering foundations over sabkha. It makes developed by the footing is contained within the fill. This
a lot of sense when design decisions are in the making; that approach may be considered only when structural and
they are preceded by: proper soil investigation, appropriate architectural constraints do not preclude raising site grade.
tests, and assuming worst scenarios.

Deep compaction of sabkha sediments

DENSIFICATION OF SABKHA SEDIMENTS
When sabkha deposits are loose and relatively thick,
Sand/silt material encountered in sabkha (with particular compaction at the surface is not effective. Deep compaction
reference to the intermediate zone referred to earlier) may be methods may be applied. Under this category,
in very loose to medium dense state, thus requiring vibrocompaction and dynamic compaction are included.
densification to sustain design loads safely, within tolerable Vibrocompaction refers collectively to all methods involving
settlement limits. Experience to date with construction on the insertion of a vibrating probe into the ground with or
sabkha flats has shown that some form of densification is without the addition of backfill material. The ability of any of
generally required when shallow foundations are considered. these methods to accomplish the required improvement in
The densification methods that have been attempted in the density depends largely on:
sabkhas have included: (1) soil gradation and fines content,
(A) Placement and compaction of selected fill material (2) degree of saturation and position of water table,
over the sabkha surface, (3) initial relative density of the deposit,
(B) Compaction without additional fill, (4) soil structure and degree of cementation, and
(C) Vibro-compaction, and (5) characteristics of the method applied.
(D) Dynamic compaction.
For highly settlement-sensitive structures, piled foundations Densification requires that the soil structure be broken down
have been used. The piles are generally end-bearing supported in order for particles to rearrange into new packing. In
on rock, in dense sand, or on a hard pan. These materials are saturated cohesionless deposits, this is accomplished by
usually encountered within the lower zone of the profile. inducing liquefaction by means of dynamic loading.
Following is a brief discussion of the densification methods Liquefaction occurs due to sudden release of energy upon
deployed in the region, and factors governing the choice of a impact of the probe into the soil, which greatly reduces its
method, based on outcome. shear strength. Vibrocompaction and dynamic densification
have been used on sabkha deposits with mixed results. A brief
description of each, and results obtained are given below.
Sabkha compaction by vibratory rollers
Vibroflotation This is one of the methods categorized under
This widely used approach is usually suitable for relatively vibrocompaction and consists of inserting a vibratory probe
small structures such as one to three story residential or into the deposit at predetermined intervals. The vibration
commercial buildings. Such structures are usually supported induced causes the loose or medium dense granular soils to
on shallow footings with width rarely exceeding one or two liquefy leading to subsequent densification. This method
meters. The stress influence zone of such footings is normally works well when the deposits are clean with little or no fines.
contained within two to four meters below footing grade. Experience has shown that this method is ineffective when the
Adequate density is normally achieved by a predetermined percentage by weight of fines (particles finer than 0.075mm)
number of passes using heavy rollers. Light rollers are exceeds 20%. This is because the hydraulic conductivity of
generally not effective at a depth greater than two meters. materials containing fines is too low to permit rapid drainage
of pore water- a requirement for densification which follows

Paper No. 1.43 5

liquefaction under the action of the vibratory forces. Details to 6 m grid, followed by either additional passes, or at a tight
on vibroflotation’s equipment and the process are discussed by grid at footings’ locations. The technique was pioneered by
Brown (1977). This method has worked in densifying some Menard (Menard & Bruise 1975). When applied to saturated
loose sabkha deposits of eastern Saudi Arabia, down to about cohesionless soils, liquefaction can be induced, and the
6 meters below surface. However, presence of silt layers or densification process is somewhat similar to that occurring
cemented sand-silt layers would reduce the effectiveness of during vibrocompaction. The effectiveness of the method in
this technique. Results of pre- and post-treatment of a sabkha saturated fine-grained soils is uncertain. Successes, as well as
site by vibroflotation are shown in Fig.4. failures, have been reported. Of particular importance when
this method is under consideration, are: the depths of influence
Descrip tion Blows/0.3 m q c kg/cm2 and the level of improvement anticipated. The level of
25 50 50 100 improvement, within the projected depth of influence, depends
0 . . . .. primarily on: soil type, water conditions, and input energy.
. . . .. Loose light gray
This technique has been applied onto several sabkha sites and
2 . . . .. calcareous silt y fine
. . . .. to medium sand has not been effective at all locations. The main difficulty
4 . . . .. wit h shells arises from extreme variability in sabkha deposits, which are
. . . .. not always detected by routine soil investigation that precedes
Depth, m

