Billie Call Christian Institute

Fourth Marking Period Lectures Note

Grade 11 Physics
Measurement of Heat Energy

Heat Capacity
When energy is put into a substance, it may increase the kinetic energy of the
particles (i.e. their speed increases) or it may increase their potential energy (i.e.
the particle become more widely spaced). A change in kinetic energy is manifested
as a change in temperature, whereas a change in potential energy is manifested as
a change in state.
Heat capacity C of a body is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of a body by one kelvin (1K) or one degree Celsius (1oC).
Mathematically,
heat supplied Q
Heat Capacity C=
temperature change θ
Q
i.e C= unit JK-1 or JoC-1
θ
Specific heat capacity c of a substance is the quantity of heat energy required to
raise the temperature of 1 kg of the substance by 1 K or 1 oc. It is the heat capacity
per unit mass of a substance.
Mathematically,
C C
c= or c=
m mθ
Where Q is the quantity of heat supplied
m is the mass of the substance
c is the specific heat capacity
θ is the temperature change

Calorimetry
Calorimetry is the measurement of heat energy in a substance.
The calorimeter

It is a metal container (often thin-walled) used to hold liquids in heat experiments.

Properties
1. Good conductor usually made of copper
2. The inside and outside surfaces are polished to minimize heat lost by radiation.

Precautions when performing experiments on specific heat capacity.

1. Try to avoid heat loss to the surrounding by wrapping the calorimeter in lagging
materials such as a thick blanket, cotton wool or wood shavings.
2. Transfer the hot substance quickly and carefully into the calorimeter.
3. Take care to avoid splashing any of the liquid.
4. Stir the mixture carefully in order to distribute the heat energy evenly throughout
the liquid.

Note that the heat may cause expansion of the calorimeter and its lid, and may
cause the lid to become loose.

Measurement of the specific heat capacity (shc) of a solid by the method

of mixtures

Mass of calorimeter=mc kg
Mass of calorimeter + water=mcw kg
Mass of water mw= (mcw-mc) kg
Mass of specimen=ms kg
Initial temperature of calorimeter and water =θ1
Initial temperature of specimen = θ3
Final steady temperature of mixture = θ2
Shc of calorimeter (given) = cc
Shc of water (given) cw
Shc of specimen (unknown) = cs

Calculations
Suppose no heat leave the calorimeter after the hot specimen has been removed,
then
Heat lost = Heat gained
That is
Heat lost by hot Heat gained by Heat gained by

[ ¿ θ3
¿
][ ¿θ 1
¿
][ c
¿θ 1
¿
]
specimen ∈cooling Q ¿ Q ¿ = calorimeter ∈warming Q ¿ Q ¿ + water ∈warming Q ¿ Q ¿
2 s 2 2 w

i.e. Qs = Qc + Qw, where

Qs =ms cs (θ3-θ2)
Qc =mc cc (θ2-θ1)
Qw = mw cw (θ2-θ1)
(m ¿ ¿ c c c + mw c )(θ2−θ 1)
Therefore, cs = w
¿
m s (θ 3−θ2 )
Determination of the specific heat capacity of a liquid using the method of
mixtures.

Method
 The calorimeter is weighed first empty and then when about three-quarters full
of the liquid whose specific heat capacity is required.
 A thermometer is inserted in the liquid and the initial temperature of the liquid
and the calorimeter noted.
  A solid of known specific heat capacity is weighed and hanged from a thread in a
steam jacked.
 After the solid has been given time to warm up to a certain temperature, it is
quickly dropped into the liquid in the calorimeter.
 After stirring for some time, the final steady temperature reached by the
mixture is noted.

Results
Mass of calorimeter = m c
Mass of calorimeter and liquid =m cl
Mass of liquid = m l
Mass of solid = ms
Initial of calorimeter and liquid = θ1
Initial temperature of solid = θ3
Final steady temperature of mixture = θ2
Shc of calorimeter (given) = c c
Shc of solid (given) =c s
Shc of liquid (unknown) =c c

Suppose no heat leaves the calorimeter after the got solid is dropped.
Heat lost by the Heat gained by Heat gained by

[ solid , Q s
¿ cooling
¿ θ3
¿

Q s =Q c +Q w
Q Q
2¿ s ¿

][
=
calorimeter , Q c
¿ warming
¿ θ1
¿
Q
][
Q
2¿ c ¿ +
¿θ 1
¿
]
liquid , Q l
¿ warming Q 2¿ Q w ¿

Heat lost by solid Q s = m s c s(Q 3-Q 2)

Heat gained by calorimeter Qc = m c cc (Q 2-Q1)
Heat gained by liquid Q l = m l cl (Q 2-Q 1)
⤇m s c s(Q3-Q 2) + m c cc (Q 2-Q1) + m l cl (Q 2-Q 1)
(Q ¿ ¿ 2−Q 1)
C l =m s c s ( θ3−θ 2 )−m c C ¿
c
ml (θ2−θ 1)

Newton’s Law of Cooling Curve

Newton’s law of cooling states that for a small difference of temperature between a
body and the surroundings, the rate of gain or loss of heat by the body is
proportional to the difference in temperature between the body and the
surroundings.
The law holds only within small ranges of temperature. If a given mass of a liquid is
heated and allowed to cool in an enclosure at a lower temperature, then the rate of
cooling of the liquid depends on
a) Its temperature
b) The temperature of the enclosure
c) The area of the exposed surface
d) The nature and extent of the surface of the containing vessel.
If these conditions are the same for two different liquids, their rates of cooling will
be the same. We can use this to find the specific heats of liquid.

