The Visual Arts are art forms that create works that are primarily

visual in nature, such as ceramics, drawing, painting, sculpture,

printmaking, design, crafts, photography, video, film making and
architecture. These definitions should not be taken too strictly as
many artistic disciplines (performing arts, conceptual art, textile
arts) involve aspects of the visual arts as well as arts of other
types. Also included within the visual arts are the applied arts such
as industrial design, graphic design, fashion design, interior
design and decorative art. The current usage of the term "visual
arts" includes fine art as well as the applied, decorative arts and
crafts, but this was not always the case. Before the Arts and Crafts
Movement in Britain and elsewhere at the turn of the 20th
century, the term 'artist' was often restricted to a person working
in the fine arts (such as painting, sculpture, or printmaking) and
not the handicraft, craft, or applied art media. The distinction was
emphasized by artists of the Arts and Crafts Movement who
valued vernacular art forms as much as high forms. Art schools
made a distinction between the fine arts and the crafts
maintaining that a crafts-person could not be considered a
practitioner of art.

The Visual Arts include a wide array of media, tools and processes.
The area’s most people associate with the visual arts include
drawing, painting, printmaking, sculpture and photography. There
are, however, many other areas that fall entirely or partially within
the visual arts, ranging from design areas such as architecture and
the built environment, fiber and clothing to the folk arts and from
crafts to video animation. One of the challenges to art educators
as they design local curricula is to select appropriately among the
many media available, choosing those that provide the best
vehicle for their students to meet local program goals and
objectives by creating and responding to art. In other words,
curriculum objectives should drive the choice of media, rather
than vice versa. Students need breadth, through experiencing and
working with a variety of media, and depth, through mastering at
least a few media sufficiently those they are able to use them to
express or communicate their ideas and feelings. Through those
experiences, they also need to gain insight into the enormous
body of visual work that has been created throughout the
centuries, from early cave paintings to the present.

Elements are a particular part of Visual Arts from something

abstract especially one that is essential or characteristic.

1. Line - It is the most basic of all the elements. A line is a visible

path traced by a moving point which may vary in types. We have
straight, horizontal, vertical, diagonal or curved. These lines are
used to signify different emotions, feelings and idea for example:

 Horizontal lines are parallel to the horizon. They look like

they’re lying down, at rest, asleep. They suggest calm and
quiet, a relaxed comfort that cannot fall over. They
accentuate width. They’re stable and secure. The convey an
absence of conflict, a restful peace.
 Vertical lines are perpendicular to the horizon that is filled
with potential energy that could be released if they were to
fall over. Strong, rigid, stable, especially when thicker, lack of
movement, which is usually seen as horizontal. They stretch
from the earth to the heavens and are often connected with
religious feelings. Their tallness and formality may give the
impression of dignity.
  Diagonal lines are unbalanced, restless and uncontrolled
energy. They can appear to be either rising or falling and
convey action and motion. Their kinetic energy and apparent
movement create tension, excitement, dramatic, solid and
unmoving if they are holding something up or at rest against
a vertical line or plane.
 Curved lines are softer than straight lines. They sweep and
turn gracefully between end points. They are less definite
and predictable than straight lines. They bend, they change
direction. Curved lines express fluid movement. They can be
calm or dynamic depending on how much they curve. The
less active the curve the calmer the feeling.

2. Shapes - Shapes and forms are figures which define objects in

a space. It can be natural or man-made, regular or irregular, flat
(2-dimensional) or solid (3-dimensional), representational or
abstract, geometric or organic, transparent or opaque, positive or
negative, decorative or symbolic, colored, patterned or textured.

The Perspective of Shapes: The angles and curves of shapes

appear to change depending on our viewpoint. The technique we
use to describe this change is called perspective drawing.

The Behavior of Shapes: Shapes can be used to control your

feelings in the composition of an artwork:

 Squares and Rectangles can portray strength and stability

 Circles and Ellipses can represent continuous movement
 Triangles and Cones can lead the eye in an upward
movement
  Inverted Triangles can create a sense of imbalance and
tension

3. Value - It is the relative degree of lightness or darkness in

anything that is visible. It gives an impression of solidity, distance
and depth. The values or tonal values of an artwork can be
adjusted to alter its expressive character.

Values can be used:

 to create a contrast of light and dark.

 to create the illusion of form.
 to create a dramatic or tranquil atmosphere.
 to create a sense of depth and distance.
 to create a rhythm or pattern within a composition.

4. Color - It is the product of light reflected off objects but in

Visual Arts, the relationship of colors is the best seen in a color
wheel and its visual element has the strongest effect on our
emotions. We use color to create the mood or atmosphere of an
artwork.

There are many different approaches to the use of color:

 Color as light
 Color as tone
 Color as pattern
 Color as form
 Color as symbol
 Color as movement
  Color as harmony
 Color as contrast
 Color as mood

5. Texture - is the surface quality of an artwork - the roughness

or smoothness of the material from which it is made. We
experience texture in two ways: optically (through sight)
and physically (through touch).

 Optical Texture - An artist may use his/her skillful painting

technique to create the illusion of texture. For example, in
the detail from a traditional Dutch still life above you can see
remarkable verisimilitude (the appearance of being real) in
the painted insects and drops of moisture on the silky
surface of the flower petals.
 Physical Texture - An artist may paint with expressive
brushstrokes whose texture conveys the physical and
emotional energy of both the artist and his/her subject. They
may also use the natural texture of their materials to suggest
their own unique qualities such as the grain of wood, the
grittiness of sand, the flaking of rust, the coarseness of cloth
and the smear of paint.
 Ephemeral Texture - This is a third category of textures
whose fleeting forms are subject to change like clouds,
smoke, flames, bubbles and liquids.

6. Space - It is the area in which an artist arranges elements in a

composition. It is also refer as physical volume of a shape and the
space that it occupies. Space can be:
Two-Dimensional Form - constructs the illusion of 3D in 2D
media by a skillful manipulation of the visual elements.
Perspective Drawing, trompe l'oeil, 3D computer graphics
programs and holograms are examples of 2D form.

Three-Dimensional Form - can be modeled (added form), carved

(subtracted form) and constructed (built form). It can be created
from sculptural materials like clay, wax, plaster, wood, stone,
concrete, cast and constructed metal, plastics, resins, glass and
mixed media. It may also be kinetic, involving light and movement
generated by natural, mechanical and electronic means. More
recently the CAD process of 3D printing has be been added to the
list of sculptural processes.

The principles of good design are the tools every artist uses to
create an effective composition. These tools are: balance, contrast,
emphasis, movement, proportion, repetition, simplicity, and unity.
How well an artist understands and uses these tools
will determine if the composition is a weak or strong one. The
desired outcome should be a work of art that is both unified and
aesthetically pleasing to look at. In a series of discussions we’ll
take a look at each one of these principles.

 Balance – a feeling of equality of weight, attention, or

attraction of the various elements within the composition as
a means of accomplishing unity.
 Symmetrical balance - it has equal visual weight on either side of
the canvas. it is visually stable.
Asymmetrical balance - an uneven balance.
Radial balance - a symmetrical balance wherein elements are
distributed evenly around a central point.

 Contrast – the difference between elements or the

opposition to various elements.
 Emphasis – the stress placed on a single area of a work or
unifying visual theme.
 Movement – the suggestion of action or direction, the path
our eyes follow when we look at a work of art.
 Proportion – the relation of two things in size, number,
amount, or degree.
 Repetition and rhythm – the act of repeating an element
either regularly or irregularly resulting in a rhythm of the
repeating elements.

Regular - Repetition of a single motif.

Altering - use of two different motifs alternately
Flowing - a smooth and graceful type of rhythm
Progressing - motifs may be presented in a gradual shift in
characteristics, like size (from small to large)

 Simplicity (a.k.a. visual economy) – the elimination of all

non-essential elements or details to reveal the essence of a
form.
  Unity – the relationship between the individual parts and the
whole of a composition. This is the desired result in all great
art.

Visual Arts in Philippines

The Philippine visual arts encompass a range of forms developed
by Filipinos in the Ethnic, Spanish, American, and contemporary
traditions. In ethnic communities, pottery, weaving, carving, and
metalcraft are made for ritual purposes or for everyday use.
Spanish colonization introduced painting and sculpture whose
subject matter was for the most part religious, although secular
themes and forms emerged in the 19th century under the
patronage of the new mestizo elite. The American period
witnessed the conflict between conservatism and modernism, with
the latter gaining ground in the end in painting and sculpture.
After World War II artists explored a variety of Western and
Eastern styles, media, and philosophies—some conciously going
back to ethnic roots—to express themselves as individuals and as
Filipinos. The Ethnic Tradition Pottery stands among one of the
most ancient arts. The Manunggul Jar, excavated in Palawan circa
8th century BC, shows the high artistic level which the art attained
in ancient times. This large burial jar has a cover showing two men
rowing a boat, suggesting the belief among early Filipinos in an
afterlife across a mythical body of water. Around its body is an
incised design of curved lines and dots. Indeed, extant examples
of early Philippine pottery display a wide variety of shapes and
decorative techniques, including incision, stippling, applique,
openwork, and impression by rope and mat. Designs are often
geometric and include stylized nature motifs. In later years pottery
would become more and more associated with objects for daily
use, such as the palayok (clay pot) for cooking, and the banga and
tapayan (clay pot) for storing liquids. In the Ilocos, the making of
burnay pottery continues as a lively tradition. Weaving also
originated from the precolonial times and remains as a precious
living tradition. The Cordillera groups of the north are well-known
for the art of weaving. With a backstrap loom, they produce
blankets and articles of clothing that fulfill a practical function and
also play a part in religion and ritual. This tradition is also found in
the adjacent Ilocos provinces which take pride in their sturdy abel
(weave). In Mindanao, the Tboli of Cotabato weave abaca cloth,
called tnalak, in a difficult tie-dye process. This cloth has a large
repertoire of motifs, such as the gmayaw bird, whose rhythms
create the feeling of flapping wings, the frog which signifies
fertility, and the dancing man which calls for rain. These motifs
attest to the Tboli's deep-seated sense of harmony between
humans and nature. Weaving techniques are also used in the
exquisite mats with vivid colors and intricate geometric designs
woven by the women of Sulu, particularly from the islands of
Laminusa and Siasi. In the Visayas, Samar and Leyte are known for
colorful mats with bird and flower designs. The large mats are
meant for family
https://www.unboundvisualarts.org

https://portal.ct.gov/-/media/SDE/Arts/Guide-to-K12-Program-
Development-in-the-Arts/VISUAL-ARTS-Introduction-and-
CPRC.pdf?la=en

http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/definitions/visual-art.htm

https://vanseodesign.com/web-design/visual-grammar-lines/

http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/visual-
elements/visual-elements.html

http://teresabernardart.com/good-design-principle-introduction/

https://www.academia.edu/29719574/PHILIPPINE_VISUAL_ARTS
https://www.google.com/search?q=visual+arts+in+the+philippin
es&rlz=1C1CHBF_enPH832PH832&sxsrf=ACYBGNRk6bI2TrZnvb7
3TR3ITY0L_y6NYg:1571539621576&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=
X&ved=0ahUKEwjyzJOn6anlAhXNP3AKHZ_TA6AQ_AUIEigB&cshid
=1571539858409030&biw=1517&bih=675#imgrc=rWpAzxsIc-
GETM:
Drawing is simply the process of layering shapes, lines, scribbles
and values on top of each other until you get your desired result.

In this lesson, we're going to focus on the process of sketching. If

you can make a mark on a piece of paper, you can learn how to
sketch! You don't need to be able to draw straight lines or perfect
circles in order to be an artist.

INTRODUCTION TO SKETCHING

Sketching is a process of roughly scribbling an idea on paper. It

allows you to bring your ideas to life quickly so you can save time
in the long run. It's a great way to brainstorm. Sketching
traditionally refers to a preliminary rough type of drawing that an
artist might make in preparation for either a painting or a more
formal drawing (like a study).

A sketch is less detailed than a study - a study may be a highly

detailed rendition of something to be used in a large
composition. Of course sketching is also a form of doodling that a
person may do to pass time with no end goal in mind. Formally
however it is a useful way for an artist to capture a fleeting
impression of a scene or person before it changes. For this
purpose, it is typically executed rapidly and with little concern for
accuracy. Not unlike caricature art, sketching is often about
capturing a mood or key feature of the subject.
The awesome thing about sketching is that they usually blend in
or fade away while you continue to build upon the concept of
your drawing. Sketching is perhaps when an artist is most free
because you can’t make a 'mistake'. It is not about drawing an
accurate likeness, but rather about capturing the essence of a
person or object. To do this, you need to be loose, bold and not
afraid to make mistakes. It essentially allows the inner you to
come out. For this reason sketches are conceptually unique and
highly individual. They portray the inner identity of the artist and
are more difficult sometimes to copy as a result than a finished
work. It was this realization that prompted art historians to re-
evaluate sketches and even led to the situation where sketches by
the English landscape artist John Constable came to be valued as
finished works alongside his paintings. The same can be said for
chalk and pen sketches by High Renaissance artists Raphael and
Leonardo da Vinci which are continually being exhibited in
the best art museums around the world.

So don;t be afraid to make mistakes!

It's best to use free flowing lines that are loosely and lightly
drawn. To do that, adjust your grip on the pencil so that your
hand is relaxed instead of tense. If your hand usually gets tired
after you've drawn for less than an hour, you're probably gripping
it too tightly.

It's okay if your lines are wobbly because you may not be used to
drawing certain lines and curves yet. Drawing is very different
from writing, so you'll need to improve your muscle memory by
drawing as frequently as you can. When making an initial sketch,
you'll want to leave your perfectionism behind and focus on
general shapes. Think about the size, shape, angle, etc. The last
thing you want to think about is detail.

Sketching is generally a prescribed part of the studies of art

students. This generally includes making sketches (croquis) from a
live model whose pose changes every few minutes. A "sketch"
usually implies a quick and loosely drawn work, while related
terms such as study, modello and "preparatory drawing" usually
refer to more finished and careful works to be used as a basis for
a final work, often in a different medium, but the distinction is
imprecise. Underdrawing is drawing underneath the final work,
which may sometimes still be visible, or can be viewed by modern
scientific methods such as X-rays.
Most visual artists use, to a greater or lesser degree, the sketch as a method of
recording or working out ideas. The sketchbooks of some individual artists have become
very well known, including those of Leonardo da Vinci and Edgar Degas which have
become art objects in their own right, with many pages showing finished studies as well
as sketches. The term "sketchbook" refers to a book of blank paper on which an artist
can draw (or has already drawn) sketches. The book might be purchased bound or
might comprise loose leaves of sketches assembled or bound together.

Sketching is also used as a form of communication in areas

of product design such as industrial design. It can be used to
communicate design intent and is most widely used in ideation It
can be used to map out floor plans of homes.
The ability to quickly record impressions through sketching has found varied purposes
in today's culture. Courtroom sketches record scenes and individuals in law courts.
Sketches drawn to help authorities find or identify wanted people are called composite
sketches. Street artists in popular tourist areas sketch portraits within minutes.

HISTORY OF SKETCHING

In Classical Antiquity, artists used a metal stylus to sketch on

papyrus. During the era of Renaissance art (1400-1530), the stylus
was employed with a variety of metal alloys to create other dry
media like metalpoint and silverpoint. Apprentice artists and
young pupils were usually given an empty stylus with which to
practice sketching by making easily removable linear marks on
wax tablets. See also: Venetian Drawing (1500-1600).

However, artists kept sketches for their own inspiration; they were
not viewed as a proper form of fine art, to be sold in their own
right. However by the 18th and 19th century sketching became an
independent type of art, even acquiring the additional sense of a
stand-alone artwork. It coincided with a time when there was a
surge in naturalism and tourists started carrying sketchbooks with
them to capture impressions of day-trips to the countryside or
tours abroad. They sketched landscapes, animals, new cities,
vegetation and flowers. It became a popular hobby enjoyed by
both amateur and professional artists alike and was a useful tool
for retaining memories at a time before photography was
invented. Popular mediums for sketching were similar to those for
drawing, and included pencil and crayon, as well as pen-and-
ink and charcoal. Even pastel drawings were made.

Types of Sketches/Sketching Techniques

At the time of the Renaissance successful Master artists who had

their own studio handed sketches over to their apprentices for
turning into a finished painting. There were 3 main types of
sketches:

1. Croquis
A croquis was intended to remind the artist of some person or
scene he wished to remember in a more permanent form - they
were not necessarily for a finished product. Today fashion
designers use the term croquis to indicate a quick sketch of a live
model. It is even possible to download croquis templates (outlines
of the body in different positions) to use in a computer program
like Adobe Illustrator.
2. Pochade
Artists use colour to record a scene's atmospheric effect and to
capture the fleeting effect of light for a planned landscape
painting. Where croquis is a quick sketch using lines to record an
event or person, pochade is a quick colour sketch to capture
atmosphere. Many artists use pochade when painting plein
air and return with their sketches to the studio to use them in
planning large-scale landscape paintings. Impressionists
like Claude Monet (1840-1926) and Edouard Manet (1832-83)
took this even further turning their pochades into an end product.
The same could be said of Vincent Van Gogh who would take his
canvas outdoor, sketch directly onto it and then continue to paint
until the end product was achieved (usually within a few hours).

3. Portrait Sketch
This is used in portrait art to record moments where a person's
character is momentarily revealed, a mischievous twinkle in the
eye or a sour smile. Sketching was also used to draw the sitter
from different angles before deciding which angle was best for
the main project. These sketches - whether made with oil paint,
watercolour, charcoal or acrylics - typically had a dynamic
rhythmic flow which made them worthy stand-alone artworks.

Since this is a sketching tutorial for beginners, I'm using my left

hand (non-dominant hand) to show you that you don't need to
have a good control of your hand in order to sketch well.

Step 1: Sketch a circle loosely

Sketch a circle using a bunch

of loosely drawn lines. Don't
worry if your lines are going in
weird directions. It's likely that
you're not going to draw
something perfect the first time
around. That's totally fine!
Remember, we're supposed to work in layers.

Step 2: Refine the shape

After your initial sketch, find areas

that need improvement and
sketch over it until you get closer
to your desired result.

Step 3: Keep refining

Keep repeating that step until you

get even closer to what you want.

Tip: You can rotate your sketch

book to help your eyes look at the
shape differently. You might spot
some obvious areas that need
fixing.
Step 4: Define the shape

Happy with how it looks overall?

Use more confident lines to define
the shape of your circle. You can
erase the scribbly lines or let them
disappear naturally as you continue
to work on your drawing.

file:///C:/Users/User/Desktop/RapidFireArt-Lesson-1-How-to-
Sketch.pdf
http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/sketching.htm
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sketch_(drawing)
http://rapidfireart.com/2017/04/06/lesson-1-how-to-sketch/
When we speak of drawing as an art form, we are referring mainly to an artist's use of line to
make a picture. However, the definition of drawing can be expanded to include the use of
color, shading, and other elements in addition to line.

The history of drawing is as old as the history of humankind. People drew pictures even
before they learned how to write. Like other art forms, drawing has changed and developed
through history. Each new style grew out of the style that came before it. This evolution of
drawing styles closely parallels the development of painting. As drawing styles changed, so
did drawing materials.

Early History
The earliest known drawings date from 30,000 to 10,000 B.C.. They were found on the walls
of caves in France and Spain. Other examples of early drawing are designs that were
scratched, carved, or painted on the surfaces of primitive tools. Ancient Egyptians
(beginning about 3000 B.C.) decorated the walls of their temples and tombs with scenes of
daily life. These drawings had a flat, linear style. Texts written on papyrus (an early form of
paper) were illustrated with similar designs in pen and ink.

Nearly all that survives to show the drawing and painting skills of the ancient Greeks are
their decorated pottery vases. These great works of art show the Greeks' ability to draw
graceful figures and decorative lines.

The Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, from about the 400's to the 1400's, art was produced mainly to glorify
God and to teach religion. Painting and drawing merged in the illustration of Bibles and
prayer books produced by monks. These beautifully decorated manuscripts were hand-
lettered on vellum (calfskin), or later, on paper. Those made for royalty contained miniature
paintings ornamented with gold. Those made for less wealthy persons were decorated with
pen-and-ink drawings. The flat, linear forms often resembled the ornamental patterns made
by metalworkers.

Drawings were used in the preparatory stages of a work of art during the Middle Ages, but
few survive. Paper was not made in Europe until the 1100's, and at first it was expensive and
difficult to obtain. Artists sometimes drew on prepared animal skins such as parchment or
vellum. But these were also expensive. For centuries, artists made their preparatory drawings
on tablets made of slate, wood, or wax. These tablets were thrown away or reused. Some
painters made their preparatory drawings directly on the panel or wall that was to be
painted. These were covered in the final stage of painting.

Drawings had another important function during the Middle Ages. They helped artists keep
a record of images they frequently used. Pen-and-ink drawings of the human figure,
costumes, plants and animals, and many other forms were collected in model books. Artists
then copied the drawings instead of working directly from live models or from nature.

The Renaissance
Modern drawing in Europe began in the 1400's in Italy, during the period known as the
Renaissance. A special love of drawing was born at this time. The production of drawings
also increased steadily. This was because paper had become easier to obtain and because of
the new importance attached to drawing.

Drawing came to be considered the foundation for work in all the arts. Art students first
trained in drawing before going on to painting, sculpture, or architecture. Drawing was used
as a tool for the study of nature, which was becoming increasingly important. Artists
carefully studied the physical structure of the human body for the first time and began to
draw from nude models. The portrayal of the human figure became increasingly realistic.

The need for preparatory drawings also grew during the Renaissance. In Italy, many large-
scale paintings were produced to decorate the interiors of churches, palaces, and public
buildings. Paintings of this size required extensive preparation. Drawings were an important
step in creating the finished work. The artist often made a very detailed working drawing
before beginning to paint.

Renaissance artists continued to use pen and ink for drawing. But they turned increasingly
to softer materials, such as black and red chalks and charcoal, to make larger drawings and
to achieve a greater variety of effects. Shading was introduced to suggest solids and
textures. Among the most celebrated draftsmen (masters of drawing) of this period are
Michelangelo and Leonardo Da Vinci.

The Renaissance in Northern Europe

Artists living in Northern Europe (Germany, France, the Netherlands) in the 1500's gradually
absorbed some of the ideas and styles that were first developed in Italy. Albrecht Dürer, the
great draftsman and printmaker of Germany, was one of the first to travel to Italy. He
inspired others to make the same journey. Yet the Northern artistic tradition remained
different from the Italian. The Italians produced many working studies to prepare their
paintings. The Northerners made many more finished drawings as works of art for sale.
Portraits and landscape drawings were especially popular. Northern artists also portrayed
their subjects with greater interest in realism. Dürer's precise studies of people, animals,
landscapes, and plants, especially those rendered in watercolor and in chalk, are
outstanding examples. So are the portrait drawings of Hans Holbein the Younger of
Switzerland. Holbein's black chalk drawings of members of the English Court are masterful
in their simple realism.
 The 1600's and 1700's
The precision and control of Renaissance drawings were replaced in the Baroque period by
livelier forms and by bolder use of materials. Chalk and pen lines became freer and more
flowing. Washes of ink and watercolor were also used. The drawings of Peter Paul Rubens of
Flanders, who was inspired by the Italian painters, are good examples of art in the 1600's.
His larger-than-life figures seem to burst through the surface of the picture.

The Netherlands had its greatest period of artistic flowering in the 1600's. Rembrandt van
Rijn was the most famous painter and printmaker of Amsterdam. He was also one of the
world's greatest draftsmen. He was able to convey form, movement, and emotion with just a
few simple pen lines. Dutch artists made a specialty of landscape painting. They often went
into the countryside with sketchbook in hand and produced finished drawings or studies for
paintings to be completed in the studio.

The rococo period of the 1700's was dominated by French taste and culture. Decorative
lines and cheerful subjects are characteristic of the work of Jean-Antoine Watteau and
François Boucher. Both artists often drew with red, black, and white chalks. Sometimes they
combined all three.

