UNIT I

Metal Casting Process

Manufacturing
• Manufacturing in its broadest sense is the process of converting raw materials into useful
products.
• It includes
i) Design of the product
ii) Selection of raw materials and
iii) The sequence of processes through which the product will be manufactured.
Casting
Casting is the process of producing metal parts by pouring molten metal into the mould
cavity of the required shape and allowing the metal to solidify. The solidified metal piece is
called as “casting”.
Types of casting
Casting

Conventional Methods Unconventional Methods

Green sand mould CO2 Moulding (Strong mould)
Dry sand mould Permanent (Metal mould)

Shell Moulding (Thinn mould)

Investment casting (Precision)

Centrifugal (without core)

Continuous Casting (Open)

Advantages
• Design flexibility
• Reduced costs
• Dimensional accuracy
• Versatility in production

Disadvantages
• Lot of molten metal is wasted in riser & gating
• Casting may require machining to remove rough surfaces

Sand Casting
Sand Casting is simply melting the metal and pouring it into a preformed cavity, called mold,
allowing (the metal to solidify and then breaking up the mold to remove casting. In sand casting
expandable molds are used. So for each casting operation you have to form a new mold.
• Most widely used casting process.
• Parts ranging in size from small to very large
• Production quantities from one to millions
• Sand mold is used.
• Patterns and Cores
– Solid, Split, Match-plate and Cope-and-drag Patterns
– Cores – achieve the internal surface of the part

Molds
– Sand with a mixture of water and bonding clay
– Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
– to enhance strength and/or permeability
Sand – Refractory for high temperature

Size and shape of sand

Small grain size -> better surface finish
Large grain size -> to allow escape of gases during pouring
Irregular grain shapes -> strengthen molds due to interlocking but to reduce permeability

Types of sand
a) Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water; “Green" means mold contains moisture
at time of pouring.
b) Dry-sand mold - organic binders rather than clay and mold is baked to improve strength
c) Skin-dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a green-sand
– mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using torches or heating

Steps in Sand Casting

The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand around a pattern, separating the
mold into two halves
The mold must also contain gating and riser system
For internal cavity, a core must be included in mold
A new sand mold must be made for each part
1. Pour molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to improve metallurgical properties
Types of patterns used in sand casting
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern

Pattern Allowances
Five types of allowances were taken into consideration for various reasons. They are
described as follows:
1. Shrinkage allowance
2. Draft allowance
3. Finish allowance
4. Shake allowance
5. Distortion allowance
Desirable Mold Properties and Characteristics
• Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion
• Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass through voids in sand
• Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with molten metal
• Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to shrink without cracking the casting
• Reusability - can sand from broken mold be reused to make other molds.
Testing of Mould & Core sand
1) Preparation of standard test specimen
2) Mould hardness test
3) Core hardness test
4) Moisture content test on foundry sand
5) Sieve analysis
6) Clay content test
7) Permeability test
8) Compression, shear test

Other Expendable Mold Casting

• Shell Molding
• Vacuum Molding
• Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Investment casting
• Plaster and Ceramic Mold casting

Steps in shell-molding
Shell-mold casting yields better surface quality and tolerances. The process is described as
follows:
The 2-piece pattern is made of metal (e.g. aluminum or steel), it is heated to between 175°C- 370°C,
and coated with a lubricant, e.g. silicone spray.
Each heated half-pattern is covered with a mixture of sand and a thermoset resin/epoxy binder.
The binder glues a layer of sand to the pattern, forming a shell. The process may be repeated to get a
thicker shell.
The assembly is baked to cure it.
The patterns are removed, and the two half-shells joined together to form the mold; metal is poured
into the mold.
When the metal solidifies, the shell is broken to get the part.
Advantages
Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten metal and better surface finish on
casting
Good dimensional accuracy
Machining often not required
Mold collapsibility usually avoids cracks in casting
Can be mechanized for mass production

Disadvantages
More expensive metal pattern
Difficult to justify for small quantities

Investment Casting
Investment casting produces very high surface quality and dimensional accuracy.
Investment casting is commonly used for precision equipment such as surgical equipment,
for complex geometries and for precious metals.
This process is commonly used by artisans to produce highly detailed artwork.
The first step is to produce a pattern or replica of the finished mould. Wax is most
commonly used to form the pattern, although plastic is also used.
Patterns are typically mass-produced by injecting liquid or semi-liquid wax into a
permanent die.
Prototypes, small production runs and specialty projects can also be undertaken by carving
wax models.
Cores are typically unnecessary but can be used for complex internal structures. Rapid
prototyping techniques have been developed to produce expendable patterns.
Several replicas are often attached to a gating system constructed of the same material to
form a tree assembly. In this way multiple castings can be produced in a single pouring.

Casting with expendable mould: Investment Casting

Advantages
– Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
– Close dimensional control and good surface finish
– Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
– Additional machining is not normally required - this is a net shape process

Disadvantages
– Many processing steps are required
– Relatively expensive process
Plaster Molding
• Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster of Paris (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
• Plaster and water mixture is poured over plastic or metal pattern to make a mold

Advantages
– Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
– Capability to make thin cross-sections in casting

Disadvantages
Moisture in plaster mold causes problems:
Mold must be baked to remove moisture
Mold strength is lost when is over-baked, yet moisture content can cause defects in product
Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures

Permanent Mold Casting

Basic Permanent Mold Process
– Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed for easy, precise opening and closing
– Molds for lower melting point alloys: steel or cast iron and Molds for steel: refractory material,
due to the very high pouring temperatures

Permanent Mold Casting Process

The two halves of the mold are made of metal, usually cast iron, steel, or refractory
alloys. The cavity, including the runners and gating system are machined into the mold
halves.
For hollow parts, either permanent cores (made of metal) or sand-bonded ones may be
used, depending on whether the core can be extracted from the part without damage after
casting.
The surface of the mold is coated with clay or other hard refractory material – this
improves the life of the mold. Before molding, the surface is covered with a spray of
graphite or silica, which acts as a lubricant. This has two purposes – it improves the flow
of the liquid metal, and it allows the cast part to be withdrawn from the mold more easily.
The process can be automated, and therefore yields high throughput rates.
It produces very good tolerance and surface finish.
It is commonly used for producing pistons used in car engines; gear blanks, cylinder
heads, and other parts made of low melting point metals, e.g. copper, bronze, aluminum,
magnesium, etc.

Advantage
- Good surface finish and dimensional control and Fine grain due to rapid solidification.