Determination of the shc of a liquid using cooling curve method

Method:
 The calorimeter is weighed first empty and then when about three-quarters full
of the liquid whose specific heat capacity is required.
 The mass of the liquid is found by subtraction and warmed over a Bunsen flame
to a temperature of about 90o C.
 The flame is turned off and the calorimeter is placed on a cork material to cool.
 As the liquid cools it temperature is recorded at every 30 s interval until it cools
to about 50o C.
 The liquid is poured out and after rinsing the calorimeter with some water, it is
filled to the same volume with water.
 The mass of the water is also found, heated to the same temperature of 90o C
and allowed to cool to 50o C while recording its temperature at 30 s-intervals.
 On the same axis of a graph paper, a graph of temperature against time is
plotted and a cooling curve obtained.

A line is drawn at two chosen temperatures θ1 and θ2and the corresponding time
taken for the liquid and water to cool between the two temperatures recorded as tl1,
tw1, tl2 and tw2 respectively.
The shc of the liquid C l is given by

m w c w ( tl1−tl2 )
Cl =
m l (tw 1−tw 2)

Electrical Calorimeter
Another method of supplying heat to a body is by the use of a heating element.
When it is assumed that all electrical energy is converted to heat energy, which is
measured, and no heat is lost then

[ Electrical energy
supplied ]=[ Heatgained
energy
]
IVt = mcθ

Change of state
Sensible and Latent Heat
When a solid or a liquid is heated, the temperature rises steadily until it reaches its
melting or boiling point. This heat is called sensible heat.
Sensible heat is the heat that produces a change in temperature of a substance
without a change in state.
At the boiling or melting point any additional heat goes in to change the state of the
substances, either from liquid to gas (vaporization) or from solid to liquid (fusion).
Hence a change of states place at constant temperature.
The quantity of heat absorbed or released when a substance changes its physical
state at constant temperature is called latent heat.

Specific latent heat of vaporization (Lv)

The specific latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of het required to change 1
kg of a liquid at its boiling point to vapor at the same temperature.
Mathematically,
Q
Lv= unit J/kg
m
Where Q= quantity of heat supplied to cause a change of state.
M=mass of liquid
Note: The same quantity of specific latent heat of vaporization is given during
condensation.

Condensation is a process by which a substance in the gaseous state changes into

liquid state.

Boiling point is the steady temperature at which a substance in the liquid state
changes to vapor or the steady temperature at which a substance changes from
vapor to the liquid state.

Evaporation
Evaporation is the process by which molecules of a liquid absorb latent heat from
their surroundings and escape into the gaseous state. It takes place only at the
surface where the faster molecules of the liquid can pass into the air. Solids as well
as liquids evaporate. Tungsten evaporates from the filament of an electric lamp and
blackens its bulb.

Factors That Affect Evaporation

Factors that affect the rate of evaporation of a liquid are:
 Temperature: Wet clothes on a dry line dry more rapidly on a warm day than on
a cool day. Thus the higher the temperature the greater the rate of evaporation.
 Areas of exposed surface: A wet sheet on a dry line dries more rapidly when
opened than when folded. Thus, evaporation increases with increased area of
exposed surface.
 Wind: Wet clothes dry quickly on a cold windy day than on a calm cold day. This
can also be felt when the hand is moistened and move more rapidly in the air.
 Humidity: Evaporation increases on a day when the humidity is low and
decreases on a high humid day. (Humidity is the amount of water vapor present
in the air.)

Cooling by Evaporation
When few drops of alcohol, petrol, ether or methylated spirit are poured on the
hand, the hand feels cold. Such liquids evaporate easily and thus have low boiling
points. They are called volatile liquids. Latent heat is required to change the liquid
into vapor at the same temperature. This heat is absorbed from the hand when a
few drops of the volatile liquid are poured on it. Consequently the hand feels cold.
Saturated vapor pressure (SVP)
Under dynamic equilibrium, the space above the liquid is said to be saturated with
vapor and the pressure exerted by the vapor is known as Saturated Vapor Pressure
(SVP).
Saturated vapor pressure is the maximum pressure that the vapor is able to exert at
that temperature. Saturated vapor pressure (SVP) increases with temperature. A
saturated vapor is one, which is in a state of dynamic equilibrium with its own liquid
or solid.

Saturated Vapor Pressure (SVP) and Boiling

If a liquid is heated its temperature begins to rise. Therefore the svp becomes equal
to the external atmospheric pressure. At this stage, further addition of heat will
cause bubbles of vapor to form inside the body of the liquid and rise to the surface.
This process is called boiling or ebullition. The boiling point of a liquid is the
temperature at which its svp becomes equal to the external atmospheric pressure.