The 1800's and 1900's

Many different styles developed side by side during the 1800's. Pencils were first
manufactured early in the century. They became the preferred drawing tools of many artists.
The French artist Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres produced highly finished portrait
drawings in this medium. Francisco Goya of Spain is known for his expressive drawings
rendered with brush and black and gray wash. Late in the century Edgar Degas led the
realist movement in France. He experimented with various drawing techniques (oil on paper,
pastel, and crayon, for example) with very original results. Everyday scenes, ballet dancers,
and horse races were among his favorite subjects.

The tradition of academic training founded on drawing had dominated European art since
the Renaissance. In the last quarter of the 1800's, artists began to question the merits of this
training. The change began with the impressionists. They painted directly on the canvas
without using preparatory drawings.

Since the beginning of the 1900's, art has been liberated from past traditions. This means
that the definition of drawing has also been expanded. It can be almost anything an artist
wishes it to be. All modern western art movements are represented in the drawing medium.
These include cubism ( Pablo Picasso), abstract expressionism ( Jackson Pollock), fauvism (
Henri Matisse), and postmodernism (Robert Rauschenberg). Artists continue to express
themselves through drawing, just as our ancestors felt the impulse to draw on their cave
walls so many years ago.
WHAT IS DRAWING?

Drawing, the art or technique of producing images on a surface, usually paper, by means of
marks, usually of ink, graphite, chalk, charcoal, or crayon.

Drawing as formal artistic creation might be defined as the primarily linear rendition of
objects in the visible world, as well as of concepts, thoughts, attitudes, emotions, and
fantasies given visual form, of symbols and even of abstract forms. This definition, however,
applies to all graphic arts and techniques that are characterized by an emphasis on form or
shape rather than mass and colour, as in painting. Drawing as such differs from graphic
printing processes in that a direct relationship exists between production and result.
Drawing, in short, is the end product of a successive effort applied directly to the carrier.
Whereas a drawing may form the basis for reproduction or copying, it is nonetheless unique
by its very nature.

Although not every artwork has been preceded by a drawing in the form of a
preliminary sketch, drawing is in effect the basis of all visual arts. Often the drawing is
absorbed by the completed work or destroyed in the course of completion. Thus, the
usefulness of a ground plan drawing of a building that is to be erected decreases as the
building goes up. Similarly, points and lines marked on a raw stone block
represent auxiliary drawings for the sculpture that will be hewn out of the material.
Essentially, every painting is built up of lines and pre-sketched in its main contours; only as
the work proceeds is it consolidated into coloured surfaces. As shown by an increasing
number of findings and investigations, drawings form the material basis of mural, panel, and
book paintings. Such preliminary sketches may merely indicate the main contours or may
predetermine the final execution down to exact details. They may also be mere probing
sketches. Long before the appearance of actual small-scale drawing, this procedure was
much used for monumental murals. With sinopia—the preliminary sketch found on a layer
of its own on the wall underneath the fresco, or painting on freshly spread, moist plaster—
one reaches the point at which a work that merely served as technical preparation becomes
a formal drawing expressing an artistic intention.

The Difference between Sketching and Drawing

What’s the real difference between drawing and sketching? To answer to this conundrum,
let’s first establish that sketching is a form of drawing, and drawing is the method we
produce marks in a sketch. Drawing can simply be defined as making marks on a surface.
The two descriptions are often used interchangeably. It’s really no surprise that there is
some confusion out there as to the differences between the two and I’m not really sure that
a perfect answer exists, but I’ll offer my humble opinions.

Most people consider sketching to be a looser, less refined form of drawing.

Sketches are typically created as preliminary drawings in order to prepare for a more
finished work of art. Sketches are typically created with quick marks and are usually lacking
some of the details that a finished drawing may have.

Often, the “nuts and bolts” of a finished drawing is worked out in the sketching stage of the
artistic process. Composition, balance between values, and proportion can all be worked out
in a quick sketch, rather than jumping right into a finished drawing, risking mistakes.

Another consideration is the medium. Graphite, charcoal, ink and conte can all be considered as
media that may be used to create a sketch, whereas pastels and colored pencils may be considered
more finished media for a “drawing”. Sketches are also usually considered to be smaller than
drawings, although many small “drawings” exist. Surface is another area where we can distinguish
sketches from drawings.

Mostly, sketches are created on lower quality papers such as newsprint, while finished
drawings are created on higher quality surfaces, like Bristol paper, rag paper, or drawing
paper. But this definition of sketching isn’t quite complete. There are no rules here, just
assumptions and generalizations.

Overall, A SKETCH implies a drawing, usually quickly executed, intended as a way of

exploring aspects of the subject.
A DRAWING is a more carefully constructed, usually final, image.

People talk of sketching and drawing in the same breath which is incorrect as they are two
different means of expression for an artist.

• While sketching is a freehand drawing that focuses on capturing the essence rather than
going into details, drawing is a slow and more careful expression that makes use of tools
and uses colors too.

• Sketching is done using pencils and charcoal only. Drawing is done using pencils, crayons,
pastel, markers, etc.

• Sketches often serve the purpose of a beautiful drawing later on.

• Sketching produces a picture made with minimum details while drawing produces a very
detailed picture.

• Drawings are always the final, finished product while sketches are preliminary attempts to
catch a beautiful scene or an experience.

• Sketching does not take much time, but drawing takes a lot of time.
The Significance of Drawing

Throughout history, drawing has occupied a central role in the early stages of the artistic
process, the immediacy of the medium granting artists the ability to commit ideas and
motifs to paper and to record the world around them before putting brush to canvas.
Several such “cartoons” have even become famous in their own right, for example a
preliminary drawing for Hans Holbein’s portrait of Henry VIII, currently on display in
London’s National Portrait Gallery, which has outlived the original painting, destroyed in a
fire in 1698.

Yet whilst such figurative works may be more commonly associated with the medium, we
should not overlook the importance of abstract drawing in art history. Drawings paved the
road to abstraction for artists such as Picasso, whose famed bull studies, progressing from a
lifelike visual representation of the animal to a powerful and abstract composition of lines
via a series of gradual steps, represent an important milestone in the development of
abstract art. Indeed, drawing has played a prominent role in the work of many of the most
celebrated abstract artists in history, including the likes of Richard Serra and Anish Kapoor.

However we choose to define drawing, there is no doubt that the medium has brought us
some of our most important works and ground-breaking innovations over the course of art
history. Though often dwarfed by painting or sculpture in terms of prestige, sale prices,
representation in institutions, as British contemporary artist Grayson Perry remarks, “until we
can insert a USB into our ear and download our thoughts, drawing remains the best way of
getting visual information onto the page.”

Basic Types of Drawing

1. Blind Contour - Drawing Exercise where you only look at the object you are drawing, not
at the paper you are drawing on, helps to train the hand to draw what the eye sees.
2. Modified Contour Drawing - Drawing exercise where you spend 90% of your time
looking at the object and only glancing at your drawing paper 10% of the drawing time.

3. Cross-Contour Drawing - Lines that show the form of an object. Cross-Contour lines lie
across the object rather than form the outline.
4. Contour Drawing - An informed line drawing. It can encompass all forms of contour
drawing like blind and modified. The quality of the line is most important in this type of
drawing.

5. Gesture Drawing - Quick drawing that shows movement or the mass of an object. It is
made through quick sketches and reflects the thinking of the artist.
6. Value to Model Form - Using light and dark values to give the sense of form to two-
dimensional drawings.

Different Types of Drawing Styles

Drawing is the foundation of so many creative practices, from architects to fashion

designers to animators and artists. Using a piece of paper and a pen or pencil, the
opportunities for self-expression are endless. And by using different drawing techniques, it’s
incredible to see just how many different ways there are to sketch.

There are innumerable drawing styles to be studied and explored, each one conveying a
different final product. Naturally, different types of illustration call upon different skills from
the artist. Some are quite detailed and meticulous, requiring a lot of patience, while others
work well when the artist is able to be loose and free with their strokes. The most skilled
illustrators don’t stick to just one type of drawing, but experiment freely in order to stretch
their skills. Of course, they may specialize in one particular way of sketching, but by being
flexible with their work they are able to test of different drawing styles and bring those
lessons back to their main work. For instance, Leonardo da Vinci may be known for
the Mona Lisa, but he was also known to fill hundreds of notebooks with refined finished
sketches and spontaneous doodles.

As you look to carve out your own personal style, consider playing with these different types
of drawing in order to understand the positive impact they’ll have on your creative growth.
1. Line Drawing

While lines form the basis of all drawing styles, line drawings use contours without shading
to create memorable sketches. If you really want to exercise your drawing skills, try
continuous line drawing. In this exercise, the pen or pencil never leaves the sheet of paper,
so the end result is formed from one single line.

2. Doodling

While we may think of doodling as a mindless past time, this type of drawing is a wonderful
way to let your subconscious mind flow. Great artists like Leonardo da Vinci are known for
their doodles, which populate the margins of his notebooks. Illustrator Vincent Bal plays
with the shadows and shapes he finds in everyday like and transforms them into whimsical
works of art with his doodles. Meant to be executed quickly and with simple, clear lines,
doodles are wonderful, immediate impressions of the world in front of us.

3. Cartoon

Cartoons have a long history, dating back to print magazines in the 19th century when they
were used as satirical and comical illustrations. Cartoon illustration is a large category,
having evolved over time. Some different cartoon styles include caricature, anime or manga,
and classic Disney. Playing with cartoon drawings means liberating yourself from
hyperrealistic representations, while still attempting to capture the essence of a figure in a
semi-realistic manner.

4. Pointillism

While we often associate pointillism with the

post-Impressionist paintings of Georges Seurat,
it’s a technique and style that also works well
for drawing. By stippling hundreds, or even
thousands, of tiny dots, artists are able to build
up light and shadow. The results can often be
shockingly realistic, with viewers only realizing
that dots—not lines—were used when looking
at the finished artwork closely.
5. Photorealism/Hyperrealism

For artists working in a photorealistic or hyperrealistic drawing style, patience is key.

Hundreds of hours can be passed in front of any artwork in order to polish to a level where
it looks like a photograph. While portraiture is a popular subject for hyperrealist drawings,
you don’t need to limit yourself.

6. Architectural

This type of drawing can be extremely

technical, but no less artistic. While
architectural drawing is a skill often honed in
the design world, non-architects are still able to
create stunning artwork. Whether drawing an
exact replica of a historical building like Notre
Dame or creating your own fantasy piece of
architecture, precision and attention to detail
are necessary.
7. Anamorphic

Another technical style, 3D drawings require mastery of perspective to create depth and
illusion. While it may take some practice to get the hang of, the results are stunning and
surprising works of art that will delight viewers. Sometimes called anamorphic drawing,
there are lots of great YouTube drawing tutorials that can help beginners get the hang of
this style.

https://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3753864
https://mymodernmet.com/drawing-styles/
https://www.britannica.com/art/drawing-art
https://www.slideshare.net/djmunson
https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-sketching-and-vs-drawing/
What is Painting?
The expression of ideas and emotions, with the creation
of certain aesthetic qualities that could be done in a two-
dimensional visual language is greatly known as Painting.
The elements of this language—its shapes, lines, colours,
tones, and textures—are used in various ways to produce
sensations of volume, space, movement, and light on a
flat surface. These elements are combined into
expressive patterns in order to represent real or
supernatural phenomena, to interpret a narrative theme,
or to create wholly abstract visual relationships. An
artist’s decision to use a particular medium, such
as tempera, fresco, oil, acrylic, watercolor or other water-
based paints, ink, gouache, encaustic, or casein, as well
as the choice of a particular form, such as mural, easel,
panel, miniature, manuscript illumination scroll, screen or
fan, panorama or any of a variety of modern forms, is
based on the sensuous qualities and the expressive
possibilities and limitations of those options. The choices
of the medium and the form, as well as the artist’s own
technique, combine to realize a unique visual image.

Painting is the application of pigments to a support

surface that establishes an image, design or decoration.
In art the term ―painting‖ describes both the act and the
result. Most painting is created with pigment in liquid
form and applied with a brush. Exceptions to this are
found in Navajo sand painting and Tibetan mandala
painting, where powdered pigments are used. Painting
as a medium has survived for thousands of years and is,
along with drawing and sculpture, one of the oldest
creative media. It’s used in some form by cultures around
the world.

Three of the most recognizable images in Western art

history are paintings: Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa,
Edvard Munch’s The Scream and Vincent van Gogh’s The
Starry Night. These three art works are examples of how
painting can go beyond a simple mimetic function, that
is, to only imitate what is seen. The power in great
painting is that it transcends perceptions to reflect
emotional, psychological, even spiritual levels of the
human condition. Painting media are extremely versatile
because they can be applied to many different surfaces
(called supports) including paper, wood, canvas, plaster,
clay, lacquer and concrete. Because paint is usually
applied in a liquid or semi-liquid state it has the ability to
soak into porous support material, which can, over time,
weaken and damage it. To prevent this a support is
usually first covered with a ground, a mixture of binder
and chalk that, when dry, creates a non-porous layer
between the support and the painted surface. A typical
ground is gesso.

History of Painting
Each style grows out of the styles that came before it.
Every great artist adds to the accomplishments of earlier
painters and influences later painters. We can enjoy a
painting for its beauty alone. Its lines, forms, colors, and
composition (arrangement of parts) may appeal to our
senses and linger in our memories. But enjoyment of art
increases as we learn when and why and how it was
created. A painting always describes something. It may
describe the artist's impression of a scene or person. It
also describes the artist's feelings about the art of
painting itself. Suppose. Many factors have influenced
the history of painting. Geography, religion, national
characteristics, historic events, the development of new
materials—all help to shape the artist's vision.
Throughout history, painting has mirrored the changing
world and our ideas about it. In turn, artists have
provided some of the best records of the development
of civilization, sometimes revealing more than the written
word.

Prehistoric Painting
Cave dwellers were the earliest artists. Colored drawings
of animals, dating from about 30,000 to 10,000 B.C., have
been found on the walls of caves in southern France and
in Spain. Many of these drawings are amazingly well
preserved because the caves were sealed up for many
centuries. Early people drew the wild animals that they
saw all around them. Very crude human figures, drawn in
lifelike positions, have been found in Africa and eastern
Spain.

The cave artists filled the cave walls with drawings in rich,
bright colors. Some of the most beautiful paintings are in
the Cave of Altamira, in Spain. One detail shows a
wounded bison, no longer able to stand—probably the
victim of a hunter. It is painted in reddish brown and
outlined simply but skillfully in black. The pigments used
by cave painters were earth ochers (iron oxides varying in
color from light yellow to deep orange) and manganese
(a metallic element). These were crushe

d into a fine powder, mixed

with grease (perhaps animal fat), and put on with some
sort of brush. Sometimes the pigments were used in
sticks, like crayons. The grease mixed with the powdered
pigments made the paint fluid and the pigment particles
stick together. The cave dwellers must have made
brushes out of animal hairs or plants, and sharp tools out
of flint for drawing and scratching lines.

As far back as 30,000 years ago, people had invented the

basic tools and materials for painting. Techniques and
materials were refined and improved in the centuries
following. But the discoveries of the cave dweller remain
basic to painting.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian Painting (3400-332 B.C.)

One of the first civilizations was developed in Egypt.

From the written records and the art left by the
Egyptians, much about their way of living is known. They
believed that the body must be preserved so that the
soul may live on after death. The great pyramids were
elaborate tombs for rich and powerful Egyptian rulers.
Much Egyptian art was created for the pyramids and
tombs of kings and other important people. To make
absolutely sure that the soul would continue to exist,
artists made images of the dead person in stone. They
also recorded scenes from the person's life in wall
paintings in the burial chambers.

Egyptian techniques of painting remained the same for

centuries. In one method watercolor paint was put on
mud-plaster or limestone walls. In another process
outlines were cut into stone walls, and the designs were
painted with watercolor washes. A material called gum
arabic probably was used to make the paint stick to a
surface. Fortunately, the dry climate of the region and
the sealed tombs have prevented some of these
watercolor paintings from being destroyed by dampness.
A number of hunting scenes from the walls of tombs in
Thebes of about 1450 B.C. are well preserved. They show
hunters stalking birds or spearing fish of many varieties.
These varieties can still be identified today because they
were so accurately and carefully painted.

The Mesopotamian civilization, which lasted from 3200

to 332 B.C., was located in the valley between the Tigris
and Euphrates rivers in the Near East. The
Mesopotamians built mostly with clay. Because clay is
softened by rain, their buildings have crumbled away to
dust, destroying any wall paintings there may have been.
What has been preserved are the decorated ceramics
(painted and fired pottery) and colorful mosaics.
Although mosaics should not be considered painting,
they frequently influenced the forms of painting.

The Aegean Civilization (3000-1100 B.C.)

The third great early culture was the Aegean civilization,

on the islands off the shores of Greece and in the
peninsula of Asia Minor. The Aegeans lived around the
same time as the ancient Egyptians and the
Mesopotamians.
In 1900 archeologists began to excavate the palace of
King Minos at Knossos on the island of Crete. The
excavations turned up works of art painted around 1500
B.C. in an unusually free and graceful style for that time.
Evidently the Cretans were a lighthearted, nature-loving
people. Among their favorite themes in art were sea life,
animals, flowers, athletic games, and processionals. At
Knossos and other Aegean palaces, paintings were made
on wet plaster walls with paints made of mineral
substances, sand, and earth ochers. The paint soaked
into the wet plaster and became a permanent part of the
wall. This kind of painting was later called fresco, an
Italian word meaning "fresh" or "new." The Cretans liked
bright yellow, red, blue, and green.

Greek and Roman Classical Painting (1100 B.C.-A.D.

400)
 The Ancient Greeks
decorated their temples and palaces with mural (wall)
paintings. We can tell from ancient literary sources and
from Roman copies of Greek art that the Greeks painted
small pictures and made mosaics. The names of the
Greek master painters and something of their lives and
works are also known, although very little Greek painting
has survived the effects of time and wars. The Greeks did
not paint much in tombs, so their works were not
protected.

The earliest style of vase painting was known as the

geometric style (1100-700 B.C.). Vases were decorated
with bands of geometric shapes and human figures in a
brown glaze on light-colored clay. By the 6th century,
vase painters were using the black-figured style, in which
human figures were painted in black on the natural red
clay. The details were cut into the clay with a sharp
instrument. This allowed the red beneath to show
through. The red-figured style eventually replaced the
black. It is just the opposite; the figures are red and the
background black. The advantage of this style was that
the painter could use a brush to make the outlines. A
brush gives a freer line than the metal tool used in black-
figured vases.

Roman mural paintings were found chiefly in the villas

(country homes) of Pompeii and Herculaneum. In A.D. 79
these two cities were completely buried by an eruption
of the volcano Vesuvius. Archeologists who have
excavated the area have been able to learn much about
ancient Roman life from these cities. Almost every house
and villa in Pompeii had paintings on its walls. Roman
painters carefully prepared the wall surface by applying a
mixture of marble dust and plaster. They put the mixture
on in layers and polished it to a marblelike finish. Many
of the pictures are copies of 4th-century B.C. Greek
paintings. The graceful poses of the figures painted on
the walls of the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii inspired
artists of the 18th century when the city was excavated.

The Greeks and Romans also painted portraits. A small

number of them, mostly mummy portraits done in the
Greek style by Egyptian artists, have survived around
Alexandria, in northern Egypt. Founded in the 4th century
B.C. by Alexander the Great of Greece, Alexandria
became a leading center of Greek and Roman culture.
Mummy portraits were painted in the encaustic
technique on wood and were fitted into mummy cases
after the death of the person portrayed. Encaustic
paintings, done in paint mixed with melted beeswax, last
for a very long time. Indeed, the mummy portraits still
look fresh, though they were done as long ago as the
2nd century B.C.

Early Christian and Byzantine Painting (A.D. 300-

1300)

The Roman Empire began to decline in the 4th century

A.D. At the same time Christianity gained strength. In
A.D. 313 the Roman Emperor Constantine gave the
religion official recognition and became a Christian
himself.

The rise of Christianity greatly affected the arts. Artists

were commissioned to decorate the walls of churches
with frescoes and mosaics. They made panel paintings in
the church chapel and illustrated and decorated the
books of the Church. Under the authority of the Church,
artists had to communicate the teachings of Christianity
as clearly as possible.

Early Christians and Byzantine artists continued the

technique of mosaic that they had learned from the
Greeks. Small, flat pieces of colored glass or stone were
set into wet cement or plaster. Sometimes other hard
materials, such as bits of baked clay or shells, were used.
In Italian mosaics the colors are especially deep and full.
The Italian artists made the background with pieces of
gilded glass. They set the human figures in rich colors
against the glittering gold. The general effect is flat and

decorative, not realistic.

The mosaics of Byzantine artists often were less realistic

and more decorative than those of the early Christians.
"Byzantine" is the name given to a style of art that
developed around the ancient city of Byzantium (now
Istanbul, Turkey). The mosaic technique perfectly suited
the Byzantine taste for splendidly decorated churches.
The famous mosaics of Theodora and Justinian, made
about A.D. 547, show the taste for rich display. The
jewelry on the figures glitters, and the brilliantly colored
court dresses are set against a shining gold background.
Byzantine artists also used gold liberally in fresco and
panel paintings. Gold and other precious materials were
used throughout the Middle Ages to set spiritual
subjects apart from the everyday world.

Medieval Painting (500-1400)

The first part of the Middle Ages, from about the 6th to
the 11th centuries A.D., is commonly called the Dark
Ages. In this time of unrest, art was kept alive mainly in
the monasteries. In the 5th century A.D. barbarian tribes
from northern and central Europe roamed over the
continent. For hundreds of years they dominated
Western Europe. These people produced an art that has
a strong emphasis on pattern. They were especially fond
of designs of intertwining dragons and birds.

The best of Celtic and Saxon art is found in manuscripts

of the 7th and 8th centuries. Book illumination and
miniature painting, practiced since late Roman times,
increased in the Middle Ages. Illumination is decoration
of the text, the capital letters, and the margins. Gold,
silver, and bright colors were used. A miniature is a small
picture, often a portrait. Originally the term was used to
describe the decorative block around the initial letters in
a manuscript.
Charlemagne, who was crowned emperor of the Holy
Roman Empire in the early 9th century, tried to revive the
classical art of the late Roman and early Christian
periods. During his reign painters of miniatures imitated
classical art, but they also conveyed personal feelings
about their subjects.

Very little wall painting survives from the Middle Ages.

There were several great series of frescoes painted in
churches built during the Romanesque period (11th-13th
centuries), but most of them have disappeared. Churches
of the Gothic period (12th-16th centuries) did not have
enough wall space for mural paintings. Book illustration
was the main job of the Gothic painter. Among the finest
illustrated manuscripts were the books of hours--
collections of calendars, devotional prayers, and psalms.
A page from an Italian manuscript shows elaborately
decorated initials and a finely detailed marginal scene of
Saint George slaying the dragon. The colors are brilliant
and jewel-like, as in stained glass, and gold shimmers
over the page. Exquisitely delicate leaf and flower
designs border the text. Artists probably used
magnifying glasses to do such intricate work.
Early Renaissance (1400-1500)

The founder of Renaissance painting was Masaccio,

Giotto's greatest successor in the quest for
realistic perspective (the three-dimensional articulation
of space), modelling (the three-dimensional articulation
of surfaces, via lighting/shading), and emotion.2,8 His
masterpiece is Tribute Money, part of a mural series at
Brancacci Chapel, Florence. This work demonstrates how
the halo, a remnant of medieval art, is adapted to a
three-dimensional environment as though it were a solid
disk; the halo would eventually disappear completely
during the Renaissance, though some artists modified it
into realistic light shining from a figure's head.
Late Renaissance (1525-1600)

Though mannerism flourished primarily in Florence and

Rome, the most renowned of all mannerist painters is El
Greco, the greatest Spanish painter of the
Renaissance.35 His foremost work, The Burial of Count
Orgaz, features elongated figures and swirling distortions
of space that achieve a fantastic, dreamlike effect.