Disadvantage
- Simple geometric part, expensive mold.
Example
It is commonly used for producing pistons used in car engines; gear blanks, cylinder
heads, and other parts made of low melting point metals, e.g. copper, bronze, aluminum,
magnesium, etc.
Basic Permanent Mold Process

Advantages
– Good dimensional control and surface finish
– More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold results in a finer grain structure, so
stronger castings are produced

Limitations
• Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
• Simple part geometries compared to sand casting because of the need to open the mold
• High cost of mold
• Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to automated high volume production

Testing of Mould & Core sand

1) Preparation of standard test specimen
2) Mould hardness test
3) Core hardness test
4) Moisture content test on foundry sand
5) Sieve analysis
6) Clay content test
7) Permeability test
8) Compression, shear test

Die Casting
• Die casting is a very commonly used type of permanent mold casting process.
• It is used for producing many components of home appliances (e.g rice cookers, stoves, fans,
washing and drying machines, fridges), motors, toys and hand-tools
• The molten metal is injected into mold cavity (die) under high pressure (7-350MPa).
Pressure maintained during solidification.
• Hot Chamber (Pressure of 7 to 35MPa)
• The injection system is submerged under the molten metals (low melting point metals such as
lead, zinc, tin and magnesium)
• Cold Chamber (Pressure of 14 to 140MPa)
• External melting container (in addition aluminum, brass and magnesium)
Molds are made of tool steel, mold steel, maraging steel, tungsten and molybdenum.
• Single or multiple cavity
• Lubricants and Ejector pins to free the parts
• Venting holes and passageways in die
• Formation of flash that needs to be trimmed

Properties of die-casting
1) Huge numbers of small, light castings can be produced with great accuracy.
2) Little surface finishing is required.
3) Permanent mold (dies can be used over and over)

Advantages
– High production, Economical, close tolerance, good surface finish, thin sections, rapid cooling

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

In a hot chamber process (used for Zinc alloys, magnesium) the pressure chamber
connected to the die cavity is filled permanently in the molten metal.
The basic cycle of operation is as follows:
(i) die is closed and gooseneck cylinder is filled with molten metal;
(ii) plunger pushes molten metal through gooseneck passage and nozzle and into the die
cavity; metal is held under pressure until it solidifies;
(iii) die opens and cores, if any, are retracted; casting stays in ejector die; plunger returns,
pulling molten metal back through nozzle and gooseneck;
(iv) ejector pins push casting out of ejector die. As plunger uncovers inlet hole, molten
metal refills gooseneck cylinder.
The hot chamber process is used for metals that (a) have low melting points and (b) do not alloy
with the die material, steel; common examples are tin, zinc, and lead.

Cold Chamber Die Casting

In a cold chamber process, the molten metal is poured into the cold chamber in each
cycle. The operating cycle is
(i) Die is closed and molten metal is ladled into the cold chamber cylinder;
(ii) plunger pushes molten metal into die cavity; the metal is held under high pressure
until it solidifies;
(iii) die opens and plunger follows to push the solidified slug from the cylinder, if
there are cores, they are retracted away;
(iv) ejector pins push casting off ejector die and plunger returns to original position
This process is particularly useful for high melting point metals such as Aluminum, and Copper
(and its alloys).

Advantages
– Economical for large production quantities
– Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
– Thin sections are possible
– Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength to casting

Disadvantages
– Generally limited to metals with low metal points
– Part geometry must allow removal from die cavity

Centrifugal casting
Centrifugal casting uses a permanent mold that is rotated about its axis at a speed between
300 to 3000 rpm as the molten metal is poured.
Centrifugal forces cause the metal to be pushed out towards the mold walls, where it
solidifies after cooling.
Centrifugal casting has greater reliability than static castings. They are relatively free from
gas and shrinkage porosity.
Surface treatments such as case carburizing, flame hardening and have to be used when a
wear resistant surface must be combined with a hard tough exterior surface.
One such application is bimetallic pipe consisting of two separate concentric layers of
different alloys/metals bonded together.

Carbon Dioxide Moulding

• This sand is mixed with 3 to 5 % sodium silicate liquid base binder in muller for 3 to 4
minutes. Additives such as coal powder, wood flour sea coal, dextrine may be added to improve
its properties.
• Aluminium oxide Kaolin clay may also added to the sand .
 • Patterns used in this method may be coated with Zinc of 0.05 mm to 0.13 mm and then
spraying a layer of aluminium or brass of about 0.25 mm thickness for good surface finish and
good results.

Advantages
• Operation is speedy since we can use the mould and cores immediately after processing.
• Heavy and rush orders
• Floor space requirement is less
• Semi skilled labour may be used.

Disadvantages
Difficult in reusing the moulding sand.

Process Advantages Disadvantages Examples

Sand Wide range of poor finish, wide engine blocks,
metals, sizes, tolerance cylinder heads
shapes, low cost
Shell mold better accuracy, limited part size connecting rods,
finish, higher gear housings
production rate
Expendable Wide range of patterns have low cylinder heads,
pattern metals, sizes, strength brake components
shapes
Plaster mold complex shapes, non-ferrous metals, prototypes of
good surface finish low production rate mechanical parts
Ceramic mold complex shapes, small sizes impellers, injection
high accuracy, mold tooling
good finish
Investment complex shapes, small parts, jewellery
excellent finish expensive
Permanent mold good finish, low Costly mold, gears, gear
porosity, high simpler shapes only housings
production rate
Die Excellent costly dies, small precision gears,
dimensional parts, camera bodies, car
accuracy, high non-ferrous metals wheels
production rate
Centrifugal Large cylindrical Expensive, limited pipes, boilers,
parts, good quality shapes flywheels

Furnaces
Cupola Furnace
• A continuous flow of iron emerges from the bottom of the furnace.
• Depending on the size of the furnace, the flow rate can be as high as 100 tonnes per hour.
At the metal melts it is refined to some extent, which removes contaminants. This makes this
process more suitable than electric furnaces for dirty charges.
Direct Fuel-fired furnace
–Crucible Furnace
– Electric-arc Furnace
– Induction Furnace
• Pouring with ladle
• Solidification – watch for oxidation
• Trimming, surface cleaning, repair and heat treat, inspection

Three types: (a) lift-out crucible, (b) stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and
(c) tilting-pot furnace
Induction Furnace:

Casting defects
Defects may occur due to one or more of the following reasons:
– Fault in design of casting pattern
– Fault in design on mold and core
– Fault in design of gating system and riser
– Improper choice of moulding sand
– Improper metal composition
– Inadequate melting temperature and rate of pouring