6
... Refusal
the improvement work. The presence of undetected silts and
RQD=0.37 clay pockets, cemented sand-silt layers, and thin gypsum
Light gray porous RQD=0.17 Pre-treat ment
8 limestone with RQD=0.07
layers tend to inhibit densification of the cohesionless material
shells Post -treatment in sabkha. A review of a number of cases suggests that there
10
SPT before may be a definable maximum level of improvement that could
treatment be achieved for a particular soil. It has been suggested that this
12 S tatic Dutch Cone
limit is equivalent to a cone penetration resistance (qc ) of
about 150 kg/cm2 (Leonards et al. 1980). The data presented
Fig. 4. Simplified soil profile, SPT and static Dutch Cone test in Fig. 5 of pre- and post-treatment with dynamic compaction
results before and after vibroflotation on a sabkha site in of a selected sabkha site, show maximum improvement in
Rahima, eastern Saudi Arabia. value of SPT of 20 blows/0.3m, in qc of 160 kg/cm2, in
Pressuremeter limit pressure of 22 kg/cm2, and in
Vibro-replacement (stone column) Most stone column Pressuremeter modulus of 350 kg/cm2. The sediments
installations are accomplished using the vibro-replacement densified in this case were relatively clean sands. Based on the
method in a manner similar to vibroflotation. A cylindrical field data (Fig.5), the level of densification achieved appears
vertical hole is made by a vibrating probe penetrating by satisfactory.
means of jetting action and under its own weight. Gravel
and/or gravel-sand backfill is dumped into the hole in
increments of 0.4 to 0.8 m and compacted by the probe which SITE INVESTIGATION
simultaneously displaces the material radially into the soft (or
loose) soil. Column diameters are usually in the range of 0.6 to To aid in planning of ground investigation of a sabkha site,
1.0 m. Stone columns are placed in a grid pattern with center preliminary information on the geology, geomorphology, and
to center spacing of 1.5 to 3.5 m. The column should extend brine chemistry of the specific location, should be made
into a firmer stratum below. A blanket of sand and/or gravel, available. Relevant information under this category may
0.3m or more in thickness, is usually placed over the top. This include:
blanket has two functions; it acts as a drainage layer, and aids i. The land forming processes: past processes, present
in distributing stress resulting from structures above. Useful processes, and those that may be controlling after
guidelines on the application of this method are presented by construction and development of the proposed site;
ASCE Committee on Placement and Improvement of Soils ii. Predominant sediments and whether marine or
(ASCE, 1978). The vibro-replacement method has been used continental: types of sediments and their
on several sabkha sites in conjunction with vibroflotation characteristics, bedrock/ hard pan information, and
application. Reports made available to the author appear buried algal mats, if any;
favorable, and tend to support its use with caution. iii. Salts in sediments: their type, amounts, presence of
continuous and discontinuous cemented layers,
Dynamic compaction Soil compaction by heavy tamping, particularly gypsum layers;
termed dynamic compaction, involves repeated dropping of iv. Groundwater flow characteristics: gradient, potential
heavy weights onto the ground surface. Pounders range from 6 water ingress, capillary zone, surface water courses,
to 25 tons, are dropped repeatedly from heights ranging from and water table fluctuations; and,
10 to 20 m. The repeated application of high energy impacts at v. Groundwater chemistry: major ions and their
the same impact points, causes densification/compaction of concentration, potential reactions, and the impact of
the soil mass to depths ranging from 3 to 8 m. Energy is construction and site development on: precipitation,
typically applied in several passes, with the initial pass on a 3 dissolution, and crystal growth.