 

Mannerism had only limited influence on Titian, greatest

of all Venetian painters. Assumption of the Virgin is often
considered his masterpiece. Titian's paintings showcase
the vibrant colouring and strong lighting of the
Venetian school.18



 

In the sixteenth century, Renaissance

painting radiated from Italy across Europe. Many artists
of northern Europe responded by merging Italian
classical composition with the finely-detailed realism of
Low Countries painting; this was achieved most
successfully by Dürer. Yet the greatest Low Countries
painter of the sixteenth century, Pieter Bruegel (the
Elder), chose not to embrace Italian art. Instead of
classically-structured biblical scenes, Bruegel preferred to
chronicle the everyday lives of peasants against realistic
interiors and landscapes.

Baroque Painting (1600 - 1800)

Baroque art is characterized by dynamism (a sense of

motion), which is augmented by extravagant effects (e.g.
strong curves, rich decoration, stark lighting; see Western
Aesthetics). The full-blown Baroque aesthetic (full
Baroque) was embraced in southern Western Europe,
while northern Western Europe struck a classical-
Baroque compromise (restrained Baroque). The chief
exception to this generalization is Flanders, which
embraced "full Baroque" (see Diffusion of Baroque). One
would therefore expect Baroque painting to
feature dynamic composition (see Visual Composition).
This is not always the case, however; sometimes, instead
of using a preconceived aesthetic structure (dynamic
composition), Baroque painters simply composed scenes
as they appear in the real world (or, in the case of
imagined scenes, as they would plausibly appear in the
real world). This approach can be described as realist
Baroque, as opposed to dynamic Baroque.

To reiterate: painting of the Baroque age can be divided

into dynamic Baroque painting (which features dynamic
composition) and realist Baroque painting (which
features realistic composition). The former can be viewed
as the descendent of Italian Renaissance painting (which
focused on overall composition), the latter as the
descendent of Low Countries Renaissance painting
(which focused on realistically capturing the immediate
physical world).
The greatest painters of the Baroque era belong to
the High Baroque period. The various styles and
subjects of High Baroque painting continued to flourish
during the Late Baroque, in the brushes of many less
renowned successors. The last phase of Baroque
was Rococo (1725 - 1800), in which the curves and
dynamism of Baroque were retained, but its weighty
drama softened to a light, playful style. Cheerful
subjects, light colours, and delicate curves are all typical
features of Rococo art. The most iconic Rococo artist
is François Boucher, whose work includes paintings,
ceramics, and tapestries; his masterpiece is The Birth of
Venus.

19th Century Painting

The 19th century is sometimes regarded as the period

during which modern art began to take shape. One
important reason for the so-called revolution in the arts
at this time was the invention of the camera, which
forced artists to re-examine the purpose of painting.

A more important development resulted partly from the

widespread use of manufactured paints. Before the 19th
century, most artists or their assistants made their own
paints by grinding pigment. Early commercial paints were
inferior to handmade paints. Artists late in the 19th
century found that the dark blues and browns of earlier
paintings were turning black or gray within a few years.
They began to use pure colors again. These artists used
pure colors in order to preserve their work and
sometimes because they were trying to capture the
effects of sunlight in outdoor scenes more accurately.
20th-Century Painting

A number of artists soon became dissatisfied with

impressionism. Artists such as Paul Cézanne (1839-1906)
felt that impressionism did not describe the solidity of
forms in nature. Cézanne liked to paint still lifes because
they allowed him to concentrate on the shapes of fruits
or other objects and their arrangements. Objects in his
still lifes look solid because he reduced their forms to
simple geometric shapes. His technique of placing
patches of paint and short brushstrokes of rich color side
by side shows that he learned much from the
impressionists.

Vincent Van Gogh (1853-90) and Paul Gauguin (1848-

1903) reacted against the realism of the impressionists.
Unlike the impressionists, who said that they were
viewing nature objectively, Van Gogh cared little for
accurate drawing. He frequently distorted objects in
order to express his ideas more imaginatively. He used
the impressionist device of putting contrasting colors
next to each other. Sometimes he squeezed paint from
the tubes right onto the canvas in thick ribbons, as
in Field of Yellow Corn.
Gauguin did not care for the spotty color of the
impressionists. He applied color smoothly in large flat
areas, which he separated from one another by lines or
dark edges. The colorful civilizations of the tropics
provided much of his subject matter.

Cézanne's method of building up arrangements in space

with simple geometric forms was further developed by
Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), Georges Braque (1882-1963),
and others. Their style became known as cubism. The
cubists painted objects as if they could be seen from
several angles at once, or as if they had been taken apart
and reassembled on a flat canvas. Often the objects
barely resemble anything in nature. Sometimes the
cubists cut out shapes from cloth, cardboard, wallpaper,
or other materials and pasted them on the canvas to
make a collage. Textures were also varied by adding sand
or other substances to the paint. Since Manet, the trend
has been to put less emphasis on subject and more
emphasis on composition and technique.

Early Mediums in Painting

1. Encaustic paint mixes dry pigment with a heated

beeswax binder. The mixture is then brushed or spread
across a support surface. Reheating allows for longer
manipulation of the paint. Encaustic dates back to the
first century C.E. and was used extensively in funerary
mummy portraits from Fayum in Egypt. The
characteristics of encaustic painting include strong,
resonant colors and extremely durable paintings.
Because of the beeswax binder, when encaustic cools it
forms a tough skin on the surface of the painting.
Modern electric and gas tools allow for extended periods
of heating and paint manipulation.

2. Fresco painting is used exclusively on plaster walls and

ceilings. The medium of fresco has been used for
thousands of years, but is most associated with its use in
Christian images during the Renaissance period in
Europe.

There are two forms of fresco: Buon or ―wet,‖and secco,

meaning ―dry.‖
Buon fresco - technique consists of painting in pigment
mixed with water on a thin layer of wet, fresh lime
mortar or plaster. The pigment is applied to and
absorbed by the wet plaster; after a number of hours, the
plaster dries and reacts with the air: it is this chemical
reaction that fixes the pigment particles in the plaster.
Because of the chemical makeup of the plaster, a binder
is not required. Buon fresco is more stable because the
pigment becomes part of the wall itself.

Domenico di Michelino’s Dante and the Divine

Comedy from 1465 is a superb example of buon fresco.
The colors and details are preserved in the dried plaster
wall. Michelino shows the Italian author and poet Dante
Aleghieri standing with a copy of the Divine
Comedy open in his left hand, gesturing to the
illustration of the story depicted around him. The artist
shows us four different realms associated with the
narrative: the mortal realm on the right depicting
Florence, Italy; the heavenly realm indicated by the
stepped mountain at the left center – you can see an
angel greeting the saved souls as they enter from the
base of the mountain; the realm of the damned to the
left – with Satan surrounded by flames greeting them at
the bottom of the painting; and the realm of the cosmos
arching over the entire scene.
Secco fresco - refers to painting an image on the surface
of a dry plaster wall. This medium requires a binder since
the pigment is not mixed into the wet plaster. Egg
tempera is the most common binder used for this
purpose. It was also common to use secco fresco over
buon fresco murals in order to repair damage or make
slight changes to the original. Leonardo Da Vinci’s
painting of The Last Supper was done using secco fresco.
Because this was painted on a dry plastered wall, the
pigments are only on the surface, not part of the wall
like a true fresco. As you’ll notice in Da Vinci’s painting,
the paint is faded and flaking off as a result.

These are the common mediums used in contemporary

painting.
1. Oil paint is the most versatile of all the painting media.
It uses pigment mixed with a binder of linseed
oil. Linseed oil can also be used as the vehicle, along with
mineral spirits or turpentine. Oil painting was thought to
have developed in Europe during the fifteenth century,
but recent research on murals found in Afghanistan
caves show oil based paints were used there as early as
the seventh century. Some of the qualities of oil paint
include a wide range of pigment choices, its ability to be
thinned down and applied in almost transparent glazes
as well as used straight from the tube (without the use of
a vehicle), built up in thick layers called impasto (you can
see this in many works by Vincent van Gogh). One
drawback to the use of impasto is that over time the
body of the paint can split, leaving networks of cracks
along the thickest parts of the painting. Because oil paint
dries slower than other media, it can be blended on the
support surface with meticulous detail. This extended
working time also allows for adjustments and changes to
be made without having to scrape off sections of dried
paint.

In Jan Brueghel the Elder’s still life oil painting you can
see many of the qualities mentioned above. The richness
of the paint itself is evident in both the resonant lights
and inky dark colors of the work. The working of the
paint allows for many different effects to be created,
from the softness of the flower petals to the reflection on
the vase and the many visual textures in between.

Richard Diebenkorn's Cityscape #1 from 1963 shows how

the artist uses oil paint in a more fluid, expressive
manner. He thins down the medium to obtain a quality
and gesture that reflects the sunny, breezy atmosphere
of a California morning. He used layers of oil paint, one
over the other, to let the under painting show through
and a flat, more geometric space that blurs the line
between realism and abstraction.

The abstract expressionist painters pushed the limits of

what oil paint could do. Their focus was in the act of
painting as much as it was about the subject matter.
Indeed, for many of them there was no distinction
between the two. The work of Willem de Kooning leaves
a record of oil paint being brushed, dripped, scraped and
wiped away all in a frenzy of creative activity. This idea
stays contemporary in the paintings of Celia Brown

2. Watercolor is the most sensitive of the painting

media. It reacts to the lightest touch of the artist and can
become an over worked mess in a moment. There are
two kinds of watercolor
media: transparent and opaque. Transparent watercolor
operates in a reverse relationship to the other painting
media. It is traditionally applied to a paper support, and
relies on the whiteness of the paper to reflect light back
through the applied color (see below), whereas opaque
paints (including opaque watercolors) reflect light off the
skin of the paint itself. Watercolor consists of pigment
and a binder of gum arabic, a water-soluble compound
made from the sap of the acacia tree. It dissolves easily in
water.

Watercolor paintings hold a sense of immediacy. The

medium is extremely portable and excellent for small
format paintings. Transparent watercolor techniques
include the use of wash; an area of color applied with a
brush and diluted with water to let it flow across the
paper. Wet-in-wet painting allows colors to flow and drift
into each other, creating soft transitions between
them. Dry brush painting uses little water and lets the
brush run across the top ridges of the paper, resulting in
a broken line of color and lots of visual texture.

John Marin's Brooklyn Bridge (1912) shows extensive use

of wash. He renders the massive bridge almost invisible
except for the support towers at both sides of the
painting. Even the Manhattan skyline becomes
enveloped in the misty, abstract shapes created by
washes of color.
Boy in a Red Vest by French painter Paul Cezanne builds
form through nuanced colors and tones. The way the
watercolor is laid onto the paper reflects a sensitivity and
deliberation common in Cezanne’s paintings.
The watercolors of Andrew Wyeth indicate the landscape
with earth tones and localized color, often with dramatic
areas of white paper left untouched. Brandywine Valley is
a good example.

Opaque watercolor, also called gouache, differs from

transparent watercolor in that the particles are larger, the
ratio of pigment to water is much higher, and an
additional, inert, white pigment such as chalk is also
present. Because of this, gouache paint gives stronger
color than transparent watercolor, although it tends to
dry to a slightly lighter tone than when it is applied. Like
transparent watercolor, dried gouache paint will become
soluble again in water.

Gouache is a medium in traditional painting from other

cultures, too. Zal Consults the Magi, part of an
illuminated manuscript form sixteenth-century Iran, uses
bright colors of gouache along with ink, silver and gold
to construct a vibrant composition full of intricate
patterns and contrasts. Ink is used to create lyrical
calligraphic passages at the top and bottom of the work.

3. Acrylic paint was developed in the 1950’s and

became an alternative to oils. Pigment is suspended in an
acrylic polymer emulsion binder and uses water as the
vehicle. The acrylic polymer has characteristics like
rubber or plastic. Acrylic paints offer the body, color, and
durability of oils without the expense, mess and toxicity
issues of using heavy solvents to mix them. One major
difference is the relatively fast drying time of acrylics.
They are water soluble, but once dry become impervious
to water or other solvents. Moreover, acrylic paints
adhere to many different surfaces and are extremely
durable, Acrylic will not crack or yellow over time.
The American artist Robert Colescott (1925-2009) used
acrylics on large-scale paintings. He uses thin layers of
underpainting, scumbling, high-contrast colors, and
luscious surfaces to bring out the full range of effects
that acrylics offer.

Other painting media used by artists include the

following:

Enamel paints form hard skins typically with a high-gloss

finish. They use heavy solvents and are extremely
durable.

Powder coat paints differ from conventional paints in

that they do not require a solvent to keep the pigment
and binder parts in suspension. They are applied to a
surface as a powder then cured with heat to form a
tough skin that is stronger than most other paints.
Powder coats are applied mostly to metal surfaces.

Epoxy paints are polymers, created mixing pigment with

two different chemicals: a resin and a hardener. The
chemical reaction between the two creates heat that
bonds them together. Epoxy paints, like powder coats
and enamel, are extremely durable in both indoor and
outdoor conditions. These industrial grade paints may
also be used in sign painting, marine environments, and
aircraft painting.
s.lumenlearning.com/atd-sac-
artappreciation/chapter/reading-painting/

https://www.britannica.com/art/painting

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-sac-
artappreciation/chapter/reading-painting/

https://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=37538
65

https://design.tutsplus.com/articles/history-of-art-
ancient-egypt--cms-26908

https://ourpastimes.com/greco-roman-art-history-
12325905.html

http://www.essential-humanities.net/western-
art/painting/

https://www.artsy.net/gene/

http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/modern-paintings.htm
What is Printmaking?

Printmaking is a fine art process that allows the artist to produce multiple copies of his original
image. But in no sense is the original print a copy or a reproduction or a giclée: the artist's hands
steer its creation from start to finish. As Carl Zigrosser has written, "The print is created through
contact with an inked or uninked plate, stone, block, or screen that has been worked on directly
by the artist alone or with others." There are four main categories of printmaking: relief, intaglio,
lithography, and screenprinting. Each color in a print usually requires a separate stone, plate,
block, or stencil, and any of these basic processes may be combined in the creation of a finished
work. Unique works (or works in an exceedingly limited number of copies) are sometimes
produced as monotypes or monoprints. Printmaking uses a transfer process to make multiples
from an original image or template. The multiple images are printed in an edition, with each
print signed and numbered by the artist. Most printmaking media result in images reversed from
the original. Print results depend on how the template (or matrix) is prepared. There are three
basic techniques of printmaking: relief, intaglio and planar. You can get an idea of how they
differ from the cross-section images below, and view how each technique works from this site at
the Museum of Modern Art in New York.
What are the printmaking processes?

A relief print, such as a woodcut or linoleum cut, is

created when the areas of the matrix (plate or block)
that are to show the printed image are on the
original surface; the parts of the matrix that are to be
ink-free having been cut away, or otherwise removed.
The printed surface is in relief from the cut away
sections of the plate. Once the area around the image is
cut away, the surface of the plate is rolled up with ink.
Paper is laid over the matrix, and both are run through
a press, transferring the ink from the surface of the
matrix to the paper. For most artists, the nature of the
relief process doesn’t allow for lots of detail, but does
result in graphic images with strong contrasts. Carl
Eugene Keel’s Bar shows the effects of a woodcut
printed in black ink.

Block printing developed in China hundreds of

years ago and was common throughout East Asia.
Japanese woodblock prints show dynamic effects
of implied motion. Ukiyo-e or “floating world”
prints from Japan became popular with the middle
class Japanese in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, and even influenced
European artists during the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries. These often incorporate
extremely fine detail and multiple colors. Relief
printmakers usually use a separate block or matrix
for each color printed. This method can result in a
print with many colors, such as the well-
known Great Wave off Kanagawa, by Hokusai.

Intaglio prints such as engravings and etchings,

are made by incising channels into a copper or
metal plate with a sharp instrument called
a burin to create the image, inking the entire
plate, then wiping the ink from the surface of the
plate, leaving ink only in the incised
channels below the surface. Paper is laid over the
plate and put through a press under high pressure,
forcing the ink to be transferred to the paper.
Today artists also use plexiglass, a hard clear plastic, as plates. Characteristically these prints
have strong line quality and exhibit a slightly blurred edge to the line as the result of burrs
created in the process of incising the plate, similar to clumps of soil laid to the edge of a
furrowed trench. A fine example of dry point is seen in Rembrandt’s Clump of Trees with a
Vista. The velvety darks are created by the effect of the burred-edged lines.

Etching begins by first applying a protective wax-based coating to a thin metal plate. The artist
then scratches an image with a burin through the protective coating into the surface of the metal.
The plate is then submersed in a strong acid bath, etching the exposed lines. The plate is
removed from the acid and the protective coating is removed from the plate. Now the bare plate
is inked, wiped and printed. The image is created from the ink in the etched channels. The
amount of time a plate is kept in the acid bath determines the quality of tones in the resulting
print: the longer it is etched the darker the tones will be. Correccion by the Spanish master
Francisco Goya shows the clear linear quality etching can produce. The acid bath removes any
burrs created by the initial dry point work, leaving details and value contrasts consistent with the
amount of lines and the distance between them. Goya presents a fantastic image of people,
animals and strange winged creatures. His work often involved biting social
commentary. Correccion is a contrast between the pious and the absurd.

Planar prints like monoprints are created on

the surface of the matrix without any cutting or incising.
In this technique the surface of the matrix (usually a thin
metal plate or Plexiglass) is completely covered with ink,
then areas are partially removed by wiping, scratching
away or otherwise removed to form the image. Paper is
laid over the matrix, then run through a press to transfer
the image to the paper. Monoprints (also monotypes) are
the simplest and painterly of the printing media. By
definition monotypes and monoprints cannot be
reproduced in editions. Kathryn Trigg’s monotypes show
how close this print medium is related to painting and
drawing.

Lithography is another example of planar

printmaking, developed in Germany in the
late eighteenth century. “Litho” means
“stone” and “graph” means “to draw.” The
traditional matrix for lithography is the
smooth surface of a limestone
block.Lithographic stone is on the left with
the negative image. Printed positive image
is on the right. While this matrix is still
used extensively, thin zinc plates have also
been introduced to the medium. They
eliminate the bulk and weight of the
limestone block but provide the same
surface texture and characteristics. The lithographic process is based on the fact that grease
repels water. In traditional lithography, an image is created on the surface of the stone or plate
using grease pencils or wax crayons or a grease-based liquid medium called tusche. The finished
image is covered in a thin layer of gum arabic that includes a weak solution of nitric acid as an
etching agent. The resulting chemical reaction divides the surface into two areas: the positive
areas containing the image and that will repel water, and the negative areas surrounding the
image that will be water receptive. In printing a lithograph, the gum arabic film is removed and
the stone or metal surface is kept moist with water so when it’s rolled up with an oil based ink
the ink adheres to the positive (image) areas but not to the negative (wet) areas.

Because of the media used to create the imagery, lithographic images show characteristics much
like drawings or paintings. In A Brush for the Lead by Currier and Ives (below), a full range of
shading and more linear details of description combine to illustrate a winter’s race down the
town’s main road.

Currier and Ives, A Brush for the Lead; New York Flyers on the Snow, 1867. Lithograph Library
of Congress. Image is in the public domain.

Serigraphy, also known as screen printing, is a third type of planar printing medium. Screen
printing is a printing technique that uses a woven mesh to support an ink-blocking stencil. The
attached stencil forms open areas of mesh that transfer ink or other printable materials that can be
pressed through the mesh as a sharp-edged image onto a substrate such as paper or fabric. A
roller or squeegee is moved across the screen stencil, forcing or pumping ink past the threads of
the woven mesh in the open areas. The image below shows how a stencil’s positive (image)
areas are isolated from the negative (non-image) areas.
In serigraphy, each color needs a separate stencil. You can watch how this process develops in
the accompanying video. Screen printing is an efficient way to print posters, announcements, and
other kinds of popular culture images. Andy Warhol’s silk screens use images and iconography
from popular culture.

HISTORY OF PRINTMAKING

WHAT IS AN ORIGINAL PRINT?

An original print is the printed impression produced from a block, plate, stone or screen on
which the artist has worked. By choosing to use a fine art print medium, it is possible to produce
a number of identical images, each one a hand-made original by the artist. Normally there is a
separate inking, wiping and printing of each color and for each copy within the edition. The total
number of prints is predetermined by the artist and thereafter; the blocks, plates, stones, or
screens are destroyed or recycled so that no further impressions may be taken. Only in modem
times have editions been limited to make them more desirable as an investment. Each original
print must bear the signature of the artist (usually in the lower right-hand comer or margin) and
also an indication of the total edition and serial number of the print. This appears like a fraction;
1/5 meaning the first print out of an edition of five.

WHAT ARE PROOFS?

Besides numbered prints, a fine art edition usually includes artist's proofs. These proofs are
designated P/A. The number of these proofs is usually 5 -- 10% of the total number of the
edition, more would be considered abusive. So an edition of 50 would have a maximum of five
artist's proofs. Sometimes these proofs are numbered with Roman numerals, e.g. I/V, II/V, III/V
etc. Some of the most valuable proofs do not form part of the edition. These are the trial proofs,
P/E, which the artist pulls in the process of creating the final print. A series of trial proofs
represents a unique record of the work in process, and as such is highly sought after by fine art
print collectors. Sometimes H/C is seen written in the margin of a print. This is a French
annotation "hors de commerce", which means the print was a gift or unsuitable for selling. Every
edition has a single "bon a tirer”, which is the artist's final proof, the ideal which all the prints in
the edition must emulate.

I. RELIEF PRINTING A relief print is any print in which an image is printed from the raised
portion of a carved, etched, or cast block. A simple example would be a rubber stamp. The most
common relief prints are woodcuts.

CHINESE STONE RUBBINGS AND WOODCUTS

Printmaking originated in China after paper was invented around AD 105. Relief printing
appeared in Europe in the 15th Century, when the process of papermaking was imported from
the East. Stone rubbing predates any form of woodcut. To enable Chinese scholars to study their
scriptures, the classic texts and accompanying holy images were carved into large, flat stone
slabs. After lines were cut into the stone, damp paper was pressed and molded on the surface, so
that the paper was held in the incised lines. Ink was applied and the paper was carefully
removed. The resulting image appeared as white lines on a black background. This technique
was the foundation of printing. The development of printing continued with the spread of
Buddhism from India to China; images and text were printed on paper from a single block. This
method of combining text and image is called blockbook printing.

WOODCUTS

Woodcuts are the oldest method of printmaking. They were first developed in China in the 9th
Century. European examples date from the 14th Century. It is called a relief process because the
lines and surfaces to which the ink adheres are higher than the parts that are not printed.

To create a woodcut, the artist draws a design on a piece of wood sawed lengthwise across the
grain. Pine is the wood most commonly used, although fruitwoods such as pear or cherry may
also be used. After smoothing the surface, the wood may be hardened by treating it with shellac.
This makes it more durable under the pressure of a press and also makes it easier to carve strong,
bold images. The artist then paints or draws an image on the surface. The wood between the
drawn lines is cut away, leaving only the drawn image standing on the surface. To make the cuts
chisels, gouges or knives may be used.

A roller holding a film of oil-based ink is rolled completely over the block. A sheet of paper,
ideally an absorbent paper like rice paper, is placed over the block and the artist may then print
the image by hand rubbing the surface with the bowl of a spoon or with another burnishing
instrument. The block and paper may be run through a press; under the pressure of the press the
image is transferred to paper. The impression is pulled by carefully lifting a corner of the paper
and peeling it off the block. Separate blocks are used for color woodcuts, one block is used for
each color.

In the Middle Ages woodcuts were used to print patterns on textiles. Beginning in the 1400's,
artists made woodcuts to portray religious subjects, to decorate and illustrate books, and to make
playing cards. In the late 1400's and early 1500's the German artist, Albrecht Dürer brought the
art of woodcuts to a new level with his expert artistic and technical skills.
During the 1700's and 1800's Japanese artists produced outstanding woodcuts that greatly
influenced such European artists as Degas, Manet, Toulouse-Lautrec and Van Gogh.

In the 1900's expressionist artists such as Ernst Ludwig Kirchner of Germany and Edvard Munch
of Norway created many fine woodcuts.

