ncompressible flow equation[edit]

In most flows of liquids, and of gases at low Mach number, the density of a fluid parcel can be
considered to be constant, regardless of pressure variations in the flow. Therefore, the fluid can be
considered to be incompressible and these flows are called incompressible flows. Bernoulli
performed his experiments on liquids, so his equation in its original form is valid only for
incompressible flow. A common form of Bernoulli's equation, valid at any arbitrary point along
a streamline, is:
(
A
 

   

)
where:
v is the fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline,
g is the acceleration due to gravity,
z is the elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the positive z-direction pointing
upward – so in the direction opposite to the gravitational acceleration,
p is the pressure at the chosen point, and
ρ is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid.
The constant on the right-hand side of the equation depends only on the
streamline chosen, whereas v, z and p depend on the particular point on
that streamline.
The following assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli equation to apply:
[2](p265)

 the flow must be steady, i.e. the flow parameters (velocity, density,
etc...) at any point cannot change with time,
 the flow must be incompressible – even though pressure varies, the
density must remain constant along a streamline;
 friction by viscous forces must be negligible.
For conservative force fields (not limited to the gravitational field),
Bernoulli's equation can be generalized as:[2](p265)
where Ψ is the force potential at the point considered on the streamline.
E.g. for the Earth's gravity Ψ = gz.
By multiplying with the fluid density ρ, equation (A) can be rewritten as:
or:
where

 q = 1/2 ρv2 is dynamic pressure,

 h = z + p/ρg is the piezometric head or hydraulic head (the
sum of the elevation z and the pressure head)  and
[11][12]

 p0 = p + q is the total pressure (the sum of the static

pressure p and dynamic pressure q). [13]
 The constant in the Bernoulli equation can be normalised. A
common approach is in terms of total head or energy head H:
The above equations suggest there is a flow speed at
which pressure is zero, and at even higher speeds the
pressure is negative. Most often, gases and liquids are not
capable of negative absolute pressure, or even zero
pressure, so clearly Bernoulli's equation ceases to be valid
before zero pressure is reached. In liquids – when the
pressure becomes too low – cavitation occurs. The above
equations use a linear relationship between flow speed
squared and pressure. At higher flow speeds in gases, or
for sound waves in liquid, the changes in mass density
become significant so that the assumption of constant
density is invalid.

Simplified form[edit]
In many applications of Bernoulli's equation, the change in
the ρgz term along the streamline is so small compared
with the other terms that it can be ignored. For example, in
the case of aircraft in flight, the change in height z along a
streamline is so small the ρgz term can be omitted. This
allows the above equation to be presented in the following
simplified form:
where p0 is called "total pressure", and q is "dynamic
pressure".[14] Many authors refer to
the pressure p as static pressure to distinguish it from
total pressure p0 and dynamic pressure q.
In Aerodynamics, L.J. Clancy writes: "To distinguish it
from the total and dynamic pressures, the actual
pressure of the fluid, which is associated not with its
motion but with its state, is often referred to as the
static pressure, but where the term pressure alone is
used it refers to this static pressure."[1](§ 3.5)
The simplified form of Bernoulli's equation can be
summarized in the following memorable word
equation:[1](§ 3.5)
static pressure + dynamic pressure = total pressure
Every point in a steadily flowing fluid, regardless of
the fluid speed at that point, has its own unique
static pressure p and dynamic pressure q. Their
sum p + q is defined to be the total pressure p0.
The significance of Bernoulli's principle can now be
summarized as "total pressure is constant along a
streamline".
If the fluid flow is irrotational, the total pressure on
every streamline is the same and Bernoulli's
principle can be summarized as "total pressure is
constant everywhere in the fluid flow". [1](Equation 3.12) It is
 reasonable to assume that irrotational flow exists
in any situation where a large body of fluid is
flowing past a solid body. Examples are aircraft in
flight, and ships moving in open bodies of water.
However, it is important to remember that
Bernoulli's principle does not apply in the boundary
layer or in fluid flow through long pipes.
If the fluid flow at some point along a streamline is
brought to rest, this point is called a stagnation
point, and at this point the total pressure is equal
to the stagnation pressure.

Applicability of incompressible
flow equation to flow of gases[edit]
Bernoulli's equation is sometimes valid for the flow
of gases: provided that there is no transfer of
kinetic or potential energy from the gas flow to the
compression or expansion of the gas. If both the
gas pressure and volume change simultaneously,
then work will be done on or by the gas. In this
case, Bernoulli's equation – in its incompressible
flow form – cannot be assumed to be valid.
However, if the gas process is entirely isobaric,
or isochoric, then no work is done on or by the gas,
(so the simple energy balance is not upset).
According to the gas law, an isobaric or isochoric
process is ordinarily the only way to ensure
constant density in a gas. Also the gas density will
be proportional to the ratio of pressure and
absolute temperature, however this ratio will vary
upon compression or expansion, no matter what
non-zero quantity of heat is added or removed.
The only exception is if the net heat transfer is
zero, as in a complete thermodynamic cycle, or in
an individual isentropic (frictionless adiabatic)
process, and even then this reversible process
must be reversed, to restore the gas to the original
pressure and specific volume, and thus density.
Only then is the original, unmodified Bernoulli
equation applicable. In this case the equation can
be used if the flow speed of the gas is sufficiently
below the speed of sound, such that the variation
in density of the gas (due to this effect) along
each streamline can be ignored. Adiabatic flow at
less than Mach 0.3 is generally considered to be s

ncompressible flow equation[edit]