Some common defects in castings:

a) Misruns b) Cold Shut c) Cold Shot d) Shrinkage Cavity e) Microporosity f) Hot Tearing
Misruns:
a)Misruns
It is a casting that has solidified before completely filling the mold cavity.
Typical causes include
1) Fluidity of the molten metal is insufficient,
2) Pouring Temperature is too low,
3) Pouring is done too slowly and/or
4) Cross section of the mold cavity is too thin.
b) Cold Shut
A cold shut occurs when two portion of the metal flow together, but there is lack of
fusion between them due to premature freezing, Its causes are similar to those of a Misruns.
c) Cold Shots
When splattering occurs during pouring, solid globules of the metal are formed that
become entrapped in the casting. Poring procedures and gating system designs that avoid
splattering can prevent these defects.
d) Shrinkage Cavity
This defects is a depression in the surface or an internal void in the casting caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts the amount of the molten metal available in the last region
to freeze.
e) Microporosity
This refers to a network of a small voids distributed throughout the casting caused by
localized solidification shrinkage of the final molten metal in the dendritic structure.
f) Hot Tearing
This defect, also called hot cracking, occurs when the casting is restrained or early stages
of cooling after solidification.
 QUESTION BANK
Manufacturing Technology-I
UNIT- I
PART – A
1. How special forming process is defined?
1. What is metal spinning process? Define casting?
2. When do you make core (or) what is function of core in moulding sand?
3. Explain the core making process?
4. Mention the specific advantages of carbon di oxide process?
5. Write the composition of good moulding sand?
6. What are chaplets?
7. List the factors to be considered in the choice of metal melting furnace?
8. What are the reasons for the casting defects of cold shuts and misrun?
9. Name four different casting defects.
10. How casting defects are identified?
Part-B
1. What are the pattern allowances? Explain briefly each. (16)
2. Discuss the properties of moulding sand. (16)
3. Explain the CO2 process of core making state its advantages and applications. (16) 4.
State the different type of mould. Write a short note on „Green sand mould‟ and shell
moulding (16)
5. Write a neat sketch of a cupola, Explain its operate. (16)
6. Explain with a simple sketch how metal is melted in a Electric arc furnace. (16)
7. What are the different types of furnace used in foundry? Describe in detail with neat
sketches any one of them. (16)
8. Explain briefly the various moulding method used in foundries. (16)
9. Enumerate the continuous casting defects and suggest suitable remedies. (16)
10. Explain the various non –destructive inspection methods of cast products. (16)
 MEE 1007
Manufacturing Processes
 Products and Manufacturing

Product Creation Cycle

Design → Material Selection → Process Selection →
Manufacture → Inspection →
Feedback

Typical product
costt breakdown
b kd
Manufacturing Process
A sequence of operations and processes
designed to create a specific product
The process of turning materials into a
product

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Engineers in Manufacturing
Manufacturing Engineer
Select and coordinate specific processes
and equipment
Industrial Engineer
Responsible for the manufacturing system
design
Materials Engineer
Develop and select materials based on
desired material properties and
manufacturing processes
Manufacturing System Designs
Job Shop
Small quantities of products
Large variety of products
Products move through the shop to
various machines
General-purpose machines

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Manufacturing System Designs
Flow Shop
Larger quantities of products
Production line
Special purpose machines

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Manufacturing System Designs

Linked-Cell Shop
Manufacturing and subassembly cells
connected to final assembly
Lean production system
One piece flow system

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Manufacturing System Designs
Project Shop
Product being manufactured cannot be
easily moved during production
Production processes are brought to the
product
Examples: Bridges, ships, large airplanes,
locomotives, large machinery

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Manufacturing System Designs

Continuous Process
Large plants
Utilized in the manufacture of liquids, oils,
gases, and powders

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Manufacturing System Designs
Lean Manufacturing
100% “good” units flow from process
to process
Integrated quality control (IQC)
All employees are inspectors

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Basic Manufacturing Processes

What are the fundamental

manufacturing processes in
mechanical engineering industry?
What are the types of products that
can be manufactured ?
What are the various paths of the
material flow to final product
realization?
 What is Manufacturing?
• A Well organized method of converting raw material to end product
• End Product: Value and utility added to output.
• The word “Manufacturing” derived from Latin “manu factus” means, literally,
“Made by Hand”.

A sequence of operations and processes designed to create a specific

product.
The process of turning materials into a product.

The word Production is also used interchangeably with the word Manufacturing.
 Manufacturing
Societal pressures, Government regulations,
company plans and policies, etc
Customer
needs

manufacturing Products
Raw
material

People, money, machines and automation

 The manufacturing Process
Materials Science, Statics, Dynamics, Thermodynamics, Fluid
dynamics
Raw Material

Products
Material

Assembly
w
Transformation
Processes

Machines and Automation

 Components in
Products

Single component Multi-component

(ball point pens,
(nail, bolt, fork, coat automobiles, washing
hanger, etc.)
hanger etc ) machines, etc
machines etc.))

• All components are

manufactured.
• Discrete Vs Continuous
Products.
 Engineers in Manufacturing

Manufacturing Engineer
Select and coordinate specific processes and
equipment
Industrial Engineer
Responsible for the manufacturing system design
Materials Engineer
Develop and select materials based on desired
material properties and manufacturing processes
 Parts undergo sequence of processes
• Primary - alter the (“raw”) material’s basic shape or form.
Sand casting
Rolling
Forging
Sheet metalworking

• Secondary - add or remove geometric features from the basic forms

Machining of a brake drum casting (flat surfaces)
Drilling/punching of refrigerator housings (sheet metal)
Trimming of injection molded part flash

• Tertiary - surface treatments

Polishing
P li hi
Painting
Heat-treating
Joining
 Types of manufacturing processes

Manufacturing How is the input

Processes t i l changed?
material h d?

Sheet Polymer
Deformation Casting Metal Processes Machining Finishing Assembly

Extrusion Centrifugal Bendin Blow molding Boring Anodizi Automated

Forging Die casting g Casting Drilling ng Bonding
Rolling Investment Blanki Compression Facing Honing Brazing
B ddrawing
Bar i P
Permanent t ng ld Pmolding
hi Grinding Painting G i di
Manual
Pl ti drawing
Wire M Sand
mold l Drawi Extrusion Milling Plating Riveting
casting ng Injection Molding Planing Polishing Soldering
Punchi Thermoforming Turning Welding
ng Transfer molding S Sawing
i
Sheari ECM,
ng EDM
Spinni
ng
 Basic Manufacturing Processes

• Casting and Foundry

• Forming or Metalworking
• Machining
• Joining and Assembly
• Rapid Prototyping
• Other
 Casting and Foundry Processes

In one step raw materials are transformed into a desirable shape

Parts require finishing processes
Excess material is recyclable
 Basic Casting Process
A mold is created – A cavity that holds the molten material
in a desired shape until it is solidified