Museum examples: A la Víbora de la Mar (To the Viper of the Sea), Luis Garcia Robledo (1960)
Alexander Gallery; Au Dormir de Lantar (The Dormant Lantara) from La Forête de Fontainbleau
(The Forest of Fontainbleau) Auguste-Louis Lepère (1887-1890) Belk Gallery

LINOLEUM CUT

Linoleum cut is a relief print carved into linoleum rather than wood. Linoleum is composed of
burlap coated with linoxyn; polymerized oil mixed with ground cork and pigments. The best
grade, battleship linoleum, is usually brown or gray. Linoleum is more easily cut than wood and
lighter weight tools are now made and sold for this process. Generally speaking, linocuts are less
esteemed by artists than woodcuts. Linoleum will not take very delicate or subtle cuts. The end
result may appear block or poster like. However it is a good medium for artists who enjoy
producing less exacting, more casual work. Museum Examples: Untitled, Luis Garcia Robledo
(1960) Williamson Gallery

II. INTAGLIO

The intaglio method of printing involves cutting or incising an image into a metal plate with
various tools or acids. The wide variety of methods used gives this medium enormous range. The
two basic typed of intaglio printing are engraving and etching. In engraving the image is cut into
the plate with tools called needles, burnishers, scrapers or rockers. In etching the image is cut
into the plate with acids.

ENGRAVING

Engraving is a form of intaglio printing (from Italian meaning to carve or to cut) in which the
lines that print are incised into the surface of the print form. The print form is a thin metallic
plate, usually made of copper. A sharply pointed steel instrument called a burin is used to cut the
grooves into the surface of the plate. Burin engraving requires considerable force and is done
from the strength of the arm (this differs from etching which is done more from the fingertips
like a fine drawing). The finished plate is inked with heavy, viscous ink and wiped with a rag,
leaving ink in the grooves. Slightly moistened paper is applied to the inked plate. Plate and paper
are run through a printing press, which can apply sufficient pressure to force the paper to pick up
the ink in the grooves. The resulting printed lines are sharply defined and slightly raised. Several
hundred prints can be made before weak lines on the print reveal the plate is wearing down.

Most early engravings were book illustrations and religious images intended for popular
use.Today these are sought after by museums and collectors.

Today engraving is used for producing currency and certificates.

Museum Examples: An Accurate Map of North and South Carolina with Their Indian Frontiers,
Henry Mouzon - Alexander Gallery; The American Partridge, Mark Catesby (1712) - Spangler
Gallery; Roseate Spoonbill, Audubon (1836) -Spangler Gallery; Le Reflet, Jean Solombre -
Williamson Gallery

GICLEE PRINT

Giclee is a relatively new and exciting form of fine art reproduction. It is a French term,
pronounced "zhee-clay", meaning "that which is sprayed". This plateless fine art printing method
was developed in 1989, and was used mainly for printing posters and proofs. Giclee prints are
sometimes referred to as Iris prints due to the fact they were printed on an Iris printer, one of the
first high-end digital printers. Giclee prints can be original works of art generated with a
computer, multiple originals based on artwork (created with or without a computer) made with
the Giclee process in mind, or high quality reproductions of original artwork.

One of the drawbacks of the early Iris printers was the lack of durability of their inks. The initial
colors were rich and beautiful, but tended to fade noticeably in two to three years. As the Iris
giclee evolved from the Iris print process, the permanence of the inks has improved dramatically.
A typical giclee now resists fading for thirty to sixty years. Ongoing advancements in ink
technology include inks that will remain stable for up to seventy-five years.

Prints can be made on most absorbent media, from glossy or textured photo papers to canvas to
watercolor paper. When prints are executed using high visual resolution, even artists have a hard
time telling the original from the copy. Obviously, using quality paper and inks are key to this
process.

After determining the paper, size and quantity of the edition, the printmaking process begins. A
roll of paper or canvas is loaded on the machine. The system's computer processes the digital file
with the final approved pre-press version. The artist chooses (this final version). The computer
controls six heads which each spray pigmented ink. The heads move back and forth across the
width of the paper as it slowly moves through the printer at a rate of about one-inch per minute.

Giclee has several advantages over other printmaking methods such as streamlining production,
reducing upfront costs and eliminating the need for storage. The artist works with the printer to
approve the Giclee print; he can then order prints as needed without huge upfront costs and
storage problems. This method gives the artist a chance to test market a new idea without
investing time and money on an image that may not sell in large quantities. Also artist can build
inventory slowly over time in response to the market.

How do Giclee Prints differ from lithographs and serigraphs?

Taking a continuous tone image and processing it through a screen makes offset lithographs. The
result is an image created with a series of dots, each one proportional in size to the density of the
original at the location of the dot. The human eye is tricked into seeing something that
approximates a continuous tone image. Most printed material such as newspapers and magazines
are made this way.
Serigraphs are really screenprints. These prints are made by creating a set of screens, each
representing one color. Ink is squeeged through the screen and onto the media. For fine art
reproduction, the number of screens required to approximate the tonal qualities of the original
are typically from 20 to more than 100. The larger the number of screens the closer a serigraph
can appear to be continuous tone and the more expensive it is to reproduce.

Giclee prints have advantages over both of these methods. The color available for giclee
processing is limited only by the color gamut of the inks. Therefore, literally millions of colors
are available and the limitation imposed by the screening process does not exist. The giclee
process uses such small dots and so many of them that they are not discernible to the eye. So a
giclee print is essentially a continuous tone print showing every color and tone nuance. And
lastly, giclee prints are available to "print on demand", meaning you only print what you need
and can reorder additional quantities as needed.

But are Giclee Prints "Real Art"?

Giclee prints are not "computer-generated" in the way we usually know and think of that term.
Computers control the complex and technologically advanced printers that create the
reproductions, much as computers are used to create offset lithographs and serigraph. The giclee
process is simply a new and significant step in the creation of limited edition fine art prints.

It is also interesting to note that many photographers are using giclee-reproduced photographs.
They like the soft, painterly look of giclee prints, and photos reproduced in this way do not have
the reflectance of traditional photographic prints.

Artists such as Robert Rauschenberg, Jim Dine, David Hockney and Andrew and Jamie Wyeth
are using giclee to create original works of art, multiple originals or reproductions. Also, giclee
prints are shown at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the Los Angeles Museum of
Modem Art and the Corcoran Gallery in Washington, DC.

But it isn't just high-profile artists and galleries who are making and showing giclees. Artists at
all levels are working in a wide variety of media to create prints and original works using giclee
technology. While the fine art market increases by about three percent annually, the giclee
market is growing more than 60 percent annually. The growth in the print market of giclees has
been mostly at the expense of the serigraphs.

III. LITHOGRAPHY

Process

Lithography is a method of printmaking based on the chemical repellence of oil and water. It is a
process of printing from a smooth plate; the printing and non-printing surfaces are all at the same
level, as opposed to intaglio or relief processes in which the design is cut into the printing block.
Designs are drawn or painted on a level, porous surface with a greasy material, such as conte
crayon, grease pencil or a greasy substance called tusche. The most commonly used surfaces are
limestone or plates made of metal or plastic.

After the image is drawn, the stone is dampened and ink is applied with a roller. The greasy
image repels the water and holds the oily ink while the rest of the surface does the opposite. The
stone is chemically treated after the image is created in order to enhance the effect.

The artist then places a sheet of paper on the printing surface and runs the paper and the stone or
plate through a printing press under heavy pressure. The pressure transfers the inked design onto
the paper. To make additional impressions the artist redampens and reinks the surface.

It is interesting to note that because of the equipment used and the knowledge and skill required
for the printing process, lithography lends itself to collaboration between artist and printer. Also
pulling a large print requires two people.

History

Lithography was the first fundamentally new printing technology since the invention of relief
printing in the 15th Century. Alois Senefelder invented it in Germany in 1798. He was a comedic
playwright looking for a way to publish multiple copies of his works. Realizing the commercial
possibilities of this technique, Senefelder patented it a year later in Munich. Within 20 years
lithography appeared in England and the United States.

Although lithography enjoyed early commercial success as a leading method of printing books,
magazines and newspapers, it took a while longer to be accepted as a legitimate art form. In the
19th and early 20th century many people saw it only as a less expensive means to own a work of
art by a well-known painter.

However many European artists began experimenting with lithography soon after its invention in
1798. They liked the spontaneous effect they could achieve by drawing directly on the printing
surface. Some of these early masters included Eugene Delacroix, Pierre Bonnard, Henri de
Toulouse-Lautrec and Edvard Munch.

Today it has come to be seen as a well-respected art form with very unique expressive
capabilities. Many artists combine lithography with other printmaking processes, such as silk-
screen. Some leading lithographers of the 1900's included Marc Chagall, Edvard Munch, Pablo
Picasso, Willem de Kooning, Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg to name only a few.
Museum Examples: Family Arc, John Biggers (1992) - Harris Gallery; $20 Bank of Charlotte
bill (1853) - Alexander Gallery

COLOR LITHOGRAPHY

Almost immediately after lithography was invented, attempts were made to create works in
color. In 1837, Godefroy Engelmann patented a color printing technique called
"Lithocolorprinting or Lithographs in color imitating printing". His use of the word "imitating"
illustrates the initial attitude toward this procedure as an accepted art form.

Color lithography is a complex process that usually involves multiple pressings, one for each
color in the image. According to one text on the technique, "The original color drawing should
be treated as a guide for the final print, not as a finished work to be exactly duplicated". When
different stones are used for each color (the same stone may also be used for multiple colors), it
is very important to keep the print in register each time it passes through the press. This means
insuring that the print is lined up exactly each time it goes through so that each color is in the
right position and the overlaying colors merge correctly.

Museum Examples: “Siren’s Song” from the Odysseus Suite, Romare Bearden (1979) Dalton
Gallery

IV. MONOPRINT

A monoprint or monotype refers to any print made in one version and incapable of being exactly
duplicated. It cannot be editioned.

They may be unique prints or variations on a theme. The artist paints, rubs or wipes designs
directly onto a plate using a slow drying paint or ink. The image must be printed before the ink
dries. It is printed by press or hand. The artist gets only one strong impression. The remaining
pigment can be reworked, but the next print will not be an exact copy of the first print. The final
effect can only be guessed at as no trial proofs can be done. This method allows the artist much
freedom and spontaneity. No Museum Examples on Exhibit.

V. SCREEN PRINTING

The principle of screenprinting, or silkscreening, consists in applying stencils to a screen

(constructed of silk or of some synthetic or metallic material), in such a way that when ink is
applied it is prevented from passing through some parts while penetrating the rest of the screen,
thereby printing an image on paper placed underneath. The screen is stretched across a frame and
attached to a base in such a manner that it can readily move up and down, so that paper can be
easily placed and removed as required. For each impression, the paper is placed against
registration tabs to ensure that the printing is done in the correct position. The ink is poured over
the masking at one end of the screen and when this has been lowered into position, the ink is
scraped across the screen with the aid of a squeegee.

The most important part of the process is the preparation of the screen. Stencils may be applied
in a variety of ways, including the use of filling-in liquid, varnish or plastic film. A drawing can
be made directly on the surface with a special ink which is removed in readiness for printing
after the rest of the screen has been blocked out. A photographic stencil is made by initially
sensitizing the screen.

SERIGRAPHY
Serigraphy (silk-screen printing or screen printing) is a 20th Century printmaking technique that
was developed in America. It was introduced as a fine art technique with an exhibition of
serigraphs at the New York World's Fair in 1939.

Anthony Velonis of New York City developed the term serigraphy. In 1940, Velonis was
working for the WPA as head of the Fine Arts Project. The WPA was a depression era project
aimed at finding work for the unemployed. The Fine Arts Project was developed to find
government projects for unemployed artists to work on. The work was mostly of a commercial
nature, such as producing poster and other mass media type work. Velonis noticed that many of
the artists in his employ were suffering depression and a lack of self-esteem due to their
situation. He consulted with gallery owner Carl Zigrosser about this problem, and also spent
much of his own time thinking about and researching the situation. Finally he came up with the
word Serigraphy to differentiate the creative art in silkscreen produced by the artists from the
commercial applications. Seri comes from the Latin work for silk and graphein, from the Greek,
means to write or draw. This simple word change did much to elevate the feelings of fine artists
such as Elizabeth Olds, Ruth Chaney and Harry Gottleib, who were working with the FAP at the
time.

The origin of screen-printing may have been in Japan, where artist made large, delicate paper
cuttings in which the elements were joined and held together by human hair. The hairs served as
stencil ties without interfering with the printmaking process.

In its simplest form, screen-printing involves forcing ink through a stencil that is embedded or
securely attached to a silk or synthetic mesh screen. The screen is tightly stretched on a wooden
or metal frame. Viscous ink is squeegee through the screen depositing the ink on the paper under
the frame. A separate screen is used for each color and selected parts of the stencil can be
blocked out, if desired, during the reprinting. Wet prints are usually hung to dry.

In the 1930's and 1940's artists used the touche-washout method. This involved painting directly
on the top surface of the screen fabric with a grease crayon or touche. Once the image is drawn,
the screen is elevated and a water based glue solution is pulled evenly across the fabric. When
this solution dries, the grease marks on the fabric are removed leaving the image areas of the
fabric open for painting. It is interesting to note that according to Velonis these depression era
artists used fabric remnants for mesh, literally “anything they could get their hands on!” They
used paint from the hardware store in lieu of today's fine art inks. Today many artists use
photographic techniques to make stencils directly on the screen.

STENCIL (Pochoir)

Stencils are an essential part of screenprinting: they are attached to or incorporated with the
screen to ensure that the ink passes through in the correct places. They can be made in many
different forms, e. g. as a simple masking or covering stencil; as a “wash-out” stencil, which
involves drawing the design on the screen in a greasy substance, then covering the whole screen
with filler or gum, and finally dissolving the greasy image in turns, thereby forming a 1. positive
stencil; or as a photo-stencil, whereby photographic images are incorporated into the screen. 2.
Stencils are also used for coloring prints by hand. Stencils of the areas to be colored are cut out
in zinc or aluminum; the colors are dabbed on with a large brush (known as a pompon in
French); they may be juxtaposed or superimposed over each other. The method was much used
in the coloring of maps, topographical prints and devotional woodcuts. It is still used today for
book illustration and on greeting cards.

HISTORY OF PRINTMAKING IN THE PHILIPPINES

Printmaking in the Philippines did not gain popularity as an art form until the early
1960s. Manuel Rodrigo Sr. and Rodolfo Paras-Perez were responsible for the development of
interest in contemporary printmaking techniques. Rodriguez in particular became known as the
Father of Philippine Printmaking.

Printmaking was soon taught in several schools. Rodriguez taught at the Philippine Women’s
University, making it the unofficial center of printmaking in the country. He helped organize
the Philippine Association of Printmakers. The majority of the first young printmakers were
taught by Rodriguez either in PWU or in his workshops. Among these are Virgilio
Avadio, Lucio Martines, Lamberto Hechanova, Restituto Embuscado, Mario Parial, Adiel
Arevalo, Petite Calaguas, Emet Valente, Brenda Fajardo, Nelfa Querubin, Ivi Avellana-Cosio ,
and Nonon Padilla as well as his own sons Manuel Jr., Marcelino, and Ray Rodriguez.

Sample of print making

In the 1930s Rodriguez was first introduced to the art of printmaking and in 19 4 8 he spent a lot
of his time reproducing his paintings via screen printing methods. Rodriguez began to really
experiment with printmaking in the 1950s, making greeting cards of rural Philippine life.

Rodriguez was born in Cibu in 1912. His father was an engraver and goldsmith for liturgical
vestments and church ornaments. Rodriguez left Cibu in 1935 and moved to Manila to attend the
University of the Philippines School of Fine Arts, where he was mentored by Philippine
artistsToribio Herrera, Fernando and Pablo Amorsolo, Fabian de la Rosa, and Ramon Peralta. He
left the Philippines in the 19 6 0 sfor New York to pursue a Rockefeller printmaking scholarship
at the prestigious Pratt Graphic Center. It was during 19 6 0 - 6 2 that Rodriguez worked in
the print department of the Museum of Modern Art, after which he repeatedly visited the
famed Atelier 17 in Paris, run by British artist and teacher Stanley William Hayter.
http://www.discovergraphics.org/methods.htm

https://smarthistory.org/introduction-to-printmaking/

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-sac-artappreciation/chapter/oer-1-22/

http://washingtonprintmakers.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/PrintmakingIntroduction.pdf

https://prezi.com/qptmwbdrt3rr/history-of-print-making-in-the-philippines/

https://www.masterworksfineart.com/educational-resources/printmaking-techniques/
 The Types of Sculpture

Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic
arts. Durable sculptural processes originally used carving (the removal of material) and
modelling (the addition of material, as clay), in stone, metal, ceramics, wood and other materials
but, since Modernism, there has been an almost complete freedom of materials and process. A
wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or
modelling, or molded or cast. Sculpture in stone survives far better than works of art in
perishable materials, and often represents the majority of the surviving works (other than pottery)
from ancient cultures, though conversely traditions of sculpture in wood may have vanished
almost entirely. However, most ancient sculpture was brightly painted, and this has been lost.

Sculpture has been central in religious devotion in many cultures, and until recent centuries large
sculptures, too expensive for private individuals to create, were usually an expression of religion
or politics. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of
the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, as well as many in Central and South America and
Africa.

Sculpture can be divided into two classes: relief sculpture and sculpture in the round. There are
three methods for making sculpture: modeling, carving, and assembly.

The Three Basic Sculpture Processes Sculpture is the creation of three-dimensional forms. A
form is an object defined by contour, height, depth, and width. Sculpture is created through three
basic processes: carving, modeling, or assembly.
Carving: The sculptor removes unwanted material to create the form. This is also called
subtractive sculpture. Generally, materials such as a block of wood, stone, and other hard
materials are used. Can be thought of as the opposite of modeling because it involves removing
rather than adding material. With knife or chisel, the sculptor carves from a block of wood or
stone until the form is made.

Modeling: The sculptor creates a form by building it up from an amorphous lump of plastic
material. This is also called additive sculpture. Clay, paper machê, and other pliable materials are
modeled into a sculpture. Modeling with clay is generally the first process for creating a cast
metal sculpture.

Assembly (or construction): The sculptor joins prefabricated elements as in welded metal
constructions. This is also additive sculpture. Materials such as steel, wood, and found materials
are glued, welded, or connected in some other fashion to create a sculpture.

Other types of sculpture are.

Relief sculpture is sculpture in which images are set against a flat background. A coin is a good
example of relief sculpture: the inscription, the date, and the figure--sometimes a portrait of a
statesman—are slightly raised above a flat surface when the image is only slightly raised, as with
the coin, the sculpture is called low relief or bas-relief. The ancient Egyptians sometimes carved
figures into a flat surface. This type of carving is known as sunken relief. Statues that are almost
three-dimensional but still are attached to backgrounds are regarded as high relief.

Sculpture in the round is freestanding, attached to no background. Most statues and portrait
busts are carved in the round.

Joining, or constructing, was not widely practiced until the 20th century. In this method the
artist uses pieces of wood, metal, or plastic and joins them together into a construction. The airy,
abstract kinds of forms that are popular in modern times lend themselves to the joining system.

How Sculpture Works

We think of the sculptor as a creative, sensitive, and original thinker. Seldom, however, do we
think of the physical demands that the art of sculpture makes on the artist. A sculptor's work can
be backbreaking. Marble must be moved and cut. Wood must be carved and sandpapered. Clay
must be pounded and kept in condition with day-to-day care.

The sculptor must have a great deal of technical knowledge. He or she must know a good piece
of stone from a bad one and just how much force that stone can take before it cracks. The
sculptor must judge the quality of woods and learn how much water different kinds of clays need
to stay workable. For casting models, the sculptor must know the chemistry of metals and their
melting points. And the modern sculptor is frequently a competent welder, riveter, and machinist
as well as an artist.
Materials

Before beginning to work, the sculptor must decide what material to use. Materials range from
something as rare and costly as ivory, which comes from elephants' tusks, to common clay. Good
clay is highly prized, but almost anyone can afford it, since it is found in many places all over the
world.

The sculptor must decide between a material that is permanent and one that must be made
permanent. Each kind has its advantages and disadvantages. A stone like marble is, of course,
very hard. Carving must be done with great strength and at the same time with great delicacy.
Mistakes are difficult to repair, and too much force can cause breakage. But when a marble
statue is carved and polished, the sculptor's work is done. Clay, in contrast, is very soft. The
artist can experiment a great deal, adding pieces and remodeling sections. If a mistake is made,
the error can be removed quickly. However, clay must be kept workable. Every day the
unfinished work must be covered with damp rags, and from time to time the unused clay in the
bin must be moistened with water and pounded. Moreover, when the modeling is finished, the
statue is by no means ready for exhibition, for clay does not last long. Therefore, the statue must
be converted to another kind of material. A number of systems may be used, each requiring
additional work. These systems--pointing, firing, and casting--will be described later.

Perhaps because they are permanent, stone and metal have always been important materials for
the sculptor. Other materials that have been used include wood, ivory, jade, bone, glass, and
plaster. For sculpture that is to be converted to another material, clay is by far the most
frequently used substance, but various kinds of wax have also been employed.

In modern times the sculptor has turned to new materials such as one of the plastics, fiberglass,
stainless steel, and aluminum.

Tools

Sculpting tools are an extension of the artist's hands. Some tools let a sculptor work a soft
substance easily and precisely. Other tools allow the use of materials otherwise too hard to
handle.

Loops of wire held in wooden handles can drag off large sections from a mass of clay more
quickly and neatly than can a person's hands. Sticks or blades of wood, ivory, or light, flexible
metals can give clean edges and draw fine lines across the surface of wax, clay, or soft metal.
Hardwood and all forms of stone demand different kinds of tools. Hammers, mallets, chisels, and
drills are needed for the process of carving. Today sculptors often use welding torches and
soldering irons to join metal together for sculpture. Special machines that join or separate
plastics with heat and pressure may also be used.

Pointing, Firing, and Casting

Many sculptors begin working from their sketches, while others work directly with their
materials. Whatever the approach, the sculptor's aim is to produce a lasting work of art.
Pointing is not used very much today, but to sculptors in the past it was a dependable system for
converting clay or wax sculpture into stone. First, the sculptor made a clay model of a statue. The
sculptor then placed points, or marks, on the model, measuring the distances between the points.
Using hundreds and sometimes thousands of points as guides, the exact proportions of the model
could be transferred to the stone.

Firing is the only system that converts clay sculpture itself into a durable object. Not all clay
sculpture is suitable for firing, for the system requires the object to be hollow and free from
impurities and air bubbles. Therefore, as a rule, only small statues are fired. After the sculpture is
completed, it must be left uncovered while the moisture in the clay evaporates. Then it is placed
in a kiln, a high-temperature oven, and fired (baked) until very hard.

Casting is the most common system of converting a clay or wax sculpture into another material.
There are many systems of casting, most of which are used in foundries. Basically, casting
involves making a mold of the clay or wax model. This mold may be made of plaster, rubber,
clay, or any of several other substances that are both workable and tough. If the sculpture is clay,
the mold must be made in several parts, so that it can be removed from the model and then
reassembled. If the figure is made of wax, the mold may be of one piece; for the mold can be
heated, causing the wax to melt and run out. Hot liquid metal--usually bronze--is poured into the
mold. When the metal has hardened, the mold is broken away and the sculpture is cleaned and
finished. Casting Sculptures that are cast are made from a material that is melted down—usually
a metal—that is then poured into a mold. The mold is allowed to cool, thereby hardening the
metal, usually bronze. Casting is an additive process.

https://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3754173

http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/educators/lessons/grade-3-
4/~/media/ArtsEdge/LessonPrintables/grade-3-4/listening_doll_sculptural_processes.ashx

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpture

https://www.getty.edu/education/teachers/classroom_resources/curricula/sculpture/background2.
html
HISTORY OF SCULPTURES
For thousands of years sculpture has filled many roles in human life. The
earliest sculpture was probably made to supply magical help to hunters. After
the dawn of civilization, statues were used to represent gods. Ancient kings,
possibly in the hope of making themselves immortal, had likenesses carved,
and portrait sculpture was born. The Greeks made statues that depicted
perfectly formed men and women. Early Christians decorated churches with
demons and devils, reminders of the presence of evil for the many
churchgoers who could neither read nor write.
From its beginnings until the present, sculpture has been largely monumental.
In the 15th century, monuments to biblical heroes were built on the streets of
Italian cities, and in the 20th century a monument to a songwriter was built in
the heart of New York City. Great fountains with sculpture in the center are as
commonplace beside modern skyscrapers as they were in the courts of old
palaces. The ancient Sumerians celebrated military victory with sculpture. The
participants of World War II also used sculpture to honor their soldiers.

