Chapter 3

Manufacturing Considerations
in Machine Design
Interchangeability and the limit
system
• In a mass production, to produce a large number
of exactly the dimension is not possible, hence a
small permissible variation in size is allowed
which will not prevent a proper functioning of the
parts.
• This phenomenon is known as interchangeability
• In order to control the variation in size of finished
parts, with due allowance for error, for
interchangeable parts the limit system is used.
 Hole and shaft
• When an assembly is made of two parts, the part
which enters into the other, is known as
enveloped surface (or shaft for cylindrical part)
and the other in which one enters is called
enveloping surface (or hole for cylindrical part).
Notes:
– The term shaft refers not only to the diameter of a
circular shaft, but it is also used to designate any
external dimension of a part.
– The term hole refers not only to the diameter of a
circular hole, but it is also used to designate any
internal dimension of a part.
 Terms used in Limit System
The following terms used in limit system 4. Limits of sizes. There are two
(or interchangeable system) are extreme permissible sizes for a
important from the subject point of view: dimension of the part as shown in
1. Nominal size. It is the size of a part Fig. below The largest permissible
specified in the drawing as a matter size for a dimension of the part is
of convenience. called upper or high or maximum
2. Basic size. It is the size of a part to limit, whereas the smallest size of
which all limits of variation (i.e. the part is known as lower or
tolerances) are applied to arrive at minimum limit.
final dimensioning of the mating
parts. The nominal or basic size of a
part is often the same.
3. Actual size. It is the actual
measured dimension of the part.
The difference between the basic
size and the actual size should not
exceed a certain limit, otherwise it
will interfere with the
interchangeability of the mating
parts.
 Terms used in Limit System cont’d
5. Allowance. It is the difference between
the basic dimensions of the mating parts. • When the tolerance is allowed on
The allowance may be positive or both sides of the nominal size, e.g.
negative. When the shaft size is less than
the hole size, then the allowance is 20 00..002
002
positive and when the shaft size is greater • then it is said to be bilateral system
than the hole size, then the allowance is of tolerance.
negative. • The method of assigning unilateral
6. Tolerance. It is the difference between and bilateral tolerance is shown in
the upper limit and lower limit of a Fig. (a) and (b) respectively.
dimension. In other words, it is the
maximum permissible variation in a
dimension. The tolerance may be
unilateral or bilateral.
– When all the tolerance is allowed on one
side of the nominal size, e.g. 0.000
20 0.004
• The unilateral system is mostly used
– then it is said to be unilateral system of
tolerance.
in industries as it permits changing
the tolerance value while still
retaining the same allowance or type
of fit.
Terms used in Limit System cont’d
7. Tolerance zone. It is
the zone between the
maximum and
minimum limit size, as
shown in figure below
Terms used in Limit System cont’d
8. Zero line. It is a straight line corresponding to the
basic size. The deviations are measured from this line.
The positive and negative deviations are shown above
and below the zero line respectively.
9. Upper deviation. It is the algebraic difference
between the maximum size and the basic size. The
upper deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol
ES (Ecart Superior) and of a shaft, it is represented by
es.
10. Lower deviation. It is the algebraic difference
between the minimum size and the basic size. The
lower deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol
EI (Ecart Inferior) and of a shaft, it is represented by
ei.
 Terms used in Limit System cont’d
11. Actual deviation. It is the algebraic difference between an actual size
and the corresponding basic size.
12. Mean deviation. It is the arithmetical mean between the upper and
lower deviations.
13. Fundamental deviation. It is one of the two deviations which is
conventionally chosen to define the position of the tolerance zone in
relation to zero line, as shown in Fig. below
 Basis of Limit System
• Hole basis system. When the hole is kept as a
constant member (i.e. when the lower deviation
of the hole is zero) and different fits are obtained
by varying the shaft size, then the limit system is
said to be on a hole basis.
• Shaft basis system. When the shaft is kept as a
constant member (i.e. when the upper deviation
of the shaft is zero) and different fits are obtained
by varying the hole size, then the limit system is
said to be on a shaft basis.
 Basis of Limit System cont’d