 Material is heated to a specified temperature

 Molten material is poured into a mold cavity
 Molten material solidifies into the shape of the cavity
 Casting or mold is removed
 Casting is cleaned, finished, and
inspected
 Forming and Metalworking Processes

Utilizes material that has been cast

Modify the shape, size, and physical properties of the material
Hot and cold forming

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 Forming and Metalworking Processes

Rolling – Material passes through a series of

rollers, reducing its thickness with each pass

Forging – Material is shaped by the controlled

application of force (blacksmith)
 Forming and Metalworking Processes
Extrusion – Material is compressed and forced
through a die to produce a uniformed cross section

Wire, rod, and tube drawing – Material is pulled

through a die to produce a uniformed cross section
 Forming and Metalworking Processes

Cold forming and forging – Slugs of material are

squeezed
d iinto dies
t di
 Machining Processes
Controlled removal of material from a part to create a
specific shape or surface finish
Cutting element is used
Movement must exist between the part and cutting
element
Machining Processes
Turning Processes
Operations that create cylindrical parts
Work piece rotates as cutting tool is fed into
the work

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Machining Processes
Turning Processes
Lathes and turning centers
Processes include: Straight, taper, contour
turning, facing, forming, necking, parting,
boring, threading, and knurling

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Machining Processes
Milling Processes
Operations that create flat or curved
surfaces by progressively removing
material
Cutting tools rotate as the work piece is
secured and fed into the tool
Machining Processes
Milling Processes
Mills – Vertical and horizontal
Processes include: Surfacing, shaping,
forming, slotting, T-slotting, angle, straddle,
dovetailing, and slab milling
Machining Processes
Drilling Processes
Operations that create holes
Cutting tools rotate and are fed into
nonmoving secured work pieces
Machining Processes
Drilling Processes
Drilling and boring machines
Processes include: Drilling, counter drilling,
step drilling, boring, counter boring,
countersinking, reaming, spot facing, and
tapping
Machining Processes
Shearing Processes
Operations that break unwanted material away
from the part
A material is placed between a stationary and
movable surface. The movable surface (blade,
die, or punch) applies a force to the part that
shears away the unwanted material.
Machining Processes
Shearing Processes
Automated hole punch, squaring shear, and
rotary cutter
Processes include: Shearing, blanking, cutoff,
and parting; punching, perforating, and slotting;
notching, lacing, and trimming
Machining Processes
Abrasive Machining Processes
Operations in which small particles of materials
(abrasives) remove small chips of material upon
contact
Drum, disc, and belt sanders; surface, vertical
and horizontal spindle; disc grinders; media
blaster; tumblers
 Thermal and Chemical Processes

 Operations that cut and shape materials

through
th h chemical
h i l means.
 No mechanical force is used.
 Electrical discharge, electrochemical,
chemical, laser, electron beam, flame cutting
and plasma-arc cutting.
 Heat Treating Processes

Controlled heating and cooling of a material to alter its properties

while
hil maintaining
i t i i itits shape.
h
Properties include: Strength, toughness, machinability, wear
resistance, and corrosion resistance
90% of heat treating is preformed on steel and other ferrous
metals.
 Joining and Assembly Processes

Can you think of a product with only one part?

Most products consist of multiple parts that are
assembled to form a finished product.
product
Typical assembly processes include:
Mechanical fastening; soldering and brazing,
welding; adhesive bonding
 Joining and Assembly Processes
Mechanical Fastening
Use physical force to hold parts together
Mechanical fasteners or part design
Screws, bolts, nails, rivets, cotter pins, retaining
clips, and edge design
 Joining and Assembly Processes
Welding
Operations that use heat, pressure, or both to
permanently
tl join
j i parts
t
Gas, arc, stud, spot, forge, roll laminating,
resistance, and induction welding

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 Joining and Assembly Processes
Adhesive bonding
Bonding of adjoining surfaces by filling the gap
between each surface with a bonding material
Glue, cement, thermoplastic, thermosetting, and
elastomers
 Joining and Assembly Processes
Soldering and Brazing
Operation in which metal surfaces are bonded
together by an alloy
Heated molten alloy flows between the
adjoining surfaces
When the heat is removed, the molten metal
solidifies and the metal surfaces are bonded
 Rapid Prototyping
Additive process
Parts are produced directly from software
applications
Common rapid prototyping system includes:
stereolithography (SLA), selective laser sintering
(SLS), fused deposition modeling (FDM),
laminated object manufacturing (LOM), digital
light processing (DLP)
 Rapid Prototyping
Finished parts can be field tested depending
upon building material
Created parts can be used to create a mold
Modifications
M difi i to design
d i can be
b implemented
i l d
quickly
 Other Manufacturing Processes

Testing
Transportation
Material handling
Packaging
 Material-Specific
Manufacturing Processes

Plastic Processes
Ceramic Processes
 Plastics Manufacturing Processes
Extrusion
A rotating screw forces plastic through a
heating chamber and then through a heated
die
Produces long plastic parts with uniform cross
sections
 Plastics Manufacturing Processes
Injection Molding
Heated plastic is forced by a movable plunger through a
nozzle and then into a mold. The material fills the mold
and then is cooled.
Most widely used high
high-volume production process
 Plastics Manufacturing Processes
Blow Molding
A solid bottom hollow tube is placed
b t
between t
two moldld halves
h l andd heated.
h t d The
Th
heated tube is then expanded into the sides
off the
th moldld with
ith compressed d air.
i
 Ceramic Manufacturing Processes

Two distinct classes of materials and processes exist.

Glass Ceramics
Glass is heated to a molten state, shaped by viscous flow, and then cooled
to produce a solid.
Crystalline Ceramics

Material is shaped and then heated to produce a permanent solid.