Prehistoric Sculpture

Sculpture may be the oldest of the arts. People carved before they painted or
designed dwellings. The earliest drawings were probably carved on rock or
incised (scratched) in earth. Therefore, these drawings were as much
forerunners of relief sculpture as of painting.
Only a few objects survive to show
what sculpture was like thousands of
years ago. There are, however,
hundreds of recent examples of
sculpture made by people living in
primitive cultures. These examples
may be similar to prehistoric
sculpture.

From recent primitive sculpture and

from the few surviving prehistoric pieces, we can judge that prehistoric
sculpture was never made to be beautiful. It was always made to be used in
rituals. In their constant fight for survival, early people made sculpture to
provide spiritual support.

Figures of men, women, and animals and combinations of all these served to
honor the strange and sometimes frightening forces of nature, which were
worshiped as evil or good spirits. Oddly shaped figures must have represented
prayers for strong sons, good crops, and abundant game and fish. Sculpture in
the form of masks was worn by priests or medicine men in dances designed to
drive away evil spirits or beg favors from good ones.

Sculpture in the Ancient World

Egypt

Egyptian sculpture and all Egyptian art was based on the belief in a life after
death. The body of the Egyptian ruler, or pharaoh, was carefully preserved,
and goods were buried with him to provide for his needs forever. The
pyramids, great monumental tombs of
Giza, were built for the most powerful
early rulers. The pharaoh and his wife
were buried in chambers cut deep inside
the huge blocks of stone.

Life-size and even larger statues, carved

in slate, alabaster, and limestone, were as
regular and simple in shape as the tombs
themselves. Placed in the temples and
inside the burial chambers, these statues
were images of the rulers, the nobles,
and the gods worshiped by the
Egyptians. The Egyptians believed that
the spirit of the dead person could always return to these images. Hundreds of
smaller statuettes in clay or wood showed people engaged in all the normal
actions of life: kneading bread, sailing, counting cattle. These statuettes were
astonishingly lifelike. Scenes carved in relief and painted in the tomb
chambers or on temple walls described Egyptian life in all its variety.

Egyptian sculptors always presented ideas clearly. The pharaoh or noble is

made larger than less important people. In relief sculpture every part of a
figure is clearly shown. An eye looking straight forward is placed against the
profile of a face, the upper part of the body faces front, and the legs are again
in profile.

The Egyptians often combined features from various creatures to symbolize

ideas. For example, the human head of the pharaoh Khafre is added to the
crouching figure of a lion to form the Great Sphinx. This composition suggests
the combination of human intelligence and animal strength.

Egyptian sculptors made standing and seated figures in the round and in
relief. Changes in style reveal changed circumstances. The portraits of rulers of
the Middle Kingdom (2134-1778 BC) Lose the strength and vigor of those of
their ancestors at Giza. The faces are drawn, sad, and weary. A greater energy
and force returns in the period of Egypt's greatest power, the New Kingdom
(1567-1080 B.C.). Colossal figures like those of Ramses II at the entrance to his
tomb at Abu-Simbel are broad, powerful, and commanding. A smaller portrait
of Ramses II shows the smooth finish, precise craftsmanship, and elegance of
late New Kingdom art.

Mesopotamia

The "land between the rivers,"

Mesopotamia, had a much less stable
society than Egypt and lacked Egypt's
vast amounts of stone for monumental
sculpture. Its cities were often destroyed
by floods and invading armies.

The earliest examples of sculpture in this

region were formed of light materials:
baked and unbaked clay, wood or
combinations of wood, shells, and gold
leaf. A group of stone figures from Tell Asmar depicts gods, priests, and
worshipers in a way very different from Egyptian sculpture. These figures are
cone-shaped, with flaring skirts, small heads, huge, beaklike noses, and large,
staring eyes.

Stone sculpture from such heavily fortified city palaces as Nineveh, Nimrud,
and Khorsabad reveal the aggressive, warlike character of later (10th-century
B.C.) conquerors of this region, the Assyrians. At the entrances of their palaces
the Assyrians placed huge symbols of the king's might and majesty in the
form of colossal guardian monsters--five-legged, winged bulls with human
heads. Slabs of stone carved in relief with scenes of hunts, battles, victory
banquets, and ceremonial rituals were placed along the lower walls inside the
palaces.

A greater lightness and brilliance can be seen in a still later center of this
region, Babylon. The Babylonians used brightly colored tiles in their reliefs.

Persian conquerors who occupied Babylon in the 6th century B.C. brought with
them a tradition of fine craftsmanship. This skill persisted as they continued
creating superb designs in bronze and gold. Sometimes the designs are purely
abstract ornamental patterns; sometimes they are animal forms freely shaped
into graceful figures. Relief sculpture from the great palace of Darius at
Persepolis (begun about 520 B.C.) retains some Assyrian features. The figures
have heads with tightly curled hair and beards. Flat areas bounded by sharply
cut lines contrast with richly patterned ones. The figures in this sculpture are
softly curved and rounded; draperies are fine and light.

Aegean Civilization

Just a few examples of sculpture remain from the

colorful Minoan civilization on the island of
Crete. Ivory and terra-cotta; small statuettes of
snake goddesses, priestesses, and acrobats; and
cups with such scenes in relief as a bull being
caught in a net or harvesters returning from the fields give lively suggestions
of Minoans in action.
Just a few examples of sculpture remain from the colorful Minoan civilization
on the island of Crete. Ivory and terra-cotta; small statuettes of snake
goddesses, priestesses, and acrobats; and cups with such scenes in relief as a
bull being caught in a net or harvesters returning from the fields give lively
suggestions of Minoans in action.

Power passed from Crete to the mainland, but little sculpture from such sites
as Tiryns or Mycenae has been found. The Lion Gate at Mycenae (about 1250
B.C.), with its two massive beasts guarding the entrance to the fortified city, is
an exceptional monumental sculpture from this time. The beaten-gold mask of
Agamemnon is memorable for its suggestion of the great heroes of Homeric
legends. The mask was found buried with golden cups, daggers, breastplates,
and other objects in the tombs and shaft graves of Mycenae.

Greek Sculpture

Around 600 B.C., Greece developed

one of the great civilizations in the
history of the world. Sculpture
became one of the most important
forms of expression for the Greeks.

The Greek belief that "man is the

measure of all things" is nowhere
more clearly shown than in Greek
sculpture. The human figure was the
principal subject of all Greek art.
Beginning in the late 7th century B.C.,
sculptors in Greece constantly sought better ways to represent the human
figure.

The Greeks developed a standing figure of a nude male, called the Kouros or
Apollo. The Kouros served to depict gods and heroes. The Kore, or standing
figure of a draped female, was more graceful and was used to portray
maidens and goddesses. The winged female figure, or Nike, became the
personification of victory.

The fact that Greek sculptors concentrated their energies on a limited number
of problems may have helped bring about the rapid changes that occurred in
Greek sculpture between the 7th century and the late 4th century B.C. The
change from abstraction to naturalism, from simple figures to realistic ones,
took place during this period. Later figures have normal proportions and stand
or sit easily in perfectly balanced poses.

The most important function of Greek sculpture was to honor gods and
goddesses. Statues were placed in temples or were carved as part of a temple.
Greek temples were shrines created to preserve the images of the gods. The
people worshiped outdoors.

Greek sculpture changed with Greek civilization. Praxiteles' Hermes is slimmer

and more elegant than the strong, vigorous SpearBearer, by Polykleitos.
Figures by Skopas from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus are harsher and more
dramatic than the quiet, controlled figures by Phidias.

The Greeks were defeated by the Romans, but the Hellenistic style lasted for
centuries. Greek sculpture survived because the Romans were greatly
impressed by Greek art. From the early days of the republic, Romans imported
examples of Greek art, ordered copies of famous Greek works, and
commissioned Greek sculptors to do Roman subjects.

Etruscan and Roman Sculpture

Greek sculpture and

Greek art had been
exported to Italy long
before Romans ruled the
land. By the 7th and 6th
centuries B.C. the
Etruscans were firmly settled in Italy. Hundreds of objects have been and are
still being found in vast Etruscan cemeteries. Some of the sculpture and many
vases are Greek, while others are lively Etruscan translations of Greek forms.
Many small bronze figures of farmers, warriors, or gods show the great talents
of the Etruscans as metalworkers and sculptors.

Rome profited from the double artistic inheritance of Greek and Etruscan
sculpture. The inventiveness of Roman sculptors added to this heritage. The
most important contributions of the Roman sculptors were portraits.

The development of Roman sculpture was the reverse of that of Greek

sculpture. Instead of progressing from fairly simple, abstract forms to more
natural and realistic statues, Roman sculpture, once realistic, became far more
simple and abstract.

Early Christian Sculpture

Early Christian sculpture resembled the

art of Rome. Sarcophagi (burial chests)
found in Italy are all Roman in type,
although they are given a special
meaning by subjects, signs, or symbols
important for Christians.

Sculpture, however, was not a natural

form of expression for the early
Christians. This was because one of the
Ten Commandments forbids the making
of graven (carved) images. Many early
Christians interpreted this
commandment, just as the Hebrews
had, to mean that it was wrong to make
any images of the human figure.
Eventually church authorities decided
that art could serve Christianity. It was
only the making of idols (false gods) that was regarded as a breach of the
commandment.

In the 5th century A.D. the western half of the Roman Empire fell to invading
Germanic tribes from northern and central Europe. These peoples soon
became Christians and spread the religion throughout Europe. Unlike the
Romans, the Germanic peoples had no tradition of human representation in
art. Their art consisted mainly of complex patterns and shapes used for
decoration. It influenced Christian art as much as Greco-Roman art did.

There are relatively few examples of sculpture made in the first 1,000 years of
Christianity. Among these rare examples are portable altars, reliquaries
(containers for the remains of Christian saints and martyrs), chalices, and other
objects used in the services of Christian worship. These were shaped with
great care and were often made of precious materials. Sculptors used the
fragile and lovely medium of ivory in many ways. They carved it in relief for
small altars or as covers for the Gospels, the Bible, or prayerbooks. Small,
freestanding figures represented the Madonna and the Christ Child, angels, or
Christian saints.

Romanesque Sculpture

A new and brilliant chapter in Christian art began after the year 1000. For the
next three centuries sculptors, architects, masons, carpenters, and hundreds of
other craftsmen created some of the most impressive Christian churches ever
built.

These artists worked on a bolder and larger scale than had been possible for
hundreds of years. For their ideas they looked to the best examples of great
structures they knew—Roman buildings. The term "Romanesque" suggests the
Roman qualities of the art of the 11th and 12th centuries. Important changes
were made by these later artists. German Romanesque churches differ from
Italian ones, and Spanish from French ones. Ideas of carving, building, and
painting circulated freely, for people often went on pilgrimages to worship at
sacred sites in different countries.
An early 11th century example of Romanesque sculpture shows the way
Roman ideas were translated. The bronze doors of the Cathedral of
Hildesheim have ten panels with scenes from the Bible. The placing, purpose,
and arrangement of these large doors clearly recall the 5th-century doors of
Santa Sabina in Rome. But the details are different. Small figures twist and turn
freely. Their heads and hands are enlarged and stand out from the surface of
the relief

Gothic Sculpture

Sculpture after the 12th century

gradually changed from the clear,
concentrated abstractions of
Romanesque art to a more natural and
lifelike appearance. Human figures
shown in natural proportions were
carved in high relief on church
columns and portals.

As Gothic sculptors became more

skilled, they also gained greater
freedom and independence. Later
Gothic figures are depicted much
more realistically than those made
during the Romanesque and earlier Gothic periods. The faces of the statues
have expression, and their garments are draped in a natural way. Hundreds of
carvings in the great Gothic cathedrals all over Western Europe presented
aspects of the Christian faith in terms that every Christian could understand.

The great era of building drew to a close by the early 14th century. A series of
wars and crises prevented the building of anything more than small chapels
and a few additions to earlier structures. One finds only small statuettes and
objects, used for private devotions, instead of the great programs of
monumental sculpture that in the 13th century had enriched such cathedrals
as those at Amiens, Paris, Rheims, Wells, Burgos, and Strasbourg.
Renaissance Sculpture

Jutting into the Mediterranean Sea,

the Italian peninsula, at the crossroads
of several worlds, had been the heart
of the Roman Empire. Rome was the
center of the western Christian world.
Later, northeastern Italy--especially
Venice--became the gateway to the
Near East and the Orient. Italian artists
never completely accepted the Gothic
styles that dominated art in Western
Europe. The reason is that Italian
artists were surrounded by the
remains of the Classical Age and
exposed to the Eastern influence of Byzantine art. (The article Byzantine Art
and Architecture can be found in this encyclopedia.)

As early as the 13th century the Italians planted the seeds of a new age: the
Renaissance. Although the elements of medieval and Byzantine art
contributed a great deal to the formation of Renaissance sculpture, Italian
artists were interested in reviving the classical approach to art. ("Renaissance"
means "rebirth.")

The most significant change in art that occurred in the Renaissance was the
new emphasis on glorifying the human figure. No longer was sculpture to deal
only with idealized saints and angels; sculpted figures began to look more
lifelike.

The relief sculpture of Nicola Pisano (1220-84) forecast the new age. In the
late 13th century Pisano carved nude male figures on a church pulpit. (The
nude figure had not been used in sculpture since the fall of Rome.) Although
Pisano obviously tried to copy the heroic figures of classical art, he knew little
about human anatomy, and his work was still proportioned like Byzantine and
medieval sculpture.
By the early 15th century the Renaissance was well under way. The sculptor
Donatello created the first freestanding nude since classical times, a bronze
figure of David. Donatello clearly understood the whole anatomy of the figure
so well that he could present the young biblical hero with an ease and
assurance. By the early 16th century the sculptural heritage of another
Florentine, the great painter and sculptor Michelangelo Buonarroti, was such
that his version of David is almost superhuman in its force and strength.

Donatello and his contemporaries Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) and Jacopo

della Quercia (1378?-1438) made themselves the masters of both the
freestanding human figure and sculpture in relief. Jacopo's stone panels at San
Petronio, Bologna, are powerful and emotional. Ghiberti's famous bronze
doors of the Baptistery in Florence show his control of the science of
perspective and his masterful handling of the human figure.

A host of sculptors worked with these men and, in turn, trained younger
sculptors. Their individual talents varied, and these were applied to a number
of different sculptural problems. Christian themes continued to be important,
but in addition, fountains, portraits, tombs, equestrian statues, and subjects
from classical mythology were all created to meet a lively demand. Luca della
Robbia (1400?-82) and others developed a new medium--glazed terra-cotta. It
was a popular and attractive substitute for the more expensive marble.

Michelangelo unquestionably became the dominant figure in 16th-century

sculpture, and he is thought by many people to be the greatest single figure in
the history of art. All his sculpture, from the early, beautifully finished Pietà to
the tragic fragment the Rondanini Pietà, left unfinished at his death, was made
with skill and power. Michelangelo's contemporaries and the sculptors who
lived in later years in Italy and elsewhere developed a more elegant,
decorative style, relying on a smooth, precise finish and complex, elaborate
designs. This style was called mannerism.
Baroque Sculpture

Sculptors in the 17th century

continued to deal with the same wide
variety of sculptural problems as their
Renaissance predecessors, using the
human figure as a form of expression.
They reacted, however, against the
mannerism of late 16th century
sculptors. They worked instead for a
return to the greater strength of
Michelangelo and the energy and
agility of 15th-century sculpture.

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680)

was, like Michelangelo, a gifted artist.
In a long and productive career, he
easily became the dominating figure in his own country and one of the major
artists in Europe during a brilliant, creative period. Bernini's David reveals his
admiration for Michelangelo and his own originality. It has the largeness and
strength of Michelangelo's David but is a much more active and less tragic
figure. Bernini's figures stand in dramatic poses--as though they were actors
on a stage, reaching out to the observer. As a result, we feel drawn toward
them and their grace.

Rococo Sculpture

The basic qualities of 17th-century art

were carried forward into the 18th
century but were transformed for the
taste of a different generation. The
term "rococo" suggests the
preference for gayer, lighter, and
more decorative effects in sculpture
and in all the arts.
Jean Baptiste Pigalle (1714-85) and Étienne Maurice Falconet (1716-91) show
the same technical dexterity as Bernini, but their figures are slight and
cheerful. The skill revealed in their delicate work, with its tiny, sweetly shaped
figures and graceful movement, represents a marked change from the strong,
religious intensity of Bernini's work.

Statuettes and statues of small groups were designed as pleasant and often
witty additions to lovely rooms. The individual talents of the sculptors and
their joint efforts created an ornamental effect. The same brilliance and skill
also created a group of superbly beautiful churches in southern Germany.

Neoclassic and Romantic Sculpture

The pendulum of taste swung in a new

direction in the late 18th century while
Clodion (1738-1814) and other rococo
sculptors were still active. This
direction, called neoclassic to describe
the deliberate return to classical
subject matter and style, lasted in
strength for nearly a century. The
change can be seen in the work of the
distinguished sculptor Jean Antoine Houdon (1741-1828). His statue of
George Washington could be compared to a portrait of a Roman emperor.

The most commanding figure of neoclassical sculpture was the Italian Antonio
Canova (1757-1822). Canova was a favorite of the kings and noblemen of
Europe. His specialty was the monument in which a statesman or other
important figure was dressed in the robes and garlands of classical figures.
Canova frankly imitated antique sculptors. His Perseus and The Pugilists are
exhibited in the Vatican with ancient classical sculpture.

During the 19th century many sculptors rebelled against the neoclassical
tradition. They wanted their works of art to say something, to express an idea
or a feeling. They wanted to copy nature, not the works of other sculptors.
François Rude (1784-1855) was one of the first to react against the coldness of
the neoclassical style.

An intensity of emotion brings to life the work of Antoine Louis Barye (1795-
1875). Jaguar Devouring a Hare is an exciting scene of conflict and violent
struggle.

20th-Century Sculpture

The 20th century was an age of

experimentation with new ideas,
new styles, and new materials.
Studies of the human figure
gave way to new subjects:
dreams, ideas, emotions, and
studies of form and space.
Plastic, chromium, and welded
steel were used, as well as boxes,
broken automobile parts, and
pieces of old furniture.

Twentieth-century sculptors owed a great debt to Rodin. His tremendous

output and variety inspired a new generation of sculptors to express new
thoughts in an art form that had been repeating old ideas for 200 years.
Although Rodin's successors tended to move away from both his realism and
his literary subjects, his innovations had an important influence. Aristide
Maillol (1861-1944) rejected Rodin's rough surfaces. The smooth figures of
Maillol's stone and bronze works seem to rest in calm repose.

As artists of the Renaissance had used the rediscovered works of classical

Greece and Rome for inspiration, artists of the 20th century looked to the
simple and powerful forms of the primitive African and Oceanic art. Wilhelm
Lehmbruck (1881-1919), the German sculptor, began under the influence of
Maillol. Later Lehmbruck distorted his figures by making them unnaturally
long in the manner of primitive art. The faces of Women, by Gaston Lachaise
(1882-1935), suggest the sculpture of ancient India. The round, solid, and
massive bodies seem to symbolize the vitality of womanhood.

Constantin Brancusi (1876-1957), a Romanian who worked mostly in Paris,

combined Romanian folk traditions with the simplicity of African wood carving
and Oriental sculpture. Brancusi sought absolute simplicity of form and purity
of meaning. This simplicity and purity is found in such works as New-
Born and Bird in Space.

Pablo Picasso, one of the greatest sculptors as well as perhaps the greatest
painter of the 20th century, saw another quality in primitive art. In the
simplicity of forms he saw that objects of nature are not necessarily solid
masses but are made up of circles, squares, triangles, and cubes. This led to a
style called cubism, which was developed by Picasso and Georges Braque.
Picasso's Head of a Woman (1909) is one of the first cubist sculptures. In it
Picasso divided the surface of a head into many different planes.

As World War I began, the atmosphere in Europe was anxious. Some artists
reflected the tensions of the uneasy times in a new form of art called dada--
meaningless, representing nothing, and opposed to all other art. "Found
objects" and household items, such as the sinks and hangers of Marcel
Duchamp (1887-1968), were exhibited as sculpture. At the same time, a group
of Italian artists called futurists were excited by the pace of the machine age.
Their sculpture showed objects in motion. Umberto Boccioni (1882-1916) was
a leading futurist.

After World War I, the movement called surrealism developed. Many artists
who had been cubists or dadaists became surrealists. The work of Jean Arp
(1887-1966), with its fanciful forms that seem to float in space, belongs to this
movement.

During the 1920's and 1930's, the constructivists built rather than carved or
modeled their sculptures. The beauty of pure form and space excited them.
The Russian brothers Naum Gabo (1890-1977) and Antoine Pevsner (1886-
1962) used blades of metal and plastic to achieve an effect of lightness and
transparency. Julio Gonzalez (1876-1942) introduced the use of forged iron.
The tremendous influence of his technique is seen particularly in the work of
Picasso, a student of Gonzalez in the technique of welding.

As modern sculpture developed, it became more and more individualistic,

although it still showed its debt to the past. The long, thin figures of Alberto
Giacometti (1901-66) seem to wander alone in a world without boundaries.
Alexander Calder (1898-1976) created moving sculptures called mobiles and
stationary ones called stabiles. The wire and metal-strip constructions made by
Richard Lippold (1915-2002) evoke a feeling of delicate lightness. The steel
geometric sculptures of David Smith (1906-65) have a sense of balance and
order that pleases the eye.

In the 1960's and 1970's, still more new styles developed. Some artists chose
to portray subjects from the everyday world around them—the Brillo boxes
and soup cans of Andy Warhol (1928-87), the surrealist boxes of Joseph
Cornell (1903-72), the plaster hamburgers and "soft typewriters" of Claes
Oldenburg (1929-). Others combined painting, sculpture, and "found objects,"
as in the work of Marisol Escobar (1930-). George Segal (1924-2000) used
plaster casts of human figures in everyday poses. Louise Nevelson (1900-88)
combined small units of metal and wood (often table and chair legs, bed
posts) into huge structures that she called "environments." Sculptors like
Barnett Newman (1905-70) and Tony Smith (1912-80) created massive pieces
that are often shown outdoors. Some sculpture not only moves but is run by
computer.

One dominant figure in the world of sculpture, Henry Moore (1898-1986),

used traditional materials (wood, bronze, and stone) in exploring traditional
problems of sculpture such as the seated figure and the reclining figure. He
believed that the space shapes created by a sculpture are as important to its
design as the solid forms, and he often put holes or openings in his sculptures.
Moore also contrasted light and dark by curving his bronze figures inward and
outward.

Form and space, reality, emotion, and perfect beauty are the interests of artists
in all centuries. The 20th century only gave them new shape.
WHAT IS SCULPTURE?
"Sculpture is the only branch of the visual arts that is specifically
concerned with expressive three-dimension form."

 Traditionally, there are two main methods: carving material such as

wood or stone, and modeling forms by adding pieces of material such
as clay. Modern artists have explored new materials and
techniques. Sculpture can concurrently be referenced as the most
traditional and the most innovative of the visual arts. It is among the
oldest and most contested forms of representation. In its complexity,
sculpture is both noun and verb, both the means and the end to
production. It is according to the Oxford English Dictionary, "originally,
the process or art of carving or engraving a hard material so as to
produce designs, or figures in relief, in itaglio, or in the round. In
modern use, that branch of fine art which is concerned with the
production of figures in the round or in the relief, either by carving, by
fashioning some plastic substance, or by making a mold for casting in
metal." Most basically, sculpture can be defined as an artistic medium in
so much as it acts as a mode of communication through which the artist
emotionally and intellectually expresses himself to the audience.
 Sculpture is an artistic form in which hard or plastic materials are
worked into three-dimensional art objects. The designs may be
embodied in freestanding objects, in reliefs on surfaces, or
in environments ranging from tableaux to contexts that envelop the
spectator. An enormous variety of media may be used, including clay,
wax, stone, metal, fabric, glass, wood, plaster, rubber, and random
“found” objects. Materials may be carved, modeled, molded, cast,
wrought, welded, sewn, assembled, or otherwise shaped and combined.

