This document discusses computer organization and architecture. It begins by explaining the stored program concept, where instructions are stored in memory to be executed. This led to the Von Neumann model, which uses a single memory for both instructions and data. It then describes Flynn's classification of computer architectures based on whether they have single or multiple instruction/data streams operating simultaneously. The major categories are SISD, SIMD, MISD, and MIMD systems. Parallel processing allows simultaneous tasks to increase computational speed.
This document discusses computer organization and architecture. It begins by explaining the stored program concept, where instructions are stored in memory to be executed. This led to the Von Neumann model, which uses a single memory for both instructions and data. It then describes Flynn's classification of computer architectures based on whether they have single or multiple instruction/data streams operating simultaneously. The major categories are SISD, SIMD, MISD, and MIMD systems. Parallel processing allows simultaneous tasks to increase computational speed.
This document discusses computer organization and architecture. It begins by explaining the stored program concept, where instructions are stored in memory to be executed. This led to the Von Neumann model, which uses a single memory for both instructions and data. It then describes Flynn's classification of computer architectures based on whether they have single or multiple instruction/data streams operating simultaneously. The major categories are SISD, SIMD, MISD, and MIMD systems. Parallel processing allows simultaneous tasks to increase computational speed.
This document discusses computer organization and architecture. It begins by explaining the stored program concept, where instructions are stored in memory to be executed. This led to the Von Neumann model, which uses a single memory for both instructions and data. It then describes Flynn's classification of computer architectures based on whether they have single or multiple instruction/data streams operating simultaneously. The major categories are SISD, SIMD, MISD, and MIMD systems. Parallel processing allows simultaneous tasks to increase computational speed.
Objectives: a.) Discuss the two major classification of general system architecture. b.) Differentiate the store program control concept and Flynn’s Classification. c.) Discover the most common registers used in a basic computer.
Lesson 1: Store Program Control Concept
Store Program Control Concept The term Stored Program Control Concept refers to the storage of instructions in computer memory to enable it to perform a variety of tasks in sequence or intermittently. The idea was introduced in the late 1040s by John von Neumann who proposed that a program be electronically stored in the binary-number format in a memory device so that instructions could be modified by the computer as determined by intermediate computational results. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first computing system designed in the early 1940s. It was based on Stored Program Concept in which machine use memory for processing data. Stored Program Concept can be further classified in three basic ways: 1. Von-Neumann Model 2. General Purpose System 3. Parallel Processing
Von-Neumann Model
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Von-Neumann proposed his computer architecture design in 1945 which was later known as Von-Neumann Architecture. It consisted of a Control Unit, Arithmetic, and Logical Memory Unit (ALU), Registers and Inputs/Outputs. Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program computer concept, where instruction data and program data are stored in the same memory. This design is still used in most computers produced today. A Von Neumann-based computer: o Uses a single processor o Uses one memory for both instructions and data. o Executes programs following the fetch-decode-execute cycle
Components of Von-Neumann Model:
o Central Processing Unit o Buses o Memory Unit Central Processing Unit The part of the Computer that performs the bulk of data processing operations is called the Central Processing Unit and is referred to as the CPU.
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The Central Processing Unit can also be defined as an electric circuit responsible for executing the instructions of a computer program. The CPU performs a variety of functions dictated by the type of instructions that are incorporated in the computer. The major components of CPU are Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and a variety of registers. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) performs the required micro-operations for executing the instructions. In simple words, ALU allows arithmetic (add, subtract, etc.) and logic (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) operations to be carried out. Control Unit The Control Unit of a computer system controls the operations of components like ALU, memory and input/output devices. The Control Unit consists of a program counter that contains the address of the instructions to be fetched and an instruction register into which instructions are fetched from memory for execution. Registers Registers refer to high-speed storage areas in the CPU. The data processed by the CPU are fetched from the registers. Following is the list of registers that plays a crucial role in data processing.
Registers Description
MAR (Memory Address This register holds the memory location of the data that needs Register) to be accessed.
MDR (Memory Data This register holds the data that is being transferred to or from Register) memory.
AC (Accumulator) This register holds the intermediate arithmetic and logic results.
PC (Program Counter) This register contains the address of the next instruction to be executed.
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CIR (Current Instruction This register contains the current instruction during processing. Register) Buses Buses are the means by which information is shared between the registers in a multiple-register configuration system. A bus structure consists of a set of common lines, one for each bit of a register, through which binary information is transferred one at a time. Control signals determine which register is selected by the bus during each particular register transfer. Von-Neumann Architecture comprised of three major bus systems for data transfer.