 Manufacturing process decisions

• How do we choose the specific manufacturing

processes?
• How do the selected materials influence the choice
of manufacturing processes?
• Would product function or performance issues
influence our choice of processes?
• What criteria should we use to select processes?
• Which criteria are more important?
• Who will make the final decisions?
 History of Manufacturing Processes
• Manufacturing started during 5000 – 4000 BC
Wood work, ceramics, stone and metal work.
• Steel Production 600-800 AD
• Industrial Revolution 1750 AD: Machine tools run by
invention of steam engine
• Mass Production and Interchangeable Parts
• Computer Controlled Machines 1965
• CNC,FMS systems
3000 BC Earliest castings include the 11 cm high bronze dancing girl found at Mohen-jo-daro.
2000 BC Iron pillars, arrows, hooks, nails, bowls and daggers or earlier have been found in Delhi, Roopar, Nashik and other places.
500 BC Large scale state-owned mints and jewelry units, and processes of metal extraction and alloying have been mentioned in
Kautilya's Arthashastra
History of Manufacturing (1700-1960)
 History of Manufacturing (1960-2000s)
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 Methods of Manufacture

FIGURE 1.6 Various methods of making a simple part: (a) casting or powder metallurgy, (b) forging or upsetting, (c)
extrusion, (d) machining, (e) joining two pieces.
Requirements of Good Manufacturing System

• Product should meet the design specification and

standards.
• Economical and environmentally friendly.
• Quality should be built into the system
• Should be flexible and sp n ve to new
technology.
• Higher Productivity.
 Product Design Process

Product flow in concurrent engineering,

Various steps involved in design and manufacturing a product.
from market analysis to selling the product.
High Melt Temperature
•Chemical Activity
3000° C
•High Latent Heat Tungsten Carbide, WC,
Silicon Carbide, SiC Cubic Zirconia, ZrO2

•Handling Molybdenum

•Off-gassing
Alumina Al2O3
2000° C
Platinum, Pt
Titanium, Ti
IronFE, Plain Carbon Steels, low alloy, stainless
Nickel, Ni
Nickel Allows Silicon, Si

Copper, Cu, Bronze, Brass

1000° C

Aluminum
Magnesium Nylon
Zinc, Zn Acetal
PTFE (Teflon)
Tin, Sn
HDPE
0° C

60
 Casting Methods

• Sand Casting • Investment Casting • Die Casting

High Temperature Alloy, High Temperature Alloy, High Temperature Alloy,
Complex Geometry, Complex Geometry, Moderate Geometry,
Rough Surface Finish Moderately Smooth Surface Smooth Surface
Finish
Sand Casting

Metals: Most castable metals.

Size Range: Limitation depends on
foundry capabilities. Ounces to
many tons.
Tolerances:
Non-Ferrous ± 1/32² to 6²
Add ± .003² to 3², ± 3/64² from 3²
to 6².
Across parting line add ± .020² to
± .090² depending on size.
(Assumes metal patterns)
Surface Finish:
Non-Ferrous: 150-350 RMS
Ferrous: 300-700RMS
Minimum Draft Requirements:
1° to 5°
Cores: 1° to 1 1/2°
Normal Minimum Section
Thickness:
Non-Ferrous: 1/8² - 1/4²
Ferrous: 1/4² - 3/8²
Solidification of Pure Metals
Three Cast Structures of Solidified Metals
•FIGURE 5.8
Schematic
illustration of three
cast structures of
metals solidified in a
square mold:
•(a) pure metals;
•(b) solid-solution
alloys; and
•(c) the structure
obtained by
heterogeneous
nucleation of grains,
using nucleating
agents.
 Features of a Sand Mold

•FIGURE 5.14 Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various

features.
 Steps in Sand Casting

Figure 11.5 Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.

Steps in Sand Casting
Steps in Sand Casting
 Sand Casting Process
• Pattern (oversized to allow for shrinkage)
• Ramming sand around Pattern in a Flask
• Compacting / jolting sand (green sand,
skin dried or, loam moulded)
• Withdraw Pattern, add Core
• Reassemble Mould, with Gating, Runner,
Riser, and Sprue
• Weight and ready for pouring.
Process Parameters
• Pouring Temperature
• Cooling rate
• Fluidity (viscosity)
Grain
Structure

Spiral mould

Limit of flow before freezing

 Shrinkage

• Liquid
contraction
• Solidification
shrinkage
• Solid thermal
contraction
 Shrinkage

Directional shrinkage
 Parting Line

Figure 12.5 Redesign of a casting by making the parting line straight to avoid defects..
 Patterns for Sand Casting

Figure 11.6 A typical metal

match-plate pattern used in
sand casting.

Figure 11.7 Taper on patterns for ease

of removal from the sand mold.
 Pattern Material Characteristics

TABLE 11.3
a
Rating
Characteristic Wood Aluminum Steel Plastic Cast iron
Machinability E G F G G
Wear resistance P G E F E
Strength F G E G G
Weightb E G P G P
Repairability E P G F G
Resistance to:
Corrosionc E E P E P
Swellingc P E E E E
aE, Excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor.
bAs a factor in operator fatigue.
cBy water.
Source : D.C. Ekey and W.R. Winter, Introduction to Foundry Technology. New York.
McGraw-Hill, 1958.
 Design of Casting
• Geometry
• Machining allowance
• Finishing
• Shrinkage factor
• Wall thickness, Fillet radius
• Runner, gating, sprue system
• Grain size
• Mechanical properties
 Casting Design
v1A1
P1 v12
h1    F1
q  hc As (Ts  To )  g

v2A2

P2 v22
h2    F2
 g
 Other Casting Processes
• Casting Quality
• Product Design Considerations
Other Casting Processes
 Other Casting Processes
• Expendable Mold Casting Processes
– Shell mold
– Vacuum mold
– Expanded polystrene mold
– Investment casting
– Plaster mold and ceramic mold
• Permanent Mold Casting Processes
– Basic permanent mold
– Variations of permanent mold
– Die casting
– Centrifugal casting
 Processes
1. Sand casting
2. Shell casting
3. Carbon dioxide casting
4. Fluid sand casting
5. Composite mold casting
6. Plaster mold casting
7. Slush casting
8. Evaporative pattern casting (EPC)
9. Die casting
10. Permanent mold casting
11. Ceramic mold casting
12. Investment casting (lost-wax process)
 Considerations
• Type of metal to be cast
• Size of part to be cast
• Required cast accuracy of the part
• Economics
• Required secondary operations such as
machining, hardening, welding, and plating
 Sand Shell Evaporat Plaster Investm Permane Die Centrifu
ive ent nt mold gal
pattern
Typical materials All All All Nonferro All All Nonferro All
cast us us
(Al, Mg, (Al, Mg,
Zn, Cu) Zn, Cu)
Weight (kg):
minimum 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.001 0.1 <0.01 0.01
maximum No limit 100+ 100+ 50+ 100+ 300 50 5000+
Typ. surface finish 5-25 1-3 5-25 1-2 0.3-2 2-6 1-2 2-10
(µm Ra)
Porosity1 3-5 4-5 3-5 4-5 5 2-3 1-3 1-2
Shape complexity1 1-2 2-3 1-2 1-2 1 2-3 3-4 3-4
Dimensional 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 3
accuracy1
Section thickness
(mm): 3 2 2 1 1 2 0.5 2
minimum No limit - - - 75 50 12 100
maximum
Typ. dimensional 1.6-4 ±0.003 ±0.005- ±0.005 ±0.015 ±0.001- 0.015
tolerance mm 0.010 0.005
(mm/mm) (0.25
mm for
small)
Cost1,2
Equipment 3-5 3 2-3 3-5 3-5 2 1 1
Pattern/die 3-5 2-3 2-3 3-5 2-3 2 1 1
Labor 1-3 3 3 1-2 1-2 3 5 5
Typical lead time2,3 Days Weeks Weeks Days Weeks Weeks Weeks- Months
months
Typical production 1-20 5-50 1-20 1-10 1-1000 5-50 2-200 1-1000
rate2,3 (parts/mold-
hour)
Minimum 1 100 500 10 10 1000 10,000 10-
quantity2,3 10,000
 Investment
Casting
• FIGURE 5.25
Schematic illustration of
investment casting
(lost-wax process).
Castings by this
method can be made
with very fine detail and
from a variety of
metals. Source: Steel
Founders’ Society of
America.
 Expendable Mold Casting -
Investment Casting
Pros:
– Capability to cast parts with great complexity and
intricacy.
– Close dimensional control ( 0.076 m tolerance).
– Good surface finish.
– Wax can be recovered and reuse.
– Additional machining normally not required.
Cons:
– Normally cater for smaller parts.
– Relatively expensive
 Expendable Pattern Casting