WHAT DOES “THREE-DIMENSIONAL” MEAN?

The term refers to the three dimensions of space—length, breadth, and depth.
It is a useful way of distinguishing between art such as painting, drawing, and
prints, which are two-dimensional (flat), and sculpture, which is three-
dimensional.
IS SCULPTURE ALWAYS VIEWED FROM ALL SIDES?

Not all sculptures are carved in the round. Relief sculptures are carved on one
side only, and stand out from a background surface. Relief panels have been
used since ancient times, often to decorate important buildings, such as
temples and churches.

HOW IS SCULPTURE MADE?

Techniques depend upon the materials used. When carving stone or wood,
the sculptor chips away with a hammer and chisel. When sculpting clay, artists
may use their hands. Clay models may be cast in bronze to create a strong,
permanent sculpture. Other techniques include welding metal, molding plastic
or concrete, and using fiberglass.

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATUE & SCULPTURE?

Generally speaking a statue is a three dimensional representation of a human,

animal or in some cases an imaginary figure such a deity or mythological
creature. The term statue tends to imply a fairly representational (realistic)
approach although some degree of sylisation is not uncommon, especialy in
termsof pose and composition but something highly abstract is less likely to
be described as a statue.

Often statures will be close to life size and usually represent the whole figure,
there is also a class of „equestrian statuary‟ where the subject is mounted on a
horse. Smaller statues are often described as „statuettes‟. The terms also tends
to imply that the subject is a specific, recognisable figure, either a real person
or an embodiment of some attribute, usually presented in a positive light,
often including a certain amount of symbolism and very often intended for
display in a public place.

There are also a few related forms such as portrait busts which are the head
and neck of the subjects and effigies which are specifically funerary sculptures,
often forming the „lid‟ of a tomb in a lying position. In terms of the difference
statuary is essentially one type of sculpture. Not all sculptures are figurative
and not all figurative sculpture would necessarily be considered statues.
A sculpture is a unique piece. A statue may be the same, or may be one of
many identical works produced from a mold. As to size, a statue is usually life
size, but does not have to be. A sculpture has no particular dimension.

ELEMENTS OF SCULPTURE DESIGN

The two most important elements of sculptural design are mass and space, of
course separable only in thought. All sculpture was made of a material
substance that has mass and exists in three-dimensional space. The mass of
sculpture is thus the solid, material, space-occupying bulk that is contained
within its surfaces.

Space enters into the design of sculpture in three main ways:

01. The material components of the sculpture extend into or move through
space;
02. They may enclose or enfold space, thus creating hollows and voids within
the sculpture;
03. They may relate one to another across space. Volume, surface, light and
shade, and color are supporting elements of sculpture.

The amount of importance attached to either mass or space in the design of

sculpture varies considerably. In Egyptian sculpture and in most of the
sculpture of the 20th-century artist Constantin Brancusi, For example, mass is
paramount, and most of the sculptor‟s thought was devoted to shaping a
lump of solid material. In 20th-century works by Antoine Pevsner or Naum
Gabo, on the other hand, mass is reduced to a minimum. Sometimes
consisting only of transparent sheets of plastic or thin metal rods. The solid
form of the components themselves is of little importance. Their main function
is to create movement through space and to enclose space. In works by such
20th-century sculptors as Henry Moore and Barbara Hepworth, the elements
of space and mass are treated as more or less equal partners.

It is not possible to see the whole of a fully three-dimensional form at once.

The observer can only see the whole of it if he turns it around or goes around
it himself. For this reason it is sometimes mistakenly assumed that sculpture
must be designed primarily to present a series of satisfactory projective views.
And that this multiplicity of views constitutes the main difference between
sculpture and the pictorial arts, which present only one view of their subject.
Such an attitude toward sculpture ignores the fact that it is possible to
apprehend solid forms as volumes, to conceive an idea of them in the round
from any one aspect. A great deal of sculpture is designed to be apprehended
primarily as volume.

VOLUME ELEMENT

A single volume is the fundamental unit of three-dimensional solid form that can be
conceived in the round. Some sculptures consist of only one volume, others are
configurations of a number of volumes. The human figure is often treated by sculptors
as a configuration of volumes, each of which corresponds to a major part of the body,
such as the head, neck, thorax, and thigh.

Holes and cavities in sculpture, which are as carefully shaped as the solid
forms and are of equal importance to the overall design, are sometimes
referred to as negative volumes.

SURFACE ELEMENT

The surfaces of sculpture are in fact all that one actually sees. It is from their
inflections that one makes inferences about the internal structure of the sculpture. A
surface has, so to speak, two aspects:

01. It contains and defines the internal structure of the masses of the
sculpture.
02. It is the part of the sculpture that enters into relations with external space.

The expressive character of different kinds of surfaces is of the utmost

importance in sculpture. Double-curved convex surfaces suggest fullness,
containment, enclosure, the outward pressure of internal forces. In the
aesthetics of Indian sculpture such surfaces have a special metaphysical
significance representing the encroachment of space into the mass of the
sculpture. Concave surfaces suggest the action of external forces and are often
indicative of collapse or erosion. Flat surfaces tend to convey a feeling of
material hardness and rigidity. They are unbending or unyielding, unaffected
by either internal or external pressures. Surfaces that is convex in one
curvature and concave in the other. It can suggest the operation of internal
pressures and at the same time receptivity to the influence of external forces.
They are associated with growth, with expansion into space.

LIGHT EFFECTS ELEMENT

Unlike the painter, who creates light effects within the work, the sculptor manipulates
actual light on the work. The distribution of light and shade over the forms of his
work depends upon the direction and intensity of light from external sources.
Nevertheless, to some extent he can determine the kinds of effect this external light
will have. If he knows where the work is to be sited, he can adapt it to the kind of light
it is likely to receive. The brilliant overhead sunlight of Egypt and India demands a
different treatment from the dim interior light of a northern medieval cathedral.

Then again, it is possible to create effects of light and shade, or chiaroscuro,

by cutting or modeling deep, shadow-catching hollows and prominent,
highlighted ridges. Many late Gothic sculptors used light and shade as a
powerful expressive feature of their work. They are aiming at a mysterious
obscurity, with forms broken by shadow emerging from a dark background.
The sculptors from Greek, Indian, and most Italian Renaissance shaped the
forms of their work. And making them to receive light in a way that makes the
whole work radiantly clear.

COLOUR ELEMENT

The colouring of sculpture may be either natural or applied. In the recent past,
sculptors became more aware than ever before of the inherent beauty of sculptural
materials. Under the slogan of “truth to materials” many of them worked their
materials in ways that exploited their natural properties, including colour and texture.
More recently, however, there has been a growing tendency to use bright artificial
colouring as an important element in the design of sculpture.

In the ancient world and during the Middle Ages almost all sculpture was
artificially coloured, usually in a bold and decorative rather than a naturalistic
manner. The sculptured portal of a cathedral, for example, would be coloured
and gilded with all the brilliance of a contemporary illuminated manuscript.
Combinations of differently coloured materials, such as the ivory and gold of
some Greek sculpture, were not unknown before the 17th century; but the
early Baroque sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini greatly extended the practice by
combining variously coloured marbles with white marble and gilt bronze.

PRINCIPLES OF SCULPTURE DESIGN

It is doubtful whether any principles of sculpture design are universal in the art
of sculpture as the principles of sculpture that govern the organization of the
elements of sculpture into expressive compositions differ from style to style. In
fact, distinctions made among the major styles of sculpture are largely based
on recognition of differences in the principles of design that underlie them.
Thus, the art historian Erwin Panofsky was attempting to define a difference of
principle in the design of Romanesque and Gothic sculpture. He stated that
the forms of Romanesque were conceived as projections from a plane outside
themselves. Those of Gothic were conceived as being centred on an axis
within themselves. The “principle of axiality” was considered by Panofsky to be
“the essential principle of classical statuary,” which Gothic had rediscovered.

The principles of sculptural design govern the approaches of sculptors to such

fundamental matters as orientation, proportion, scale, articulation, and
balance.

Axis and Planes

For conceiving and describing the orientation of the forms of sculpture in

relation to each other, to a spectator, and to their surroundings, some kind of
spatial scheme of reference is required. This is provided by a system of axes
and planes of reference.

An axis is an imaginary centre line through a symmetrical or near symmetrical

volume or group of volumes that suggests the gravitational pivot of the mass.
Thus, all the main components of the human body have axes of their own.
While an upright figure has a single vertical axis running through its entire
length. Volumes may rotate or tilt on their axes.
Planes of reference are imaginary planes to which the movements, positions,
and directions of volumes, axes, and surfaces may be referred. The principal
planes of reference are the frontal, the horizontal, and the two profile planes.

The principles of sculpture that govern the characteristic poses and spatial
compositions of upright figures in different styles of sculpture are formulated
with reference to axes and the four cardinal planes. For example:
The principle of axiality already referred to.
The principle of frontality, which governs the design of Archaic sculpture.
The characteristic contrapposto (pose in which parts of the body, such as
upper and lower, tilt or even twist in opposite directions) of Michelangelo‟s
figures.
And in standing Greek sculpture of the Classical period the frequently used
balanced “chiastic” pose. Stance in which the body weight is taken principally
on one leg. Thereby creating a contrast of tension and relaxation between the
opposite sides of a figure.

Linear Dimensions, Areas, Volumes And Masses

Proportional relations exist among linear dimensions, areas, and volumes and
masses. All three types of proportion coexist and interact in sculpture,
contributing to its expressiveness and beauty. Attitudes toward proportion
differ considerably among sculptors. Some sculptors, both abstract and
figurative, use mathematical systems of proportion. For example, the
refinement and idealization of natural human proportions was a major
preoccupation of Greek sculptors. Indian sculptors employed iconometric
canons, or systems of carefully related proportions. These determined the
proportions of all significant dimensions of the human figure. African and
other tribal sculptors base the proportions of their figures on the subjective
importance of the parts of the body. Unnatural proportions may be used for
expressive purposes or to accommodate a sculpture to its surroundings. The
elongation of the figures on the Portail Royal (“Royal Portal”) of Chartres
cathedral does both: it enhances their otherworldliness and also integrates
them with the columnar architecture.

Proportions of Sculpture
Sometimes it is necessary to adapt the proportions of sculpture to suit its
position in relation to a viewer. A figure sited high on a building. For example,
is usually made larger in its upper parts in order to counteract the effects of
foreshortening. This should be allowed for when a sculpture intended for such
a position is exhibited on eye level in a museum.

The Scale of Sculpture

The scale of sculpture must sometimes be considered in relation to the scale

of its surroundings. When it is one element in a larger complex, such as the
facade of a building, it must be in scale with the rest. Another important
consideration that sculptors must take into account when designing outdoor
sculpture is the tendency of sculpture in the open air—particularly when
viewed against the sky—to appear less massive than it does in a studio.
Because one tends to relate the scale of sculpture to one‟s own human
physical dimensions, the emotional impact of a colossal figure and a small
figurine are quite different.

Hierarchic Scale

In ancient and medieval sculpture the relative scale of the figures in a

composition is often determined by their importance; e.g., slaves are much
smaller than kings or nobles. This is sometimes known as hierarchic scale.

Different Styles Merge together

The joining of one form to another may be accomplished in a variety of ways.

In much of the work of the 19th-century French sculptor Auguste Rodin, there
are no clear boundaries, and one form is merged with another in an
impressionistic manner to create a continuously flowing surface. In works by
the Greek sculptor Praxiteles, the forms are softly and subtly blended by
means of smooth, blurred transitions. The volumes of Indian sculpture and the
surface anatomy of male figures in the style of the Greek sculptor Polyclitus
are sharply defined and clearly articulated. One of the main distinctions
between the work of Italian and northern Renaissance sculptors lies in the
Italians‟ preference for compositions made up of clearly articulated, distinct
units of form and the tendency of the northern Europeans to subordinate the
individual parts to the allover flow of the composition.

The balance principles of sculpture

The balance, or equilibrium, of freestanding sculpture has three aspects. First,

the sculpture must have actual physical stability. This can be achieved by
natural balance—that is, by making the sculpture stable enough in itself to
stand firmly—which is easy enough to do with a four-legged animal or a
reclining figure but not with a standing figure or a tall, thin sculpture, which
must be secured to a base. The second aspect of balance is compositional. The
interaction of forces and the distribution of weight within a composition may
produce a state of either dynamic or static equilibrium. The third aspect of
balance applies only to sculpture that represents a living figure. A live human
figure balances on two feet by making constant movements and muscular
adjustments. Such an effect can be conveyed in sculpture by subtle
displacements of form and suggestions of tension and relaxation.

https://medium.com/@fansaiensunny/elements-of-sculptural-design-
e92897bd854
https://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3753866
https://www.modernsculptureartists.com/2018/08/20/principles-of-sculpture-
design/
https://www.factmonster.com/dk/encyclopedia/arts-and-
entertainment/sculpture
http://csmt.uchicago.edu/glossary2004/sculpture.htm
https://www.britannica.com/art/sculpture
https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-difference-between-a-statue-and-a-
sculpture
https://forum.wordreference.com/threads/statue-vs-sculpture.1342667/
http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/sculpture.htm#history
 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
Long before the magnificent structures of ancient Greece and Rome, humans
were designing and constructing. The period known as the Classical Era grew
from ideas and construction techniques that evolved centuries and eons apart
in distant locations.

This review illustrates how each new movement builds on the one before.
Although our timeline lists dates related mostly to American architecture,
historic periods do not start and stop at precise points on a map or a calendar.
Periods and styles flow together, sometimes merging contradictory ideas,
sometimes inventing new approaches, and often re-awakening and re-
inventing older movements. Dates are always approximate — architecture is a
fluid art.

11,600 B.C. to 3,500 B.C. — Prehistoric Times

Archaeologists "dig"
prehistory. Göbekli Tepe in
present day Turkey is a good
example of archaeological
architecture. Before recorded
history, humans constructed
earthen mounds, stone circles,
megaliths, and structures that
often puzzle modern-day
archaeologists. Prehistoric architecture includes monumental structures such
as Stonehenge, cliff dwellings in the Americas, and thatch and mud structures
lost to time. The dawn of architecture is found in these structures.

Prehistoric builders moved earth and stone into geometric forms, creating our
earliest human-made formations. We don't know why primitive people began
building geometric structures. Archaeologists can only guess that prehistoric
people looked to the heavens to imitate the sun and the moon, using that
circular shape in their creations of earth mounds and monolithic henges.
Why does the circle dominate man's earliest architecture? It is the shape of the
sun and the moon, the first shape humans realized to be significant to their
lives. The duo of architecture and geometry goes way back in time and may be
the source of what humans find "beautiful" even today.

3,050 B.C. to 900 B.C. — Ancient Egypt

In ancient Egypt, powerful rulers

constructed monumental
pyramids, temples, and shrines.
Far from primitive, enormous
structures such as the Pyramids
of Giza were feats of engineering
capable of reaching great
heights. Scholars have
delineated the periods of history
in ancient Egypt.

Wood was not widely available in the arid Egyptian landscape. Houses in
ancient Egypt were made with blocks of sun-baked mud. Flooding of the Nile
River and the ravages of time destroyed most of these ancient homes. Much
of what we know about ancient Egypt is based on great temples and tombs,
which were made with granite and limestone and decorated with
hieroglyphics, carvings, and brightly colored frescoes. The ancient Egyptians
didn't use mortar, so the stones were carefully cut to fit together.

The pyramid form was a marvel of engineering that allowed ancient Egyptians
to build enormous structures. The development of the pyramid form allowed
Egyptians to build enormous tombs for their kings. The sloping walls could
reach great heights because their weight was supported by the wide pyramid
base. An innovative Egyptian named Imhotep is said to have designed one of
the earliest of the massive stone monuments, the Step Pyramid of Djoser
(2,667 B.C. to 2,648 B.C.).
Builders in ancient Egypt didn't use load-bearing arches. Instead, columns
were placed close together to support the heavy stone entablature above.
Brightly painted and elaborately carved, the columns often mimicked palms,
papyrus plants, and other plant forms. Over the centuries, at least thirty
distinct column styles evolved. As the Roman Empire occupied these lands,
both Persian and Egyptian columns have influenced Western architecture.

Archaeological discoveries in Egypt reawakened an interest in the ancient

temples and monuments. Egyptian Revival architecture became fashionable
during the 1800s. In the early 1900s, the discovery of King Tut's tomb stirred a
fascination for Egyptian artifacts and the rise of Art Deco architecture.

850 B.C. to A.D. 476 — Classical

Classical architecture refers to the style and design of buildings in ancient
Greece and ancient Rome. Classical architecture shaped our approach to
building in Western colonies around the world.

From the rise of ancient Greece until the fall of the Roman empire, great
buildings were constructed according to precise rules. The Roman architect
Marcus Vitruvius, who lived during first century B.C., believed that builders
should use mathematical principles when constructing temples. "For without
symmetry and proportion no temple can have a regular plan," Vitruvius wrote
in his famous treatise De Architectura, or Ten Books on Architecture.

In his writings, Vitruvius introduced the Classical orders, which defined column
styles and entablature designs used in Classical architecture. The earliest
Classical orders were Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.

Although we combine this architectural era and call it "Classical," historians

have described these three Classical periods:

700 to 323 B.C. — Greek. The Doric column was first developed in Greece
and it was used for great temples, including the famous Parthenon in Athens.
Simple Ionic columns were used for smaller temples and building interiors.
323 to 146 B.C. — Hellenistic. When Greece was at the height of its power in
Europe and Asia, the empire built elaborate temples and secular buildings with
Ionic and Corinthian columns. The Hellenistic period ended with conquests by
the Roman Empire.

44 B.C. to A.D. 476 — Roman. The Romans borrowed heavily from the earlier
Greek and Hellenistic styles, but their buildings were more highly ornamented.
They used Corinthian and composite style columns along with decorative
brackets. The invention of concrete allowed the Romans to build arches,
vaults, and domes. Famous examples of Roman architecture include the
Roman Colosseum and the Pantheon in Rome.

527 to 565 — Byzantine

After Constantine moved the capital of the Roman empire to Byzantium (now
called Istanbul in Turkey) in A.D. 330, Roman architecture evolved into a
graceful, classically-inspired style that used brick instead of stone, domed
roofs, elaborate mosaics, and classical forms. Emperor Justinian (527 to 565)
led the way.

Eastern and Western traditions combined in the sacred buildings of the

Byzantine period. Buildings were designed with a central dome that eventually
rose to new heights by using engineering practices refined in the Middle East.
This era of architectural history was transitional and transformational.

800 to 1200 — Romanesque

As Rome spread across Europe, heavier, stocky Romanesque architecture with
rounded arches emerged. Churches and castles of the early medieval period
were constructed with thick walls and heavy piers.

Even as the Roman Empire faded, Roman ideas reached far across Europe.
Built between 1070 and 1120, the Basilica of St. Sernin in Toulouse, France is a
good example of this transitional architecture, with a Byzantine-domed apse
and an added Gothic-like steeple. The floor plan is that of the Latin cross,
Gothic-like again, with a high alter and tower at the cross intersection.
Constructed of stone and brick, St. Sernin is on the pilgrimage route to
Santiago de Compostela.

1100 to 1450 — Gothic

Early in the 12th century, new ways of building meant that cathedrals and
other large buildings could soar to new heights. Gothic architecture became
characterized by the elements that supported taller, more graceful architecture
— innovations such as pointed arch, flying buttresses, and ribbed vaulting. In
addition, elaborate stained glass could take the place of walls that no longer
were used to support high ceilings. Gargoyles and other sculpting enabled
practical and decorative functions.

Gothic architecture began mainly in France where builders began to adapt the
earlier Romanesque style. Builders were also influenced by the pointed arches
and elaborate stonework of Moorish architecture in Spain. One of the earliest
Gothic buildings was the ambulatory of the abbey of St. Denis in France, built
between 1140 and 1144.

Originally, Gothic architecture was known as the French Style. During the
Renaissance, after the French Style had fallen out of fashion, artisans mocked
it. They coined the word Gothic to suggest that French Style buildings were
the crude work of German (Goth) barbarians. Although the label wasn't
accurate, the name Gothic remained.

While builders were creating the great Gothic cathedrals of Europe, painters
and sculptors in northern Italy were breaking away from rigid medieval styles
and laying the foundation for the Renaissance. Art historians call the period
between 1200 to 1400 the Early Renaissance or the Proto-Renaissance of art
history.

Fascination for medieval Gothic architecture was reawakened in the 19th and
20th centuries. Architects in Europe and the United States designed great
buildings and private homes that imitated the cathedrals of medieval Europe.
If a building looks Gothic and has Gothic elements and characteristics, but it
was built in the 1800s or later, its style is Gothic Revival.
1400 to 1600 — Renaissance
A return to Classical ideas ushered an "age of awakening" in Italy, France, and
England. During the Renaissance era architects and builders were inspired by
the carefully proportioned buildings of ancient Greece and Rome. Italian
Renaissance master Andrea Palladio helped awaken a passion for classical
architecture when he designed beautiful, highly symmetrical villas such as Villa
Rotonda near Venice, Italy.

More than 1,500 years after the Roman architect Vitruvius wrote his important
book, the Renaissance architect Giacomo da Vignola outlined Vitruvius's ideas.
Published in 1563, Vignola's The Five Orders of Architecture became a guide
for builders throughout western Europe. In 1570 Andrea Palladio used the new
technology of movable type to publish I Quattro Libri dell' Architettura, or The
Four Books of Architecture. In this book, Palladio showed how Classical rules
could be used not just for grand temples but also for private villas.

1600 to 1830 — Baroque

Early in the 1600s, an elaborate new architectural style lavished buildings.

What became known as Baroque was characterized by complex shapes,
extravagant ornaments, opulent paintings, and bold contrasts.

Architecture was only one expression of the Baroque style. In music, famous
names included Bach, Handel, and Vivaldi. In the art world, Caravaggio,
Bernini, Rubens, Rembrandt, Vermeer, and Velázquez are remembered.
Famous inventors and scientists of the day include Blaise Pascal and Isaac
Newton.

1650 to 1790 — Rococo

During the last phase of the Baroque period, builders constructed graceful
white buildings with sweeping curves. Rococo art and architecture is
characterized by elegant decorative designs with scrolls, vines, shell-shapes,
and delicate geometric patterns.

Rococo architects applied Baroque ideas with a lighter, more graceful touch. In
fact, some historians suggest that Rococo is simply a later phase of the
Baroque period. Architects of this period include the great Bavarian stucco
masters like Dominikus Zimmermann, whose 1750 Pilgrimage Church of Wies
is a UNESCO World Heritage site.

1730 to 1925 — Neoclassicism

By the 1700s, European architects were turning away from elaborate Baroque
and Rococo styles in favor of restrained Neoclassical approaches. Orderly,
symmetrical Neoclassical architecture reflected the intellectual awakening
among the middle and upper classes in Europe during the period historians
often call the Enlightenment. Ornate Baroque and Rococo styles fell out of
favor as architects for a growing middle class reacted to and rejected the
opulence of the ruling class. French and American revolutions returned design
to Classical ideals — including equality and democracy — emblematic of the
civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome. A keen interest in ideas of
Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio inspired a return of Classical shapes in
Europe, Great Britain, and the United States. These buildings were
proportioned according to the classical orders with details borrowed from
ancient Greece and Rome.

In the late 1700s and early 1800s, the newly-formed United States drew upon
Classical ideals to construct grand government buildings and an array of
smaller, private homes.

1890 to 1914 — Art Nouveau

Known as the New Style in France, Art Nouveau was first expressed in fabrics
and graphic design. The style spread to architecture and furniture in the 1890s
as a revolt against industrialization turned people's attention to the natural
forms and personal craftsmanship of the Arts and Crafts Movement. Art
Nouveau buildings often have asymmetrical shapes, arches, and decorative
Japanese-like surfaces with curved, plant-like designs and mosaics. The period
is often confused with Art Deco, which has an entirely different visual look and
philosophical origin.