Bus Description
Address Address Bus carries the address of data (but not the data) between the processor Bus and the memory.
Data Bus Data Bus carries data between the processor, the memory unit and the input/output devices.
Control Control Bus carries signals/commands from the CPU.
Bus Memory Unit A memory unit is a collection of storage cells together with associated circuits needed to transfer information in and out of the storage. The memory stores binary information in groups of bits called words. The internal structure of a memory unit is specified by the number of words it contains and the number of bits in each word. Two major types of memories are used in computer systems: 1. RAM (Random Access Memory) 2. ROM (Read-Only Memory)
General Purpose System
The General Purpose Computer System is the modified version of the Von-Neumann Architecture. In simple words, we can say that a general purpose computer system is a modern day architectural representation of Computer System.
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The CPU (Central Processing Unit) consists of the ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit), Control Unit and various processor registers. The CPU, Memory Unit and I/O subsystems are interconnected by the system bus which includes data, address, and control-status lines. The following image shows how CPU, Memory Unit and I/O subsystems are connected through common single bus architecture.
However, practical systems may differ from the single bus architecture in the sense that it may be configured around multiple buses. Multiple Bus Architecture favors high throughput as compared to Single Bus Architecture.
Parallel Processing Parallel processing can be described as a class of techniques which enables the system to achieve simultaneous data-processing tasks to increase the computational speed of a computer system. A parallel processing system can carry out simultaneous data-processing to achieve faster execution time. For instance, while an instruction is being processed in the ALU component of the CPU, the next instruction can be read from memory. The primary purpose of parallel processing is to enhance the computer processing capability and increase its throughput, i.e. the amount of processing that can be accomplished during a given interval of time.
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A parallel processing system can be achieved by having a multiplicity of functional units that perform identical or different operations simultaneously. The data can be distributed among various multiple functional units. The following diagram shows one possible way of separating the execution unit into eight functional units operating in parallel. The operation performed in each functional unit is indicated in each block if the diagram:
o The adder and integer multiplier performs the arithmetic operation with integer numbers. o The floating-point operations are separated into three circuits operating in parallel. o The logic, shift, and increment operations can be performed concurrently on different data. All units are independent of each other, so one number can be shifted while another number is being incremented.
For more knowledge about Von Neumann architecture, please check the link provided; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SADbPS8UgA
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Lesson 2: Flynn's Classification of Computers
Flynn's Classification of Computers
M.J. Flynn proposed a classification for the organization of a computer system by the number of instructions and data items that are manipulated simultaneously. The sequence of instructions read from memory constitutes an instruction stream. The operations performed on the data in the processor constitute a data stream. Note: The term 'Stream' refers to the flow of instructions or data. Parallel processing may occur in the instruction stream, in the data stream, or both. Flynn's classification divides computers into four major groups that are: 1. Single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD) 2. Single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD) 3. Multiple instruction stream, single data stream (MISD) 4. Multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD)
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Lesson 3: Computer Registers
Computer Registers Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the CPU are often termed as Processor registers. A processor register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any data (such as bit sequence or individual characters). The computer needs processor registers for manipulating data and a register for holding a memory address. The register holding the memory location is used to calculate the address of the next instruction after the execution of the current instruction is completed. Following is the list of some of the most common registers used in a basic computer:
Register Symbol Number of bits Function
Data register DR 16 Holds memory operand
Address register AR 12 Holds address for the memory
Accumulator AC 16 Processor register
Instruction register IR 16 Holds instruction code
Program counter PC 12 Holds address of the instruction
Temporary register TR 16 Holds temporary data
Input register INPR 8 Carries input character
Output register OUTR 8 Carries output character
The following image shows the register and memory configuration for a basic computer.
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o The Memory unit has a capacity of 4096 words, and each word contains 16 bits. o The Data Register (DR) contains 16 bits which hold the operand read from the memory location. o The Memory Address Register (MAR) contains 12 bits which hold the address for the memory location. o The Program Counter (PC) also contains 12 bits which hold the address of the next instruction to be read from memory after the current instruction is executed. o The Accumulator (AC) register is a general purpose processing register. o The instruction read from memory is placed in the Instruction register (IR). o The Temporary Register (TR) is used for holding the temporary data during the processing. o The Input Registers (IR) holds the input characters given by the user. o The Output Registers (OR) holds the output after processing the input data.
For more knowledge about computer registers, please check the link provided; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fpnE6UAfbtU&t=77s