Figure 11.15 Schematic illustration of the expendable pattern casting process, also known
as lost foam or evaporative casting. Pattern made from Polystrene and vaporized when in
contact with molten metal. The pattern can include the sprue and runner. No cope / drag
is needed.
 Expendable Mold Casting -
Expanded Polystrene Mold
Pros:
– Pattern need not be removed.
– No cope /drag is needed, all features are built
into the pattern.
– Possibility for automated production.
Cons:
– The pattern is not reusable.
Operation Sequence of Making a Ceramic Mold

•FIGURE 5.23 Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

Figure 11.17 A typical ceramic mold (Shaw process) for casting steel dies used in
hot forging.
 Expendable Mold Casting -
Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold
• Similar to sand casting in terms of process.
• Plaster mold is for lower temperature alloys while
ceramic mold is for higher temperature alloys.
Pros:
– Good surface finish and dimensional control.
– Capability to make thin cross sections.
Cons:
– Curing takes too long to render it unsuitable for
volume production.
 ٍShell Casting
Dump-Box Technique

Figure 11.13 A common method of making shell molds. Called dump-box technique, the
limitations are the formation of voids in the shell and peelback (when sections of the shell
fall off as the pattern is raised). Source: ASM International.
ٍShell Casting
Dump-Box Technique
 Expendable Mold Casting -
Shell Mold
Pros:
– Smoother surface finish than sans casting.
– Surface finish of 2.5 m can be obtained.
– Good dimensional accuracy  0.25 mm on
small to medium size parts.
– No further machining is needed.
– Capability for automation lowers the cost for
larger quantities.
Cons:
– More expensive metal pattern, especially for
small batch.
 Expendable Mold Casting -
Vacuum Mold

1. Thin pre-heated plastic sheet sucks onto the vacuum

vented pattern surface.
2. Special flask with vents and filled with sand is placed
over the pattern.
3. Another plastic sheet covers the sand and vacuum is
drawn.
 Expendable Mold Casting -
Vacuum Mold

4. Vacuum on the pattern is released to free the sand mold.

5. Cope and drag is assembled to form the complete mold.
The plastic sheet is burnt away when in contact with the
molten metal.
 Vacuum-Casting Process

•FIGURE 5.24 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note

that the mold has a bottom gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion of the
mod into the molten metal. Source: After R. Blackburn.
 Expendable Mold Casting -
Vacuum Mold
Sand held together by vacuum pressure.
Pros:
– Sand can be recovered unlike shell mold.
– No chemical binder, and therefore no special
treatment for the sand.
– No water mixed with the sand and therefore
no moisture related problems
Cons:
– Relative slow
– Not readily adaptable to mechanization.
 Pressure-Casting Process

• FIGURE 5.27 The pressure-casting process uses graphite molds for the
production of steel railroad wheels. Source: Griffin Wheel Division of
Amsted Industries Incorporated.
 Permanent Mold Casting -
Pros:
Basic Permanent Mold
– Good surface finish and close dimensional
control.
– More rapid solidification, finer grain
structure, stronger castings.
Cons:
– Generally limited to lower melting point
metals.
– Simpler part geometries as mold is
permanent.
– Mold cost is expensive and thus cater for
volume production.
 Permanent Mold Casting -
Die Casting
Hot-chamber machines :
Metal molten in container attached to machine. Typical
injection pressures are 7 to 35 MPa. The piston is
subjected to the melting temperature of the metal and
thus the process is often used for low melting point
metals such as zinc, tin, lead or magnesium alloys.
Cold-chamber machines
Molten metal is poured into an unheated chamber from
an external container. Typical injection pressures are
14 to 140 MPa. Often used for high melting point metal
such as aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys.
 Die Casting in Hot-Chamber Process

• FIGURE 5.28 Sequence of steps in die casting of a part in the hot-chamber

process. Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management and Technology.
 Die Casting in Cold-Chamber Process

• FIGURE 5.29 Sequence of operations in die casting of a part in the cold-

chamber process.
 Permanent Mold Casting -
Die Casting

• Mold made of tool steel.

• Mold opening mechanism to be
synchronized with ejector pins.
• Venting is needed for air and gas
typically at the parting surface.
• Flash formation is common.
 Permanent Mold Casting -
Die Casting
Pros:
– High production rates are possible.
– Economical for large quantities.
– Close tolerances are possible ( 0.076 mm).
– Good surface finish.
– Thin sections are possible (down to 0.5 mm).
– Rapid cooling, fine grain, high strength.
Cons:
– melting point of metals.
– shape restriction.
 Centrifugal Casting Process

FIGURE 5.30 Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes,

cylinder liners, and similarly shaped parts can be cast by this process.
 Semicentrifugal Casting
Process

•FIGURE 5.31 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. (b)
Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the periphery
of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal forces.
 Squeeze-Casting Process

• FIGURE 5.32 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process.