Note that the name Art Nouveau is French, but the philosophy — to some
extent spread by the ideas of William Morris and the writings of John
Ruskin — gave rise to similar movements throughout Europe. In Germany it
was called Jugendstil; in Austria it was Sezessionsstil; in Spain it
was Modernismo, which predicts or event begins the modern era. The works of
Spanish architect Antoni Gaudí (1852-1926) are said to be influenced by Art
Nouveau or Modernismo, and Gaudi is often called one of the first modernist
architects.

1895 to 1925 — Beaux Arts

Also known as Beaux Arts Classicism, Academic Classicism, or Classical Revival,

Beaux Arts architecture is characterized by order, symmetry, formal design,
grandiosity, and elaborate ornamentation. Combining classical Greek and
Roman architecture with Renaissance ideas, Beaux Arts architecture was a
favored style for grand public buildings and opulent mansions.

1925 to 1937 — Art Deco

With their sleek forms and ziggurat designs, Art Deco architecture embraced
both the machine age and ancient times. Zigzag patterns and vertical lines
create dramatic effect on jazz-age, Art Deco buildings. Interestingly, many Art
Deco motifs were inspired by the architecture of ancient Egypt.
The Art Deco style evolved from many sources. The austere shapes of the
modernist Bauhaus School and streamlined styling of modern technology
combined with patterns and icons taken from the Far East, classical Greece
and Rome, Africa, ancient Egypt and the Middle East, India, and Mayan and
Aztec cultures.

Art Deco buildings have many of these features: cubic forms; ziggurat,
terraced pyramid shapes with each story smaller than the one below it;
complex groupings of rectangles or trapezoids; bands of color; zigzag designs
like lightening bolts; strong sense of line; and the illusion of pillars.

By the 1930s, Art Deco evolved into a more simplified style known as
Streamlined Moderne, or Art Moderne. The emphasis was on sleek, curving
forms and long horizontal lines. These buildings did not feature zigzag or
colorful designs found on earlier Art Deco architecture.

Some of the most famous art deco buildings have become tourist destinations
in New York City — the Empire State Building and Radio City Music Hall may
be the most famous. The 1930 Chrysler Building in New York City was one of
the first buildings composed of stainless steel over a large exposed surface.
The architect, William Van Alen, drew inspiration from machine technology for
the ornamental details on the Chrysler Building: There are eagle hood
ornaments, hubcaps, and abstract images of cars.

1900 to Present — Modernist Styles

The 20th and 21st centuries have seen dramatic changes and astonishing
diversity. Modernist styles have come and gone — and continue to evolve.
Modern-day trends include Art Moderne and the Bauhaus school coined by
Walter Gropius, Deconstructivism, Formalism, Brutalism, and Structuralism.

Modernism is not just another style — it presents a new way of thinking.

Modernist architecture emphasizes function. It attempts to provide for specific
needs rather than imitate nature. The roots of Modernism may be found in the
work of Berthold Luberkin (1901-1990)
The expressionistic work of the Polish-born German architect Erich
Mendelsohn (1887-1953) also furthered the modernist movement.
Mendelsohn and Russian-born English architect Serge Chermayeff (1900-
1996) won the competition to design the De La Warr Pavilion in Britain. The
1935 seaside public hall has been called Streamline Moderne and
International, but it most certainly is one of the first modernist buildings to be
constructed and restored, maintaining its original beauty over the years.

Modernist architecture can express a number of stylistic ideas, including

Expressionism and Structuralism. In the later decades of the twentieth century,
designers rebelled against the rational Modernism and a variety of
Postmodern styles evolved.

Modernist architecture generally has little or no ornamentation and is

prefabricated or has factory-made parts. The design emphasizes function and
the man-made construction materials are usually glass, metal, and concrete.
Philosophically, modern architects rebel against traditional styles. For
examples of Modernism in architecture, see works by Rem Koolhaas, I.M.
Pei, Le Corbusier, Philip Johnson, and Mies van der Rohe.

Early Developments in Building Design and Techniques Methods

The basic methods of building design and construction have been used for
thousands of years. Stacking stones, laying brick, or lashing wood together in
one form or another are still used today in all parts of the world. But over the
centuries, innovations in methods and materials have given new expression to
architecture and the human footprint on the landscape. We can look to
historical examples for clues that give context to different style periods.

In western culture, one of the earliest settlements with permanent structures

was discovered at Catalhoyuk in Turkey (pictured below). The rich soil that
surrounds the settlement indicates the inhabitants relied in part on farming.
Dated to about 7500 BCE, the dwellings are constructed from dried mud and
brick and show wooden support beams spanning the ceilings. The design of
the settlement incorporates a cell-like structure of small buildings either
sharing common walls or separated by a few feet. The roofs are flat and were
used as pathways between buildings.
A significant advance came with the development of the post and
lintel system. With this, a system of posts –either stone or wood – are placed
at intervals and spanned by beams at the tops. The load is distributed down
the posts to allow for areas of open space between them. Its earliest use is
seen at Stonehenge (below), a prehistoric monument in southern England
dating to about 3000 BCE.
A colonnade continues the post and lintel method as a series of columns and
beams enveloping larger areas of space. Colonnades can be free standing or
part of a larger structure. Common in Egyptian, Greek and Roman architectural
design, their use creates visual rhythm and implies a sense of grandeur. Over
time columns became categorized by the capital style at their tops. The
smooth and unadorned Doric columns give way to more elaborate styles: the
scrolled Ionian and the high relief Corinthian.
Greek and Roman capitals: Top row: Doric. Middle Row: Ionic. Bottom Row:
Corinthian and a composite Ionic Corinthian. Classical Orders, engraving from
the Encyclopédie vol. 18. Public domain.

The Parthenon, a Greek temple to the mythic goddess Athena, was built in the
fifth century BCE in Athens and is part of a larger community of structures in
the Acropolis. All are considered pinnacles of classic Greek architecture. Doric
colonnades march across all sides of the Parthenon, the outer boundary of a
very ordered interior floor plan.
The Parthenon, Athens, Greece. 447 BCE. Digital image by Kallistos and
licensed under Creative Commons

Floor plan of the Parthenon. Licensed through Creative Commons.

Another example is the colonnade surrounding St. Peter’s Square in the
Vatican, Rome.

Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Colonnade at St. Peter’s Square, the Vatican. 1656–67.
Photo by D.F. Malan. Licensed through Creative Commons.

The colonnade is part of our contemporary surroundings too. Parks and other
public spaces use them to the same effect: providing visual and material
stability in spanning areas of open space.

Contemporary colonnade. Image: Christopher Gildow. Used with permission.

The development of the arch gave architecture new alternatives to post and
lintel construction. Arches appeared as early as the 2nd millennium BC
in Mesopotamian brick architecture. They supply strength and stability to walls
without massive posts and beams because their construction minimizes the
shear load imposed on them. This meant walls could go higher without
compromising their stability and at the same time create larger areas of open
space between arches. In addition, the arch gave buildings a more organic,
expressive visual element. The Colosseum in Rome (below), built in the first
century CE, uses repeated arches to define an imposing but decidedly airy
structure. The fact that most of it is still standing today is testament to the
inherent strength of the arch.

The Colosseum, Rome, Italy. First century CE. Photo by David Iliff. Image
licensed through Creative Commons.

Roman aqueducts are another example of how effectively the arch was used.
Tall and graceful, the arches support themselves in a colonnade and were used
to transport a network of water channels throughout ancient Rome.
Roman aqueduct, c. First century CE. Image in the public domain.

From the arch came two more important developments: extending an arch in
a linear direction formed a vault, encapsulating tall, narrow spaces with
inverted ―U‖ shaped ceilings. The compressive force of the vault required thick
walls on each side to keep it from collapsing. Because of this many vaults were
situated underground – essentially tunnels – connecting areas of a larger
building or providing covered transport of people, goods and materials
throughout the city.

An arch rotated on its vertical axis creates a dome, with its curving organic
scoop of space reserved for the tops of the most important buildings.
The Pantheon in Rome sports a dome with an oculus – a round or elliptical
opening at the top, that is the massive building’s only light source.
Dome of the Pantheon with oculus, Rome. 126 CE. Image in the public
domain.

These elements combined to revolutionize architectural design throughout

Europe and the Middle East in the form of bigger and stronger churches,
mosques and even sectarian government buildings. Styles changed with
technology. Romanesque architecture was popular for nearly three hundred
years (800 – 1100 CE). The style is characterized by barrel or groin vault
ceilings, thick walls with low exterior buttresses and squared off towers.
Buildings reached a point where they struggled to support their own weight.
The architectural solution to the problem was a flying buttress, an exterior
load-bearing column connected to the main structure by a segmented arch or
―flyer.‖
Diagram of a flying buttress from St. Denis basilica, Paris. From the Dictionary
of French Architecture from 11th to 16th Century (1856), licensed through
Creative Commons.

Flying buttresses became a kind of exoskeleton that transferred the heavy

weight of Romanesque stone roofs through their arches and into the ground,
away from the building. They became catalysts for the Gothic style based on
higher, thinner walls, pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and spired towers. Also,
the thinner walls of the Gothic style allowed for more stained glass windows
and interior illumination.
Church of St. Denis, France. Seventh–twelfth centuries CE. Image in the public
domain

St. Denis basilica in France (above) is one of the first Gothic-style churches,
known for its high vaulted ceilings and extensive use of stained glass windows.
The architecture of the church became a symbol of spirituality itself: soaring
heights, magnificently embellished interiors and exteriors, elaborate lighting
and sheer grandeur on a massive scale.

The Doges Palace in Venice, Italy (pictured below) housed the political
aristocracy of the Republic of Venice for a thousand years. Built in 1309 CE, its
rhythmic levels of columns and pointed arches, divided by fractals as they rise,
give way to elaborate geometric patterns in the pink brick façade. The
ornamental additions at the top edge reinforce the patterns below.
The Doges Palace, 1309 CE, viewed from St. Mark’s Square, Venice, Italy. Image
by Martti Mustonen and licensed through Creative Commons.

IMPERIAL ARCHITECTURE IN CHINA

Chinese architecture refers to a style of architecture that has taken shape in

East Asia over many centuries. The structural principles of traditional Chinese
architecture have remained largely unchanged. Chinese architectural (and
aesthetic) design is based on symmetry, a general emphasis on the horizontal
and site layouts that reflect a hierarchy of importance. These considerations
result in formal and stylistic differences in comparison to the West, and display
alternatives in design.
Gate of Supreme Harmony, Forbidden City, Beijing, China. Photo Credit
Andrew and Annemarie, Image licensed through Creative Commons

CROSS-CULTURAL INFLUENCES

As overland and marine trade routes expanded between Eastern and Western
civilizations so did the influence of cultural styles in architecture, religion and
commerce. The most important of these passages was the Silk Road, a system
of routes that developed over hundreds of years across the European and
Asian continents. Along this route are buildings that show cross-cultural
influences in their design.

The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem offers different cultural influences

manifest in one building: a classic Greek colonnade at the main entrance, the
gold dome and central turret supporting it, western style arches and colorful
Islamic surface embellishment.
The Dome of the Rock, on the Temple Mount, in the Old City of Jerusalem,
Photo Credit Andrew Shiva, Image licensed through Creative Commons
The Louvre Palace in Paris, once the official royal residence and now one of
the world’s biggest museums, had its beginnings in the 12th century but
didn’t achieve its present form until recently. The building’s style is French
Renaissance – marked by a formal symmetry, horizontal stability and
restrained ornamentation. The Louvre executive board chose architect I. M.
Pei’s glass pyramid design as the defining element for the new main entry in
1989. The choice was a great success: the pyramid further defines the public
space above ground and gives natural light and a sense of openness to the
underground lobby beneath it.

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Beginning in the 18th century the Industrial Revolution made fundamental

changes in agriculture, manufacturing, transportation and housing.
Architecture changed in response to the new industrial landscape. Prior to the
late 19th century, the weight of a multistory building had to be supported
principally by the strength of its walls. The taller the building, the more strain
this placed on the lower sections. Since there were clear engineering limits to
the weight such load-bearing walls could sustain, large designs meant
massively thick walls on the ground floors, and definite limits on the building’s
height.

Eiffel Tower, Start of construction of second stage, May 1888. Image in the
public domain
Forged iron and milled steel began to replace wood, brick and stone as
primary materials for large buildings. This change is encapsulated in the Eiffel
Tower, built in 1889. Standing on four huge arched legs, the iron lattice tower
rises narrowly to just over 1000 feet high. The Eiffel Tower not only became an
icon for France but for industry itself – heralding a new age in materials,
design and construction methods.

In America, the development of cheap, versatile steel in the second half of the
19th century helped change the urban landscape. The country was in the
midst of rapid social and economic growth that made for great opportunities
in architectural design. A much more urbanized society was forming and the
society called out for new, larger buildings. By the middle of the 19th century
downtown areas in big cities began to transform themselves with new roads
and buildings to accommodate the growth. The mass production of steel was
the main driving force behind the ability to build skyscrapers during the mid
1880s.

Steel framing was set into foundations of reinforced concrete, concrete

poured around a grid of steel rods (re-bar) or other matrices to increase
tensile strength in foundations, columns and vertical slabs.

MODERNIST ARCHITECTURE

The move to modernism was introduced with the opening of the Bauhaus
school in Weimar Germany. Founded in 1919 by the German architect Walter
Gropius, Bauhaus (literal translation ―house of construction‖) was a teaching
and learning center for modern industrial and architectural design. Though
not a movement or style in itself, Bauhaus instructors and staff reflected
different artistic perspectives, all of them born from the modern aesthetic. It
was partly the product of a post- World War I search for new artistic
definitions in Europe. Gropius’s commitment to the principle of bringing all
the arts together with a focus on practical, utilitarian applications. This view
rejected the notion of ―art for art’s sake‖, putting a premium on the
knowledge of materials and their effective design. This idea shows the
influence of Constructivism, a similar philosophy developed concurrently in
Russia that used the arts for social purposes. Bauhaus existed for fourteen
years, relocating three times, and influencing a whole generation of architects,
artists, graphic and industrial designers and typographers.

In 1924 Gropius designed the Bauhaus main building in Dessau. Its modern
form includes bold lines, an asymmetric balance and curtain walls of glass. It’s
painted in neutral tones of white and gray accented by strong primary colors
on selected doors.

Bauhaus in Dessau, Germany, 1925-26, Image in public domain

Frank Lloyd Wright is considered one of the 20th century’s greatest architects.
Wright designed buildings, churches, homes and schools, but is best known
for his design of Falling Water, a home in the Pennsylvania countryside for
Chicago department store owner Edgar Kaufman. His design innovations
include unified open floor plans, a balance of traditional and modern materials
and the use of cantilevered forms that extends horizontal balance.

The Guggenheim Museum in New York City is an example of Wright’s concern

with organic forms and utilization of space. The main element in the design is
a spiral form rising from the middle of the cantilevered main structure.
Paintings are exhibited on its curved walls. Visitors take the elevator to the top
floor and view the works as they travel down the gently sloped hallway. This
spiral surrounds a large atrium in the middle of the building and a domed
skylight at the top.
Atrium, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, Manhattan, New York, 1959, Image
in the public domain

POST MODERN & CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE

Postmodern architecture began as an international style whose first examples

are generally cited as being from the 1950s, but did not become a movement
until the late 1970s and continues to influence present-day architecture.
Postmodernity in architecture is generally thought to be heralded by the
return of ―wit, ornament and reference‖ to architecture in response to the
formalism of the International Style.

Michael Graves’s Portland Building from 1982 personifies the idea behind
postmodernist thought. A reference to more traditional style is evident in the
patterned column-like sections. Overt large-scale decorative elements are built
into and onto the exterior walls, and contrasts between materials, colors and
forms give the building a graphic sense of visual wit.

We can see how architecture is actively evolving in the contemporary work of

Frank Gehry and Zaha Hadid. Gehry’s work is famous for its rolling and bent
organic forms. His gestural, erratic sketches are transformed into buildings
through a computer aided design process (CAD). They have roots in
postmodernism but lean towards a completely new modern style. They have
as much to do with sculpture as they do with architecture. Seattle’s Museum
of Pop Culture is an example of the complexity that goes into his designs. Its
curves, ripples and folds roll across space and the multi-colored titanium
panels adorning the exterior accentuate the effect.

GREEN ARCHITECTURE

In the last decade there has emerged a strong interest in developing ―green‖
architecture – designs that incorporate ecologically and environmentally
sustainable practices in site preparation, materials, energy use and waste
systems. Some are simple: buildings oriented to the south or west helps with
passive solar heating. Others are more complex: Solar voltaic cells on the roof
to generate power to the building. Green roofs are made of sod and other
organic material and act as a cooling agent and recycle rainwater too. In
addition, technological innovations in lighting, heating and cooling systems
have made them more efficient.

A branch of the Seattle Public Library uses green design. A glass curtain wall
on the north side makes use of natural lighting. Overhanging wooden roof
beams shades harsh light. The whole structure is nestled under a green roof of
sod and over 18,000 low water use plants. Seven skylights on the roof provide
more natural lighting.

DEFINITION OF ARCHITECTURE
What is architecture? The word architecture can have many meanings.
Architecture can be an art and a science, a process and a result, and both an
idea and a reality. People often use the words "architecture" and "design"
interchangeably, which naturally broadens the definition of architecture. If you
can "design" your own career goals, aren't you the architect of your own
life? It seems there are no easy answers, so let's explore and debate the many
definitions of architecture, design, and what architects and social scientists call
"the built environment."

From the Latin word architectura, the word we use describes the job of an
architect. The ancient Greek arkhitekton was the chief builder or master
technician of all craftsmen and artisans. So, what comes first, the architect or
the architecture?

Depending on the context, the word "architecture" can refer to any man-made
building or structure, like a tower or monument; a man-made building or
structure that is important, large, or highly creative; a carefully designed
object, such as a chair, a spoon, or a tea kettle; a design for a large area such
as a city, town, park, or landscaped gardens; the art or science of designing
and building buildings, structures, objects, and outdoor spaces; a building
style, method, or process; a plan for organizing space; elegant engineering;
the planned design of any kind of system; a systematic arrangement of
information or ideas; and the flow of information on a web page.

 Architecture is a passion, a vocation, a calling – as well as a science and

a business. It has been described as a social art and also an artful
science. Architecture must be of the highest quality of design.
Architecture provides, in the words of Marcus Vitruvius, the great
Roman architect and historian, “firmness, commodity and delight.1”
 Architecture provides a sense of place and support of all types of human
activity. Architecture helps the man-made fit in harmony with the
environment while promoting health and well-being, enriching lives
aesthetically and spiritually, providing economic opportunities, and
creating a legacy that reflects and symbolizes culture and traditions.
 Architecture, the art and technique of designing and building, as
distinguished from the skills associated with construction. The practice
of architecture is employed to fulfill both practical and expressive
requirements, and thus it serves both utilitarian and aesthetic ends.
Although these two ends may be distinguished, they cannot be
separated, and the relative weight given to each can vary widely.
Because every society—whether highly developed or less so, settled or
nomadic—has a spatial relationship to the natural world and to other
societies, the structures they produce reveal much about
their environment (including climate and weather), history, ceremonies,
and artistic sensibility, as well as many aspects of daily life.

Art, Architecture, and Design

In 2005, the artists Christo and Jeanne-Claude implemented an idea, an art
installation in New York City called The Gates in Central Park. Thousands of
bright orange gates were placed throughout Central Park, the great landscape
architecture of Frederick Law Olmsted, erected as designed by the artistic
team. "Of course, 'The Gates' is art, because what else would it be?" wrote art
critic Peter Schjeldahl at the time. "Art used to mean paintings and statues.
Now it means practically anything human-made that is unclassifiable
otherwise." The New York Times was more pragmatic in their review called
"Enough About 'Gates' as Art; Let's Talk About That Price Tag." So, if a man-
made design can't be classified, it must be art. But if it's very, very expensive to
create, how can it be simply art?

Depending on your perspective, you might use the word architecture to

describe any number of things. Which of these items might be
called architecture—a circus tent; a sports stadium; an egg carton; a roller
coaster; a log cabin; a skyscraper; a computer program; a temporary summer
pavilion; a political campaign; a bonfire; a parking garage; an airport, bridge,
train station, or your house? All of them, and more—the list could go on
forever.

MAIN TYPES OF ARCHITECTURE

Landscape Architect

This type of architecture focuses on outdoor areas. If you go into this

specialized field, you might design parklands, gardens, and lawns surrounding
college campus buildings and other public destinations. Landscape architects
may also work with homeowners and other private parties to design
compelling outdoor areas. You might even be involved with the development
of golf courses or similar recreational spots.

Building structures can be a part of this job, even though you are working with
outdoor areas. For example, many landscaping jobs entail erecting gazebos
and other outdoor structures such as follies. Unlike residential architects and
public and industrial architects, however, you will be doing a lot of work
directly with trees, plants, and other living materials. As such, your body of
knowledge will have to go beyond simple construction. You will have to
understand aspects of horticulture, and know how you can integrate living
growth into your settings. A well-designed landscape will incorporate plants in
a system that is beneficial to them and allows them to thrive.

Interior Design

Although interior design is not actually a type of architecture, you should

consider looking into it all the same, because it is so closely connected to
architecture. Some building designers are also interior designers, while others
do not work on furnishing and other aspects of interior design. Frank Lloyd
Wright, discussed earlier in the section on residential architecture, also was an
interior designer. He saw his buildings as a single integrated whole, and
strived to create furniture that evoked the same elements as his buildings. He
worked on creating seamless living spaces which flowed throughout the
interiors of his buildings. Because he had knowledge of both interior design
and architecture, he was able to unite them fluidly to bring his entire vision to
life.

For this reason, it may be worthwhile for you also to cultivate study in both
fields, and learn interior design along with architecture. In fact, some architects
also learn to tie in landscaping with the rest of their design skills. By doing
this, you can create spaces which flow both indoors and outdoors for the best
possible effect. It is often the effect of the whole that leaves such an impact on
visitors.

How many different specializations you want to integrate into your work is
really up to you. Some architects do best if they are extremely specialized and
focused on one aspect of design, while others excel by learning how to
integrate different aspects of design. You may work well controlling all
elements that go into a building or you may work better in an environment
where you are sharing the responsibility of design with a number of other
architects.

You will also need to figure out where you fit best on a team. Do you work
better taking cues from a lead architect, or would you like to be the head
architect, calling the shots? You probably will not jump into that kind of
position straight off the top. You will need ample work experience first.
Architecture is a tough and competitive field. And the more radical your ideas
are, the more challenging your path is likely to be. It is usually the more
unusual ideas which capture or imaginations.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sac-artappreciation/chapter/oer-1-27/

https://www.thoughtco.com/architecture-timeline-historic-periods-styles-
175996

https://raic.org/raic/what-architecture

https://www.britannica.com/topic/architecture

https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-architecture-178087

https://www.careerigniter.com/questions/what-are-the-different-types-of-
architects/
 WHAT IS LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE?

 An environmental design profession and discipline,

encompasses the analysis, planning, design, management,
and stewardship of the natural and built environments. The
foundation of landscape architecture education and practice
is the application of ecological design in the consideration of
abiotic, biotic, and cultural features in conservation,
development and restoration projects. Types of projects
include: residential site design; parks and recreation; low
impact development, monuments; urban design;
streetscapes and public spaces; transportation corridors and
facilities; gardens and arboreta; security design; hospitality
and resorts; institutional; academic campuses; therapeutic
gardens; historic preservation; habitat restoration; green
infrastructure, reclamation; conservation planning; landscape
art and earth sculpture; interior landscapes; and more.
 One of the most diversified of the design professions.
Landscape architects design the built environment of
neighborhoods, towns and cities while also protecting and
managing the natural environment, from its forests and
fields to rivers and coasts. Members of the profession have a
special commitment to improving the quality of life through
the best design of places for people and other living things.
Specialty Areas in Landscape Architecture

Whether dealing with urban or home landscapes, there are

specific topics within the profession of landscape architecture that
both residential and commercial environmental development
services understand are important to all. These specialty areas are
first considered separately, then brought together as a final,
workable design to create an attractive, yet functional use of land
areas. Following are a few of those specialty areas that apply to
both urban development and home properties.