The hole basis and shaft basis system may also be shown, with respect
to the zero line.
 Basis of Limit System cont’d
• From the manufacturing point of view, a hole
basis system is always preferred.
• This is because the holes are usually produced
and finished by standard tooling like drill,
reamers, etc., whose size is not adjustable
easily.
• On the other hand, the size of the shaft (which
is to go into the hole) can be easily adjusted
and is obtained by turning or grinding
operations.
 Fits
• The degree of tightness or looseness
between the two mating parts is known as
a fit of the parts.
• The nature of fit is characterized by the
presence and size of clearance and
interference.
• The clearance is the amount by which the
actual size of the shaft is less than the
actual size of the mating hole in an
assembly as shown in Fig. below.
• In other words, the clearance is the
difference between the sizes of the hole
and the shaft before assembly.
– The difference must be positive.
 Fits cont’d
• The interference is the amount
by which the actual size of a
shaft is larger than the actual
finished size of the mating hole
in an assembly as shown in Fig.
below.
• In other words, the interference
is the arithmetical difference
between the sizes of the hole
and the shaft, before assembly.
– The difference must be negative.
 Types of Fits
• Clearance fit. In this type of fit, the size limits for
mating parts are so selected that clearance between
them always occur.
– The tolerance zone of the hole is entirely above the
tolerance zone of the shaft.
– In a clearance fit, the difference between the minimum
size of the hole and the maximum size of the shaft is
known as minimum clearance whereas the difference
between the maximum size of the hole and minimum size
of the shaft is called maximum clearance
– The clearance fits may be slide fit, easy sliding fit, running
fit, slack running fit and loose running fit.
 Types of Fits cont’d
• Interference fit. In this type of fit, the size limits
for the mating parts are so selected that
interference between them always
– The tolerance zone of the hole is entirely below the
tolerance zone of the shaft.
– In an interference fit, the difference between the
maximum size of the hole and the minimum size of
the shaft is known as minimum interference, whereas
the difference between the minimum size of the hole
and the maximum size of the shaft is called maximum
interference.
– The interference fits may be shrink fit, heavy drive fit
and light drive fit.
 Types of Fits cont’d
• Transition fit. In this type of fit, the size limits
for the mating parts are so selected that
either a clearance or interference may occur
depending upon the actual size of the mating
parts.
– The tolerance zones of hole and shaft overlap.
– The transition fits may be force fit, tight fit and
push fit.
Types of Fits cont’d
Descriptions of
Preferred
Fits Using the
Basic
Hole System
 Case study:
Indian Standard System of Limits and
Fits
• According to Indian standard [IS : 919 (Part I)-1993], the
system of limits and fits comprises 18 grades of
fundamental tolerances i.e. grades of accuracy of
manufacture and 25 types of fundamental deviations
indicated by letter symbols for both holes and shafts
(capital letter A to ZC for holes and small letters a to zc for
shafts) in diameter steps ranging from 1 to 500 mm.
• A unilateral hole basis system is recommended but if
necessary a unilateral or bilateral shaft basis system may
also be used.
• The 18 tolerance grades are designated as IT 01, IT 0 and IT
1 to IT 16. These are called standard tolerances.
• The standard tolerances for grades IT 5 to IT 7 are
determined in terms of standard tolerance unit (i) in
microns, where imicrons  0.453 D  0.001D,
where D is the size or geometric mean diameter in mm
 Relative magnitude of tolerance
grades
• The following table shows the relative
magnitude for tolerance grades between IT 5
and IT 16.

• The values of standard tolerances

corresponding to grades IT 01, IT 0 and IT 1
are as given below: For IT 01, imicrons  0.3  0.008D
For IT 0, i microns   0.5  0.012 D
For IT 1, i microns   0.8  0.020 D
 Relative magnitude of tolerance
grades cont’d
• The tolerance values of grades IT 2 to IT 4 are
scaled approximately geometrically between
IT 1 and IT 5.
• The fundamental tolerances of grades IT 01, IT
0 and IT 1 to IT 16 for diameter steps ranging
from 1 to 500 mm are given in Table below
Fundamental tolerances of grades IT01, IT0 and
IT1 to IT16, according to IS : 919 (Part I) – 1993.
 Manufacturing processes and IT
grades produced
• The manufacturing processes capable of
producing the particular IT grades of work are
shown in Table below
• For hole, H stands for a dimension whose lower deviation
refers to the basic size. The hole H for which the lower
deviation is zero is called a basic hole.
• Similarly, for shafts, h stands for a dimension whose upper
deviation refers to the basic size. The shaft h for which the
upper deviation is zero is called a basic shaft.
• A fit is designated by its basic size followed by symbols
representing the limits of each of its two components, the
hole being quoted first. For example, 100 H6/g5 means
basic size is 100 mm and the tolerance grade for the hole is
6 and for the shaft is 5.
• Some of the fits commonly used in engineering practice, for
holes and shafts are shown in following Tables according to
IS : 2709 – 1982 (Reaffirmed 1993).
Commonly used fits for holes according to
IS : 2709 – 1982 (Reaffirmed 1993).
 Commonly used fits
for shafts according to
IS : 2709 – 1982
(Reaffirmed 1993)
 Calculation of Fundamental Deviation
for Shafts
• We have already discussed that for holes, the upper deviation is
denoted by ES and the lower deviation by EI.
• Similarly for shafts, the upper deviation is represented by es and
the lower deviation by ei.
• According to Indian standards, for each letter symbol, the
magnitude and sign for one of the two deviations (i.e. either
upper or lower deviation), which is known as fundamental
deviation, have been determined by means of formulae given in
Table on following slide
• The other deviation may be calculated by using the absolute
value of the standard tolerance (IT) from the following relation:
ei = es – IT or es = ei + IT
• For shafts a to h, the upper deviations (es) are considered
whereas for shafts j to Zc, the lower deviation (ei) is to be
considered.
Calculation of
Fundamental
Deviation for Shafts
cont’d