In most flows of liquids, and of gases at low Mach number, the density of a fluid parcel can be
considered to be constant, regardless of pressure variations in the flow. Therefore, the fluid can be
considered to be incompressible and these flows are called incompressible flows. Bernoulli
performed his experiments on liquids, so his equation in its original form is valid only for
incompressible flow. A common form of Bernoulli's equation, valid at any arbitrary point along
a streamline, is:
(
A
 

   

)
where:
v is the fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline,
g is the acceleration due to gravity,
z is the elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the positive z-direction pointing
upward – so in the direction opposite to the gravitational acceleration,
p is the pressure at the chosen point, and
ρ is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid.
The constant on the right-hand side of the equation depends only on the
streamline chosen, whereas v, z and p depend on the particular point on
that streamline.
The following assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli equation to apply:
[2](p265)

 the flow must be steady, i.e. the flow parameters (velocity, density,
etc...) at any point cannot change with time,
 the flow must be incompressible – even though pressure varies, the
density must remain constant along a streamline;
 friction by viscous forces must be negligible.
For conservative force fields (not limited to the gravitational field),
Bernoulli's equation can be generalized as:[2](p265)
where Ψ is the force potential at the point considered on the streamline.
E.g. for the Earth's gravity Ψ = gz.
By multiplying with the fluid density ρ, equation (A) can be rewritten as:
or:
where

 q = 1/2 ρv2 is dynamic pressure,

 h = z + p/ρg is the piezometric head or hydraulic head (the
sum of the elevation z and the pressure head)  and
[11][12]

 p0 = p + q is the total pressure (the sum of the static

pressure p and dynamic pressure q). [13]

The constant in the Bernoulli equation can be normalised. A

common approach is in terms of total head or energy head H:
The above equations suggest there is a flow speed at
which pressure is zero, and at even higher speeds the
pressure is negative. Most often, gases and liquids are not
capable of negative absolute pressure, or even zero
pressure, so clearly Bernoulli's equation ceases to be valid
 before zero pressure is reached. In liquids – when the
pressure becomes too low – cavitation occurs. The above
equations use a linear relationship between flow speed
squared and pressure. At higher flow speeds in gases, or
for sound waves in liquid, the changes in mass density
become significant so that the assumption of constant
density is invalid.

Simplified form[edit]
In many applications of Bernoulli's equation, the change in
the ρgz term along the streamline is so small compared
with the other terms that it can be ignored. For example, in
the case of aircraft in flight, the change in height z along a
streamline is so small the ρgz term can be omitted. This
allows the above equation to be presented in the following
simplified form:
where p0 is called "total pressure", and q is "dynamic
pressure".[14] Many authors refer to
the pressure p as static pressure to distinguish it from
total pressure p0 and dynamic pressure q.
In Aerodynamics, L.J. Clancy writes: "To distinguish it
from the total and dynamic pressures, the actual
pressure of the fluid, which is associated not with its
motion but with its state, is often referred to as the
static pressure, but where the term pressure alone is
used it refers to this static pressure."[1](§ 3.5)
The simplified form of Bernoulli's equation can be
summarized in the following memorable word
equation:[1](§ 3.5)
static pressure + dynamic pressure = total pressure
Every point in a steadily flowing fluid, regardless of
the fluid speed at that point, has its own unique
static pressure p and dynamic pressure q. Their
sum p + q is defined to be the total pressure p0.
The significance of Bernoulli's principle can now be
summarized as "total pressure is constant along a
streamline".
If the fluid flow is irrotational, the total pressure on
every streamline is the same and Bernoulli's
principle can be summarized as "total pressure is
constant everywhere in the fluid flow". [1](Equation 3.12) It is
reasonable to assume that irrotational flow exists
in any situation where a large body of fluid is
flowing past a solid body. Examples are aircraft in
flight, and ships moving in open bodies of water.
However, it is important to remember that
Bernoulli's principle does not apply in the boundary
layer or in fluid flow through long pipes.
 If the fluid flow at some point along a streamline is
brought to rest, this point is called a stagnation
point, and at this point the total pressure is equal
to the stagnation pressure.

Applicability of incompressible
flow equation to flow of gases[edit]
Bernoulli's equation is sometimes valid for the flow
of gases: provided that there is no transfer of
kinetic or potential energy from the gas flow to the
compression or expansion of the gas. If both the
gas pressure and volume change simultaneously,
then work will be done on or by the gas. In this
case, Bernoulli's equation – in its incompressible
flow form – cannot be assumed to be valid.
However, if the gas process is entirely isobaric,
or isochoric, then no work is done on or by the gas,
(so the simple energy balance is not upset).
According to the gas law, an isobaric or isochoric
process is ordinarily the only way to ensure
constant density in a gas. Also the gas density will
be proportional to the ratio of pressure and
absolute temperature, however this ratio will vary
upon compression or expansion, no matter what
non-zero quantity of heat is added or removed.
The only exception is if the net heat transfer is
zero, as in a complete thermodynamic cycle, or in
an individual isentropic (frictionless adiabatic)
process, and even then this reversible process
must be reversed, to restore the gas to the original
pressure and specific volume, and thus density.
Only then is the original, unmodified Bernoulli
equation applicable. In this case the equation can
be used if the flow speed of the gas is sufficiently
below the speed of sound, such that the variation
in density of the gas (due to this effect) along
each streamline can be ignored. Adiabatic flow at
less than Mach 0.3 is generally considered to be s
vv