This process combines the advantages of casting and forging.
Cupola furnace
Crucible furnace
Electric Furnaces
Casting Defects
 Classification of Casting Defects
1. DEFECTS DUE TO EVOLUTION OF GASES
(Blow holes, Pin hole porosity, Dispersed Shrinkage, Blister, etc.)
2. DEFECTS DUE TO POURING OF MELT
(Misrun, Cold shut, Inclusion, etc.)
3. DEFECTS DUE TO METALLURGICAL FACTORS
(Hot tears)
4. DEFECTS CAUSED BY MOULDING MATERIAL
(Scab, Metal penetration, Flash, Run – out, Lug, etc).
5. DEFECTS CAUSED DUE TO OTHER FACTORS
(Mismatch, Hot cracking, etc)
6. DEFECTS DUE TO SHRINKAGE
(Shrinkage cavity)
DEFECTS DUE TO EVOLUTION OF GASES

Blow Holes
Pin h
Pi hole
l porosity,
it
Dispersed Shrinkage,
Blister.
 Blow Hole
Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold
gases during pouring
Blow Holes

Causes of Blow Holes:

1. Excess moisture in the
mould.
2. Slag in the metal reacts with
carbon in the metal and
liberates CO.
3. Iron oxide in the mould wall
reacts with carbon in the
metal and liberates CO.
Blow Holes

Remedial measures
1. Provide vent holes.
2. Avoid excessive compaction
of mould.
3. Avoid excessive moisture in
the mould.
4. Segregate slag from molten
metal.
5. Avoid using rusted chills and
chaplets.
 Pin Hole Porosity
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly below surface of
casting Large number of uniformly dispersed
tiny holes

Causes: Hydrogen is absorbed by the molten metal inside the furnace and also in
the cavity. As the melt gets solidified it loses the temperature and liberates
dissolved hydrogen.
 Pin Hole Porosity

Remedial Measures:
1. Vaccum melting
2.
2 Vaccum degassing
3. Avoiding very high
pouring temperature.
Defects Due to Pouring of the Melt
Misrun
Cold shut
Slag or dross inclusion
 Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold cavity.
Molten metal could not fill the thin sections of the mould cavity.
 Misrun
Causes: Remedial Measures:

1. Insufficient Fluidity 1. Increasing Pouring

2. Low Pouring Temperature
Temperature 2. Increasing Pouring
3. Too small Ingates speed
4. Low pouring speed 3. Make Ingates larger
 Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of
fusion due to premature freezing causing a discontinuity
or weakk spot.
t
 Cold Shut

CAUSES:
1. Larger distance between the Ingates.
2.
2 Large surface area to volume ratio.

REMEDIAL MEASURES:
1. Use more number of Ingates.
2. Increasing the pouring temperature.
 Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form
and become entrapped in casting
 Inclusions
• Undesirable foreign material present in the metal.
(Oxides, Slag, Dirt etc.).

• Causes:
• 1. Impurities present in the molten metal.
• 2. Sand cracked and broken from gating system and mould cavity.
 Inclusions
Remedial Measures:

1. Skimming of molten metal before pouring.

2. Choosing a moulding sand with adequate hot
strength.
3. Using ceramic foam filters.
Defects due to Metallurgical factors

Hot tear
 Hot Tears in Castings

Figure 10.12 Examples of hot tears in castings.

CAUSES: These defects occur because the casting cannot shrink freely during cooling,
owing to constraints in various portions of the molds and cores.
cores
Exothermic (heat-producing) compounds may be used (as exothermic padding) to
control cooling at critical sections to avoid hot tearing.
 Hot tear
Causes:
1. Casting could not undergo shrinkage
freely during solidification, due to casting
design or presence of cores.
2 Chemical Composition:
2. C iti l h
high sulphur
content promotes hot tear.
3. Long freezing range of an alloy.
 Defects caused by mould material

1. Scab – liquid metal flows beneath the mould and mixes with sand.
2. Metal penetration – metal goes inside the mould.
3. Flash – molten metal flows into the gap between cope and drag box.
4. Run-out – metal flows along the parting line
5. Lug – metal solidifies in unwanted cavities surrounding the mould.
 Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise
relative displacement of cope and drag
Mismatch
 Common Casting Defects

Figure 10.13 Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be

minimized or eliminated by proper design and preparation of molds and control of
pouring procedures. Source: After J. Datsko.
 Sand Casting - Pros
• Produce parts with complex geometries,
both internally and externally.
• Possible to net shape with no further
manufacturing required.
• Large parts can be produced.
• Wide choice of metals.
• Suitable for mass production.
 Sand Casting - Cons
• Porosity
• Poor dimensional control for some
processes
• Poor surface finish for some processes
• Limitation on mechanical properties
• Safety hazard
• Environmental hazard
 Casting Quality - Defects
• Misruns - unfilled region exists
– insufficient fluidity of melt
– low pouring temperature
– slow pouring
– cross-section too thin
• Cold shut - premature freezing
at fusion point. Similar reason
as misrun
 Casting Quality - Defects
• Cold shots - Splattering during
pouring forming solid globules.
Redesign of pouring procedure
or gating system is needed.
• Shrinkage cavity - depression
or internal void caused by
solidification shrinkage. Solved
by proper riser design.
 Casting Quality - Defects
• Microporosity -Network of
small voids caused by
localised solidification
shrinkage. Caused by the
freezing manner of the alloy.
• Hot tearing - Occurs at
location with high stress due
to inability to shrink naturally.
Resolve by mold collapsing or
removing from the mold
immediately after freezing.
 Casting Quality -
Defects (Sand Casting)

• Sand blow - cavity caused by mold gas during

pouring. Low permeability, poor venting or high
moisture content.
• Pin holes - small gas cavities.
• Sand wash - erosion of sand mold during
pouring.
• Scabs - mold surface locally flakes off and
 Casting Quality -
Defects (Sand Casting)

• Penetration - penetration of molten metal into the

sand. Harder packing of sand is needed.
• Mold shift - shift of the cope relative to the drag.
• Core shift - shift of the core, usually vertical.
• Mold crack - mold strength insufficient, liquid
metal form a fin of the final casting.
 Product Design Considerations
• Geometric simplicity - Avoid unnecessary
complexity.
• Corners - Avoid sharp corners, generous fillet
radius.
• Section thickness - Uniform section thickness to
avoid shrinkage cavities and hot spots.
• Draft - Facilitate removal of parts from mold. (1 deg.
For sand and 2/3 deg. for permanent)
• Use of cores - minimize the use of core
• Dimensional tolerance and surface finish - proper
choice of casting method.
• Machining allowances - For assembly purposes,
typically 1.5 to 6 mm.
Product Design Considerations

Shrinkage, hot spot

Draft and core elimination

Product Design Considerations
Non-destructive Testing
 Definition of NDT (NDE)
The use of noninvasive
techniques to determine
the integrity of a material,
component or structure
or
quantitatively measure
some characteristic of
an object.

i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.

 What are Some Uses
of NDE Methods?

• Flaw Detection and Evaluation

• Leak Detection
• Dimensional Measurements
• Structure and Microstructure Characterization
• Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
• Material Sorting and Chemical Composition
Determination
 Why Nondestructive?
• Test piece too precious to be destroyed
• Test piece to be reuse after inspection
• Test piece is in service
• For quality control purpose
• Something you simply cannot do harm
to, e.g. fetus in mother’s uterus
 Major types of NDT
• Detection of surface flaws
Visual
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Inspection
• Detection of internal flaws
Radiography
Ultrasonic Testing
Eddy current Testing
1. Visual Inspection
Most basic and common
inspection method.