Formulae for
fundamental
shaft deviations
Calculation of Fundamental Deviation
for Shafts cont’d
• The fundamental deviation for Indian standard shafts for
diameter steps from 1 to 200 mm may be taken directly from
Table below
Calculation of Fundamental Deviation
for Shafts cont’d
Calculation of Fundamental Deviation
for Holes
• The fundamental deviation for holes for those
of the corresponding shafts, are derived by
using the rule as given in Table below
 Indian standard ‘H’ Hole
Limits for H5 to H13 over the range 1 to 200
mm as per IS : 919 (Part II) -1993.
• The
fundamental
deviation for
Indian standard
holes for
diameter steps
from 1 to 200
mm may be
taken directly
from the
following table.
 Example
• The dimensions of the mating parts, according to
basic hole system, are given as follows :
Hole : 25.00 mm Shaft : 24.97 mm
25.02 mm 24.95 mm
– Find the hole tolerance, shaft tolerance and
allowance.
Answer
Hole tolerance = 0.02 mm
Shaft tolerance = 0.02 mm
Allowance = 0.03 mm
 Example
• Calculate the tolerances, fundamental deviations and limits of sizes for the shaft
designated as 40 H8 / f7.
Answer
Tolerances
- Standard tolerance for the hole of grade 8 (I T 8) = 0.039 mm
- Standard tolerance for the shaft of grade 7 (I T 7)= 0.025 mm
Fundamental deviation
Fundamental deviation (upper deviation) for shaft f, es = – 0.025 mm
Fundamental deviation (lower deviation) for shaft f, ei = – 0.050 mm
• The negative sign indicates that fundamental deviation lies below the zero line.
Limits of sizes
• Lower limit for hole = 40 mm
Upper limit for hole = 40.039 mm
Upper limit for shaft = 39.975 mm
Lower limit for shaft = 39.95 mm
 Surface Roughness and its
Measurement
• A little consideration will show that surfaces produced by different
machining operations (e.g. turning, milling, shaping, planing,
grinding and superfinishing) are of different characteristics.
• They show marked variations when compared with each other.
• The variation is judged by the degree of smoothness.
• A surface produced by superfinishing is the smoothest, while that
by planing is the roughest.
• In the assembly of two mating parts, it becomes absolutely
necessary to describe the surface finish in quantitative terms which
is measure of micro-irregularities of the surface and expressed in
microns.
• In order to prevent stress concentrations and proper functioning, it
may be necessary to avoid or to have certain surface roughness.
• There are many ways of expressing the surface roughness
numerically, but the following two methods are commonly used :
1. Centre line average method (briefly known as CLA method), and
2. Root mean square method (briefly known as RMS method).
 Surface Roughness and its
Measurement cont’d
• The centre line average method is defined as the
average value of the ordinates between the
surface and the mean line, measured on both
sides of it.
• According to Indian standards, the surface finish
is measured in terms of ‘CLA’ value and it is
denoted by Ra. y1  y2  y3  ....  yn
CLA value or Ra (in microns) 
n
• where, y  y  y  ....  y are the ordinates measured
1 2 3 n

on both sides of the mean line and n are the

number of ordinates.
 Surface Roughness and its
Measurement cont’d
• The root mean square method is defined as the square
root of the arithmetic mean of the squares of the
ordinates. Mathematically,
y1  y2  y3  .... yn
2 2 3 2
R.M.S. value (in microns) 
n
• According to Indian standards, following symbols are used
to denote the various degrees of surface roughness :
Symbol Surface roughness (Ra) in microns
∇ 8 to 25
∇∇ 1.6 to 8
∇∇∇ 0.025 to 1.6
∇∇∇∇ Less than 0.025
 Surface Roughness and its
Measurement cont’d
• The following table shows the range of surface
roughness that can be produced by various
manufacturing processes.
 Preferred Numbers
• Read about preferred numbers and make
notes.