Paper No. 1.43 6

For large-size projects, it is recommended that site salts, and at the same time, allow extraction of bulk and
investigation work be carried out in stages. Table 1 outlines a undisturbed samples. Specimens for determination of
four- stage strategy; proven useful when sufficient lead time is mechanical properties of soils are often obtained with open-
available. Preliminary stage (Stage I), using walk over survey end drive samplers which can be placed directly in
and/or widely spaced sampling procedure, will aid in the consolidation or triaxial devices. In some cases, high quality
planning and execution of the latter three stages to follow. Denison and Pitcher specimens are needed Block samples
from open test pits have also been utilized. Ordinarily,
Blow s per 0.3 m qc , kg/cm2 Friction Ratio, %
however, the presence of salts makes it extremely difficult to
0 10 20 30 40 50
0 10 0 200 30 0 0 1 2 3 4
obtain good samples. Thus because of the difficulty of
0
St nd. P ent . t est sampling, insitu testing is recommended for major projects
a b c involving: chemically sensitive layers, relatively heavy loads,
1 dynamic loads, and the use of heavy construction equipment.

2
Table 1. A proposed four-stage geotechnical investigation for
a sabkha terrain
Depth, m

3
Stage Purpose Major Tasks
I To plan subsequent • Desk study
4 Preliminary stages • Walk over survey
• Identify land forms and
To determine type
controlling processes
II and extent of
5
• Obtain preliminary in-
Dut ch
Defining required field and
Dut ch depth information through
Cone Cone lab work
6
open pits
• Mapping including:
Lim it P re s s ure , kg/c m 2 De f. M o dulus , kg/c m 2 topography, outcrops,
0 10 20 30 0 10 0 200 300 400 hydrology, water gradient
To obtain all field
0
• Perform fieldwork by:
d e and lab data at a
boreholes, sampling, in-
d
& e III standard, justified
situ testing
1 Main by size and
Using Menard
complexity of • Perform lab tests: strength,
pressuremeter compressibility,
project
2 conductivity, etc.
• Properties and
Avg. value for
Depth, m

classification
all tests before
3
• Chemical testing of soils
improve ment
and brines
4 Avg. value for Addressing • Assessing chemical
all tests after chemical stability due to
IV
improve ment equilibrium of construction and
Auxiliary
5 sediments and development
brines • Effect of leaching on
stability and strength
6

Fig. 5. Test results before and after dynamic compaction of a Field tests including: plate bearing tests, CBR tests,
sabkha site in Rahima, eastern Saudi Arabia. Pressuremeter tests, foundation and embankment loading tests,
dewatering, seismic surveys, etc. have been used, with varying
Because the soil-structure, and therefore stability of layers degrees of success, to investigate sites of major structures or to
within the sabkha profile, are dependent on chemical generate useful parameters for foundation design over sabkha
cementation due to the presence of salts (chlorides, sulphates, sites. Proper planning and relatively long time (one to two
carbonates); it is useful to identify those layers that appear years) are usually required to generate useful field data that
sensitive to the presence of salts versus those that are less could be relied upon.
affected. Therefore, it is imperative that chemical testing be
carried out (Stage IV) to assess: type, percentage, and manner When examining the behavior of granular materials in sabkha,
in which these salts are present within soil grains. it is important to distinguish between stable and metastable
structures. The former derive their strength predominantly
Examination of relatively large exposures in open test pits, from particle interlock, while the latter are dependent to a
trenches, or through large diameter shallow borings, will aid in large degree on weak cementation bonds derived largely from
delineating sediments and layering, help identify crystalline the presence of sulphates, chlorides, and/or carbonates

Paper No. 1.43 7

(Fookes & Higginbottom 1980). Some of the sand-silt layers higher fines content and presence of undetectable cemented
in a sabkha possess metastable particle structure that makes layers and cemented pockets.
them extremely susceptible to collapse upon loading or
inundation. The author has observed collapse behavior on Site investigation in sabkha terrain should include an appraisal
several sabkha sites, triggered by embankment loading of the geochemical setting and potential chemical changes that
coupled with increase in moisture content (Akili 1997). are likely to occur in sabkha sediments after construction.
Although many of the chemical and physical processes that
occur in sabkha are not fully understood, it is believed that
CONCLUDING REMARKS sufficient knowledge exists to assess the probable risks that
may result in most situations, and to be able to design and
The brisk pace of construction activities over many of the construct safe foundations in sabkha deposits.
sabkha flats along the southern shores of the Arabian (Persian)
Gulf, has necessitated consideration of their geological setting
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