Tools include
fiberscopes,
borescopes, magnifying
glasses and mirrors.

Portable video inspection

unit with zoom allows
inspection of large tanks
and vessels, railroad tank
cars, sewer lines.
Robotic crawlers permit
observation in hazardous or
tight areas, such as air
ducts, reactors, pipelines.
 2. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)

• MPI one of the most widely utilized nondestructive testing methods.

• MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron
filings to detect flaws in components. The only requirement from an
inspectability standpoint is that the component being inspected must be
made of a ferromagnetic material such as iron, nickel, cobalt, or some
of their alloys.

• Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level

that will allow the inspection to be affective.

• The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms such as

castings, forgings, and weldments.

• Some examples of industries that use magnetic particle inspection are

If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will
be attracted to and cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the
magnet but also at the poles at the edges of the crack. This cluster
of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is
the basis for magnetic particle inspection.
 Magnetic Particle Inspection
• The magnetic flux line close to the surface of a
ferromagnetic material tends to follow the surface
profile of the material
• Discontinuities (cracks or voids) of the material
perpendicular to the flux lines cause flux leakage
• The leakage field can attract other ferromagnetic
particles
The magnetic particles form a
ridge many times wider than
the crack itself, thus making
the otherwise invisible crack
visible

Cracks just below the

surface can also be
revealed
 Advantages of MPI
• One of the most dependable and sensitive methods
for surface defects
• fast, simple and inexpensive
• direct, visible indication on surface
• unaffected by possible deposits, e.g. oil, grease or
other metals chips, in the cracks
• can be used on painted objects
• surface preparation not required
• results readily documented with photo or tape
impression
 Limitations of MPI
• Only good for ferromagnetic materials
• sub-surface defects will not always be indicated
• objects must be demagnetized before and after the
examination
• the current magnetization may cause burn scars on
the item examined
Examples of visible dry magnetic particle indications

Indication of a crack in a saw blade Indication of cracks in a weldment

Indication of cracks running between

Before and after inspection pictures of attachment holes in a hinge
cracks emanating from a hole
Examples of Fluorescent Wet Magnetic
Particle Indications
Magnetic particle wet fluorescent
indication of a cracks in a drive shaft

Magnetic particle wet

fluorescent indication
of a crack in a
bearing

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication

of a cracks at a fastener hole
 3. Dye Penetrant Inspection
Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) is one of the
most widely used nondestructive evaluation
(NDE) methods. Its popularity can be attributed
to two main factors, which are its relative ease
of use and its flexibility. LPI can be used to
inspect almost any material provided that its
surface is not extremely rough or porous.
Materials that are commonly inspected using
LPI include metals (aluminum, copper, steel,
titanium, etc.), glass, many ceramic materials,
rubber, and plastics.
 Introduction
• Liquid penetration inspection is a method that is used to reveal
surface breaking flaws by bleed out of a colored or fluorescent
dye from the flaw.
• The technique is based on the ability of a liquid to be drawn into a
"clean" surface breaking flaw by capillary action.
• After a period of time called the "dwell," excess surface penetrant
is removed and a developer applied. This acts as a "blotter." It
draws the penetrant from the flaw to reveal its presence.
• Colored (contrast) penetrants require good white light while
fluorescent penetrants need to be used in darkened conditions
with an ultraviolet "black light". Unlike MPI, this method can be
used in non-ferromagnetic materials and even non-metals
• Modern methods can reveal cracks 2m wide
 Why Liquid Penetrant Inspection?
• To improves the detectability of flaws
There are basically two ways that a
penetrant inspection process
makes flaws more easily seen.
(1) LPI produces a flaw indication
that is much larger and easier for
the eye to detect than the flaw
itself.
(2) LPI produces a flaw indication
The advantage that a liquid with a high level of contrast
penetrant inspection (LPI) offers between the indication and the
over an unaided visual inspection is background.
that it makes defects easier to see
for the inspector.
 4. Radiography
Radiography involves the use of penetrating
gamma- or X-radiation to examine material's
and product's defects and internal features. An High Electrical Potential
X-ray machine or radioactive isotope is used
as a source of radiation. Radiation is directed Electrons
through a part and onto film or other media.
+ -
The resulting shadowgraph shows the internal
features and soundness of the part. Material
thickness and density changes are indicated as
X-ray Generator or
lighter or darker areas on the film. The darker Radioactive Source
areas in the radiograph below represent Creates Radiation
internal voids in the component.

Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample

Exposure Recording Device

 Film Radiography
The part is placed between the
radiation source and a piece of film.
The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense
area will stop more of the radiation.
• The film darkness (density) will
vary with the amount of radiation
reaching the film through the
X-ray film test object.
• Defects, such as voids, cracks,
inclusions, etc., can be detected.
= less exposure
= more exposure
Top view of developed film
Radiographic Images
 Limitations of Radiography
• There is an upper limit of thickness through
which the radiation can penetrate, e.g. -ray
from Co-60 can penetrate up to 150mm of steel
• The operator must have access to both sides of
an object
• Highly skilled operator is required because of
the potential health hazard of the energetic
radiations
• Relative expensive equipment
 Examples of radiographs

Cracking can be detected in a radiograph only the crack is

propagating in a direction that produced a change in thickness that
is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as jagged and
often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appearing as
"tails" on inclusions or porosity.
Gas porosity or blow holes Sand inclusions and dross
are caused by accumulated are nonmetallic oxides,
gas or air which is trapped by appearing on the radiograph
the metal. These as irregular, dark blotches.
discontinuities are usually
smooth-walled rounded
cavities of a spherical,
elongated or flattened shape.
 5. Ultrasonic Testing
In ultrasonic testing, high-frequency sound
waves are transmitted into a material to
detect imperfections or to locate changes
in material properties.
The most commonly used
ultrasonic testing technique is pulse
echo, whereby sound is introduced
into a test object and reflections
(echoes) from internal
imperfections or the part's
geometrical surfaces are returned
to a receiver. The time interval
between the transmission and
reception of pulses give clues to
the internal structure of the
material.
 Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-Echo)
High frequency sound waves are introduced into a
material and they are reflected back from surfaces or
flaws.
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and
inspector can visualize a cross section of the specimen
f
showing the depth of features that reflect sound.

initial
pulse

back surface
echo
crack
echo

crack

0 2 4 6 8 10 plate

Oscilloscope, or flaw
detector screen