Boiling Under Reduced Pressure

Water can be made to boil without heating it simply by reducing the atmospheric
pressure above it to a value less than the svp. This may be done with the aid of a
filter pump.
Effects of impurities on boiling points
At a given pressure the boiling point of water containing dissolved substances is
higher than that of the pure water itself. This is because the molecules of the
dissolved substances, which do not evaporate hinder the escape of the molecules of
the liquid. Since liquid boils when its svp is equal to the external atmospheric
pressure we can conclude that dissolving a substance in water lowers its svp at the
given temperature.

Differences between Boiling and Evaporation

Boiling Evaporation
1. Involves the entire liquid 1. Takes place only at the surface of
the liquid
2. Takes place at the boiling point 2. Takes place at any temperature
3. Temperature does not change 3. Temperature may change during
during boiling evaporation.

Sublimation
Usually a solid first melts into a liquid state before it changes into the vapor state at
high temperatures.
Under certain conditions, some substances will go from the solid to the vapor state
without passing through the liquid phase. This process is called sublimation.

Atmospheric Moisture
Owing to evaporation, which goes on continuously from the sea and other water
surfaces, the atmosphere always contains water vapor. The quantity of vapor which
air can hold depends on the temperature. If warm air containing water vapor is
cooled it can hold fewer vapors, so that below a certain temperature the excess
vapor condenses out.

Dew
Dew is a film of moisture formed on surfaces when water vapor in the atmosphere
condenses on them. At night, the temperature of the air may fall to or below the
dew point and water vapor condenses as dew. The highest temperature at which
dew is formed is called the dew point. The dew point is the temperature at which
water vapor in the atmosphere is just sufficient to saturate it.

Mist
Mists are tiny droplets of water, which are suspended in the air. For mist to form,
the air must be cooled below its dew point. Mist can also be formed when wind
blows warm moist air over a cold region. The sudden lowering of temperature
causes the moisture to condense.

Fog
Fog is a thick mist or a mist containing many dust or dirt.

Cloud
Cloud is a mass of small water droplets that float in the air. Cloud is high up in the
atmosphere, unlike mist, which is near the ground.

Humidity
Humidity is the term used to describe how much water vapor is present in the
earth’s atmosphere. Relative humidity is the ration of the mass of water vapor
present in a certain volume of air to the mass of water vapor required to saturate
the same volume of air at the same temperature. A hygrometer is an instrument
used to measure relative humidity. It is usually expressed as a percentage.
svp at dew point
Relative Humidity = x100%
svp at air temperature
Relative Humidity =
mass of water vapor present ∈a certain volume of air
saturate the same volume of air at the same temperature ¿
mass of water vapor required ¿
x100%

Transfer of Heat
Heat naturally transfers from a body at higher temperature to a body at a lower
temperature. There are three modes of heat transfer conduction, convection, and
radiation.

Conduction
Conduction is the type of heat transfer in which molecules of a substance pass on
their energy by collisions with neighboring molecules when heated. Conduction is
most important in solids, where molecules are closer together than in liquids or
gases.

Good and Bad Conductors

Metals are said to be good conductors of heat and electricity. Glass, plastic, wood
etc. are poor conductors of heat and electricity. They are called insulators.

Factors that affect the rate of conduction

The rate of conduction in a solid depends on
1. The substance which it is made of. Metals are mostly good conductors while
insulators are poor conductors.
2. The cross sectional area.
3. The temperature gradient between two points in a solid.

Convection
Convection in Liquid and Gases
Convection is the process by which heat energy is transferred in a liquid or a gas by
the actual movement of the heated fluid. If a liquid is heated at the top, the warm
water being less dense than cold water below remains on top. No convection
current is therefore set up. Note that convection current is the circulation of heated
liquid.
Convection currents re more easily set up in gases because gases expand more
readily when heated.

Radiation
Radiation is the process by which heat is conveyed from one place to another
without heating the intervening medium.
Both conduction and convection are ways of conveying heat from one place to
another, which require the presence of a material substance, either solid, liquid or
gas. Radiation does not require a material medium.
Radiation is the means by which energy travels from the sun across the empty
space (vacuum) beyond the earth’s atmosphere. The energy given out as radiant
heat is called radiant energy. This energy displays electrical and magnetic
properties and is said to be electromagnetic radiation, of the type called infrared.

Facts about radiant energy

 A body radiates more heat when its temperature is higher.
 Radiant heat energy travels in a straight line.
 Radiant energy is observed only if the radiation is intercepted by body.
 Dark surfaces absorb radiant energy faster and better than light-colored
surfaces.
 Good absorbers of radiant energy are also good emitters.

Black Body Radiators

A black body is a theoretical object that absorbs 100% of the radiation that is hits it.
Therefore it reflects no radiation and appears perfectly black. At a particular
temperature the black body would emit the maximum amount of energy possible
for that temperature. This value is known as the black body radiation.