 Site Planning – This is the planning that goes into the most
efficient use of a specific land site for its intended purpose
and also considers its appearance through the services of
a company experienced in professional landscape
maintenance.
 Urban Design – This type of design involves planning for
cities and towns, placement of roads and buildings, and
where and how urban growth should be situated, while also
considering all natural, geographic features and limitations.
 Land Development – Similar to site planning but on a larger
scale such as suburban development, land development is
planning for the use of large areas of land based on
geography, need, and other factors.
 Parks and Recreation – This is the specialty area where a
suburban landscape architect plans for parks, open spaces,
and recreational areas for public use.
 Ecological and Environmental Planning – This is the
architectural design and landscape planning for public areas
with regard to natural, existing space and landscape, and
how to modify it to be most useful and least intrusive.
 Heritage Conservation – This is the recognition, protection
and restoration of historic land areas.

What is important to remember that, even on a residential level,

basic home lots have undergone considerable planning in terms
of location, size, shape, and function. Depending on those
qualities, as well as things such as historical value, local
recreational space, urban and suburban development, and others,
homeowners can make their individual property a beautiful part
of the entire landscaped area around them. With the right plants,
visual features, and landscape lighting installed by an
experienced residential landscape design service, a single home
lot can make its mark in beautifying a neighborhood and bringing
life to the surrounding landscape architecture. Working with
a commercial landscape maintenance company that understands
these basics can help improve lot features and not let it become a
visual imperfection!

WHAT IS INTERIOR DESIGNING?

Interior design is a multi-faceted profession in which creative and

technical solutions are applied within a structure to achieve a built
interior environment. These solutions are functional, enhance the
quality of life and culture of the occupants, and are aesthetically
attractive. Designs are created in response to and coordinated
with the building shell, and acknowledge the physical location and
social context of the project. Designs must adhere to code and
regulatory requirements, and encourage the principles of
environmental sustainability. The interior design process follows a
systematic and coordinated methodology, including research,
analysis and integration of knowledge into the creative process,
whereby the needs and resources of the client are satisfied to
produce an interior space that fulfills the project goals.

Interior design includes a scope of services performed by a

professional design practitioner, qualified by means of education,
experience, and examination, to protect and enhance the life,
health, safety and welfare of the public. These services may
include any or all of the following tasks:

 Research and analysis of the client's goals and requirements;

and development of documents, drawings and diagrams that
outline those needs;

 Formulation of preliminary space plans and two and three

dimensional design concept studies and sketches that
integrate the client's program needs and are based on
knowledge of the principles of interior design and theories of
human behavior;

 Confirmation that preliminary space plans and design

concepts are safe, functional, aesthetically appropriate, and
meet all public health, safety and welfare requirements,
including code, accessibility, environmental, and
sustainability guidelines.

 Selection of colors, materials and finishes to appropriately

convey the design concept, and to meet socio-psychological,
functional, maintenance, life-cycle performance,
environmental, and safety requirements;

 Selection and specification of furniture, fixtures, equipment

and millwork, including layout drawings and detailed
product description; and provision of contract
documentation to facilitate pricing, procurement and
installation of furniture;
 Provision of project management services, including
preparation of project budgets and schedules;

 Preparation of construction documents, consisting of plans,

elevations, details and specifications, to illustrate non-
structural and/or non-seismic partition layouts; power and
communications locations; reflected ceiling plans and
lighting designs; materials and finishes; and furniture layouts;

 Preparation of construction documents to adhere to regional

building and fire codes, municipal codes, and any other
jurisdictional statutes, regulations and guidelines applicable
to the interior space;

 Coordination and collaboration with other allied design

professionals who may be retained to provide consulting
services, including but not limited to architects; structural,
mechanical and electrical engineers, and various specialty
consultants;

 Confirmation that construction documents for non-structural

and/or non-seismic construction are signed and sealed by
the responsible interior designer, as applicable to
jurisdictional requirements for filing with code enforcement
officials;

 Administration of contract documents, bids and negotiations

as the client's agent;

 Observation and reporting on the implementation of

projects while in progress and upon completion, as a
 representative of and on behalf of the client; and conducting
post-occupancy evaluation reports.

https://www.texaslandscapecreations.com/blog/what-are-the-
different-landscape-architecture-specialties/
https://csbs.uni.edu/sahs/interior-design/what-it
https://www.larch.umd.edu/admissions/what-landscape-
architecture
WHAT IS PHOTOGRAPHY?

Photography is the serious art of our time. It also happens to be

the most accessible and democratic way of making art that has
ever been invented. But first, let's define photography. It also
refers to the process or practice of creating a photograph – an
image produced by the action of light on a light-sensitive material

Photography is a method of recording the image of an object

through the action of light, or related radiation, on a light-
sensitive material. The word, derived from the
Greek photos (“light”) and graphein (“to draw”), was first used in
the 1830s.

A photograph is an image captured on film, paper or – most

commonly now – in digital memory. Photography also includes
moving images captured on film or video. Moving or still, we all
know a photograph is not a pure record of the visual world: it can
be edited and transformed in infinite ways.
PURPOSE OF PHOTOGRAPHY

The essential purpose of photography is communication. Few

people take pictures solely to please themselves. Most of us take
them because we want them seen by others. We wish or are
compelled to inform, educate, entertain, reform, or share some
experienced with others. Pictures are a photographer's means of
expression as a writer's means are words. And as a writer must
choose a major field of work -journalism, creative writing,
biography, advertising, etc. So a photographer must choose a
specific field, each field having a specific purpose. Some of these
purpose are:
Information.
Documentary photographs as well as the majority of photographs
found in picture magazines, newspaper, manuals, scientific
publications, and pictures used for visual education belong to this
category. Their purpose is either to educate people or to enable
them to make correct decisions.

Slanted information.
This is the province of commercial and advertising photography
and political propaganda. The purpose of such pictures is to make
the subject glamorous and more desirable. The goal is the selling
of a product, a service, or an idea.

Discovery.
Because the camera is in many respects superior to the eye, it can
be used to make discoveries in the realm of vision. This is the field
of research and scientific photography, close-up and
telephotography, ultra-wide-angle and high speed photography,
abstract photography and photograms. The purpose of such
pictures is to open new fields of exploration, to widen man's visual
and intellectual horizons, and to enrich his life.

Recording.
Photography provides the simplest and cheapest means for
preserving facts in picture form. Catalogue pictures, reproductions
of works of art, microfilming of document and books,
identification pictures, and certain kinds of documentary
photographs, fall into this category. Used for recording purposes,
photography preserves knowledge and facts in easily accesible
form suitable for widest dissemination and utilization.

Entertainment.
Photography provides an endless source of entertainment and
pleasure: motion picture, amateur photographs, travel pictures,
fine picture books and photographic annuals, pin-up
photographs, photographic feature stories in picture magazines,
etc.

Self-expression.
An increasing number of talented, creative people find in
photography a relatively inexpensive means for self-expression.
Almost any subject can be photographed in an almost unlimited
number of different ways, and more and more photographers
seek new and more expressive forms of photographic rendition
through which to share with others their own visions of the world,
their feelings, ideas, and thoughts.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Do you love the art of photography, want to practice

photography, do you want to build your knowledge on different
types of photography or are you trying to figure out what type of
photographer you are?

Following is the different types of photography which you can

categorize captured images in:
1 – Landscape Photography

If you love photography and have the tendency to stop and look
at the beautiful scenery around you and freeze nature in one
picture, you are definitely a type of photographer interested in
the type of photography called landscape photography.

2 – Wildlife Photography

The genre of photography that focuses on animals and their

natural habitat is called wildlife photography. Animal behaviors in
wild are also capture by wildlife photographer. Mostly these
pictures are captured to be printed in journals or exhibitions.
Many people practice this type of photography. Apart from a
good camera, several lens, strong flashlight, you need patience to
click the right picture.
3 – Sports / Action Photography

This genre of photography specializes in capturing a decisive

moment in an event of sports. Sports photography is one of the
difficult types of photography. It requires practice along with the
various equipments.

4 – Portrait Photography

One of the oldest types of photography is portrait photography.

It can range from shooting your family members to friends to
pets. It is often called portraiture and this type of photographer
abounds.
5 – Architectural Photography

This type of photography deals with taking shots of structures,

houses and buildings from different angles. The main purpose
of architectural photography is to create a positive impact on
potential real estate buyers.

6 – Wedding Photography/Event Photography

It is said that a newcomer in professional photography begins

his/her career by practicing a wedding or event photography.
But that does not mean that this type of photographer does not
require and any skill. A person dealing in this type of photography
has to be an expert in portraiture and extremely good editing
skills. The demand for wedding photography or event
photography is more.
7 – Fashion Photography

Fashion photography captures models in a glamorous light

display fashion items such as clothes, shoes and other accessories.
This type of photography is conducted mostly for advertisements
and fashion magazines.

8 – Black And White Photography

The trend of capturing pictures in black and white is popular even

today as it helps to bring out the natural beauty of the subjects.
This type of photography makes extensive use of contrasts and
shadows to give the pictures a realistic and beautiful look.

9 – Candid Photography

Candid photography comprises of

pictures clicked in completely natural
states of the subjects without any prior
preparedness. This type of
photography is increasingly becoming popular not only during
social events and special occasions, but for general images as well
as it helps in capturing the uniqueness and magic of the moment.

10 – Conceptual Photography

Conceptual photography is all about presenting a concept or an

idea present in the mind of the photographer to other people
only through the medium of photographs. This type of
photography is generally used in advertising, where a picture
helps in reiterating an idea, a tagline or a catchphrase for a
product or service.

11 – Firework Photography

As the name indicates, Firework photography deals with clicking

images of the beautiful firework display especially at night.
This type of photography is relatively easy and can be carried on
with a normal camera. These images, when clicked in a proper
manner are quite majestic and appealing for the viewers.
12 – Food Photography

Food photography is the art of clicking images of

various food items in manner that makes it
immediately appealing to the viewers. The food
photographers need to pay attention to not only
the proper arrangement of the food but also the
context in which it is to be presented to get the
best shots.

13 – Mobile Photography

This genre of photography came into

existence when cameras were first
integrated into mobile phones. Today it is
one of the most popular types of
photography especially in view of the fact
that mobile phone cameras today offer the
precision and clarity of professional equipment.

14 – Modeling Photography

This genre of photography is related to

clicking pictures of professional models for
promotion of various products and
services. This type of photography is
mostly used by business organizations for
brand establishment and is carried out by professional
photographers from this specific niche.
15 – Vehicle Photography

Vehicle Photography is the art

of clicking beautiful and amazing
pictures of vehicles. It usually
requires the photographers to
capture the finer details of both
the interior and exterior of the
vehicle from different angles, as
these images are generally used for promotion of the automobile
by highlighting its features.

HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY
The first permanent photograph was captured in 1826 (some
sources say 1827) by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce in France. It shows
the roof of a building lit by the sun. You can see it reproduced
below:
 Color photography
started to become
popular and accessible
with the release of
Eastman Kodak’s
“Kodachrome” film in the
1930s. Before that,
almost all photos were
monochromatic –
although a handful of
photographers, toeing the line between chemists and alchemists,
had been using specialized techniques to capture color images for
decades before. You’ll find some fascinating galleries of photos
from the 1800s or early 1900s captured in full color, worth
exploring if you have not seen them already.

These scientist-magicians, the first color photographers, are

hardly alone in pushing the boundaries of one of the world’s
newest art forms. The history of photography has always been a
history of people – artists and inventors who steered the field into
the modern era.

So, below, you’ll find a brief introduction to some of

photography’s most important names. Their discoveries, creations,
ideas, and photographs shape our own pictures to this day, subtly
or not. Although this is just a brief bird’s-eye view, these
nonetheless are people you should know before you step into the
technical side of photography:
Joseph Nicéphore Niépce

 Invention: The first permanent photograph (“View from the

Window at Le Gras,” shown earlier)
 Where: France, 1826
 Impact: Cameras had already existed for centuries before
this, but they had one major flaw: You couldn’t record a
photo with them! They simply projected light onto a
separate surface – one which artists used to create realistic
paintings, but not strictly photographs. Niépce solved this
problem by coating a pewter plate with, essentially, asphalt,
which grew harder when exposed to light. By washing the
plate with lavender oil, he was able to fix the hardened
substance permanently to the plate.
 Quote: “The discovery I have made, and which I
call Heliography, consists in reproducing spontaneously, by
the action of light, with gradations of tints from black to
white, the images received in the camera obscura.” Mic drop.

Louis Daguerre

 Invention: The Daguerreotype (first commercial

photographic material)
 Where: France, 1839
 Impact: Daguerreotypes are images fixed directly to a
heavily polished sheet of silver-plated copper. This invention
is what really made photography a practical reality –
although it was still just an expensive curiosity to many
people at this point. If you’ve never seen daguerreotypes in
person, you might be surprised to know just how sharp they
are.
  Quote: “I have seized the light. I have arrested its flight.”

Alfred Stieglitz

 Genre: Portraiture and documentary

 Where: United States, late 1800s through mid 1900s
 Impact: Alfred Stieglitz was a photographer, but, more
importantly, he was one of the first influential members of
the art community to take photography seriously as a
creative medium. He believed that photographs could
express the artist’s vision just as well as paintings or music –
in other words, that photographers could be artists. Today’s
perception of photography as an art form owes a lot to
Stieglitz.
 Quote: “In photography, there is a reality so subtle that it
becomes more real than reality.”
Dorothea Lange

 Genre: Portrait photography

 Where: United States, 1930s
 Impact: One of the most prominent documentary
photographers of all time, and the photographer behind one
of the most influential images of all time (shown below), is
Dorothea Lange. If you’ve ever seen photos from the Great
Depression, you most likely have seen some of her work. Her
photos shaped the field of documentary photography and
showed the camera’s potential for power more than almost
anyone else in history.
 Quote: “The camera is an instrument that teaches people
how to see without a camera.”

Ansel Adams
  Genre: Landscape photography
 Where: United States
 When: 1920s to 1960s (for most of his work)
 Impact: Ansel Adams is perhaps the most famous
photographer in history, which is remarkable because he
mainly took pictures of landscapes and natural scenes.
(Typically, famous photographers have tended to
photograph people instead.) Ansel Adams helped usher in an
era of realism in landscape photography, and he was an early
champion of the environmentalism and preservation
movements in the United States.
 Quote: “There is nothing worse than a sharp image of a
fuzzy concept.”

What Camera Do You Need for Photography?

Many people today believe that their phone is good enough for
most photography, and they have no need to buy a separate
camera. And you know what? They’re not wrong. For most people
out there, a dedicated camera is overkill.

Phones are better than dedicated cameras for most people’s

needs. They’re quicker and easier to use, not to mention their
seamless integration with social media. It only makes sense to get
a dedicated camera if your phone isn’t good enough for the
photos you want (like photographing sports or low-light
environments) or if you’re specifically interested in photography
as a hobby.

That advice may sound crazy coming from a photographer, but

it’s true. If you have any camera at all, especially a cell phone
camera, you have what you need in order to take great photos.
And if you have a more advanced camera, like a DSLR or
mirrorless camera, what more is there to say? This is the guide for
you – it’s time to learn photography.

At This Point, What Other Camera Gear and Accessories Do

You Need?

Camera. If you buy a dedicated camera (rather than a phone),

pick one with interchangeable lenses so that you can try out
different types of photography more easily. Read reviews, but
don’t obsess over them, because everything available today is
pretty much equally good as its competition. Find a nice deal and
move on.

Lenses. This is where it counts. For everyday photography, start

with a standard zoom lens like a 24-70mm or 18-55mm. For
portrait photography, pick a prime lens (one that doesn’t zoom) at
35mm, 50mm, or 85mm. For sports, go with a telephoto lens. For
macro photography, get a dedicated macro lens. And so on.
Lenses matter more than any other piece of equipment because
they determine what photos you can take in the first place.

Post-processing software. One way or another, you need to edit

your photos. It’s ok to start with software already on your
computer, or software that comes with your camera. But in the
long run, a dedicated program will do a better job. Adobe sells
Lightroom and Photoshop as a bundle for $10/month, or you can
buy standalone software from another company if you prefer;
there are tons of options. Whatever you pick, stick with it for a
while, and you’ll learn it quite well.

Everything else is optional, but can be very helpful:

1. A tripod. A landscape photographer’s best friend. See our
comprehensive tripod article.
2. Bags. Get a shoulder bag for street photography, a rolling
bag for studio photography, a technical hiking backpack for
landscape photography, and so on.
3. Memory cards. Choose something in the 32-64 GB range to
start. Get a fast card (measured in MB/second) if you shoot
bursts of photos, since your camera’s memory will clear
faster.
4. Extra Batteries. Get at least one spare battery to start,
preferably two. Off-brand batteries are usually cheaper,
although they may not last as long or maintain compatibility
with future cameras.
5. Polarizing filter. This is a big one, especially for landscape
photographers. Don’t get a cheap polarizer or it will harm
your image quality. We recommend the B+W Kaesemann
filter (of the same thread size as your lens). See
our polarizing filter article too.
6. Flash. Flashes can be expensive, and you might need to buy
a separate transmitter and receiver if you want to use your
flash off-camera.
7. Better computer monitor. Ideally, you’d get an IPS
monitor for editing photos (which we’ve also written an
article about).
8. Cleaning kit. The top item is a microfiber cloth to keep the
front of your lens clean. Also get a rocket blower to remove
dust from your camera sensor more easily.
9. Other equipment. There are countless photography
accessories available, from remote shutter releases to GPS
 attachments to printers and more. Don’t worry about these
at first; you’ll realize over time if you need one.

The three most important settings are called shutter speed,

aperture, and ISO. All three of them control the brightness of your
photo, although they do so in different ways. In other words, each
brings its own “side effects” to an image. So, it’s a bit of an art to
know exactly how to balance all three for a given photo.

1. Shutter speed: The amount of time your camera sensor is

exposed to the world while taking a picture.
2. Aperture: Represents a “pupil” in your lens that can open
and close to let in different amounts of light.
3. ISO: Technically a bit more complex, but similar to the
sensitivity of film for taking pictures in different lighting
conditions.

https://photographylife.com/what-is-photography

https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/p/photography

https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2
013/jan/10/photography-art-of-our-time

https://showme.co.za/pretoria/lifestyle/photography/photography
-categories-types-of-photography/

http://onelightproject.blogspot.com/2010/02/purpose-of-
photography.html

https://www.britannica.com/technology/photography
HISTORY OF FILMMAKING
The history of film reaches as far back as ancient Greece‘s theatre and dance, which had many of
the same elements in today‘s film world. But technological advances in film have occurred
rapidly over the past 100 years. Starting in the Victorian era, many camera devices, projectors
and film sizes have been developed and mastered, creating the film industry we know today.

From classical Greek plays performed live in ancient amphitheaters and five-cent machines at
carnivals, flashing images that created the illusion of a dancing nude, to our modern digital
technology and special effects, the history of film is a long and successful story. If you‘re an
international student looking to study film in the U.S., chances are in your classes you will learn
all about the zoetrope, the kinetoscope and many other ―scopes‖ and ―tropes,‖ as well as the rich
history of the art of storytelling.

Theatre and dance have been around for thousands of years. Many of the elements of theatre and
dance are the basis of the modern movie-making industry such as scripts, lighting, sound,
costumes, actors and directors. Like today‘s technological inventions, the Greeks had to invent
the perfect amphitheater in order for its large-scale audiences, sometimes 1,400 people, to be
able to hear the play. Mathematicians spend days creating a flawless stage for acoustics.

In the Victorian era, inventions of cinema seemed to spring up rapidly, each one building off
another, creating a monumental era in the history of film. One of the first inventions involving
still pictures which appeared to be moving was the thaumatrope, in 1824. The thaumatrope may
sound high-tech, but it was as trivial as a toy. In fact, it was a toy! The thaumatrope was a disk or
card with images on both sides and strings attached to the side. To operate, one simply twisted
the strings and the two images would blend together to create one.

Less than a decade after the invention of the thaumatrope, Joseph Plateau invented the
fantascope, which was a slotted disk with pictures situated around the perimeter of the disk.
When the disk was spun the pictures appeared to be moving. Shortly after, the zoetrope was
created. It was very similar to the fantascope, except it consisted of a hollow drum with a crank.

Film is synonymous for motion picture, so you can‘t have a movie without a picture! That‘s
where the daguerreotype comes in. The daguerreotype, invented in 1839 by French painter
Louis-Jacques-Mande Daguerre, was the first commercially successful photographic process. It
worked by capturing still images on silvered copper plates. But before the daguerreotype, as
early as 470 BCE, there was the camera obscura. It was a primitive contraption where a box with
a hole in one side allowed light to pass through, striking a surface inside which created an upside
down colored image.

In 1878, Eadweard Muybridge conducted an experiment to determine if a running horse ever had
all four legs lifted off the ground. Taking pictures at one-thousandth of a second, cameras were
arranged alongside the horses track, being tripped by a wire when the horse‘s hooves came in
contact with it. It was a success for film development. Incidentally, Mr. Muybridge was able to
prove that the horse‘s legs did lift off the ground all at once.
All these inventions were tricking the eye into believing that stills were moving. A true motion
picture needed to have split-second pictures on transparent film. Etienne-Jules Marey invented
the chronophotographic gun in 1882, which took 12 frames per second on the same picture. This
was a huge step for cinema and a landmark in the history of film.

Charles Francis Jenkins invented the first patented film projector, called the phantoscope, in the
early 1890s. The Lumiere brothers in France invented the cinematographe around the same time,
which was a portable, hand-held projector. The word cinema was born from this invention and
the brothers showed ten short films on their projector in the world‘s first movie theatre, the Salon
Indien.

For thirty years, the silent era reigned until 1923. Until then narration and dialogue were
presented in intertitles.

In 1903, the ten-minute-long ―The Great Train Robbery,‖ was shown, and it was the first
Western narrative with a plot. Previously, films were just actions of mundane things like a short
dance, a greeting or a kiss.

In the early 1900s, nickelodeons became an escape for the middle class, staying open from
morning to midnight. But they often got a bad reputation for their shows, which involved crimes,
violence and sexual conduct. And so they were transformed into nicer, lavish movie houses that
charged higher admission.

A decade later, the industry decided to override their fears that the American public would not sit
through an hour-long show, and begin releasing longer films such as Dante‘s Inferno, Oliver
Twist and Queen Elizabeth.

In the 1920s, film stars were being made, their face recognized and praised. Also in the 1920s,
sound made its appearance in ―The Jazz Singer,‖ which used the vitaphone system. ―Talkies‖
were the movies of the future and sound-on-film methods were developed including the
movietone, phonofilm and photophone. With the introduction of sound, the Golden Age had
begun.

During the 1940s, a rise of propaganda and patriotic films appeared. ―Woman‘s pictures‖ also
reached their peak during this time.

During the 1950s, television caused many film theatres to close.

In the 1960s, many films were being shot in foreign countries on location and there was an
increase in popularity among foreign films.

The 1970s saw a revival of traits of the Golden Age films. Called the ―post-classical‖ era, films
from this decade were characterized by shady protagonists, endings with a twist and flashbacks.
Adult cinemas also begin to take root. They died out in the 1980s when the VCR allowed home
viewing.
The 1990s saw the success of independent films, such as ―Pulp Fiction.‖ Special effects films
wowed audiences. DVDs replaced VCRs for home viewing media.

In the early 21st century, documentary films and 3D films have become widely popular. IMAX
technology also has been increasingly used. Now we enjoy watching movies in many different
forms, such as on the computer or on a mobile phone. With the inventions of online streaming,
handheld, portable cameras and file sharing, copyright infringement of films has run rampant.

ADDING COLOUR

Colour was first added to black-and-white movies through tinting, toning and stencilling. By
1906, the principles of colour separation were used to produce so-called ‗natural colour‘ moving
images with the British Kinemacolor process, first presented to the public in 1909.

The early Technicolor processes from 1915 onwards were cumbersome and expensive, and
colour was not used more widely until the introduction of its three-colour process in 1932.

ADDING SOUND

The first attempts to add synchronised sound to projected pictures used phonographic cylinders
or discs.

The first feature-length movie incorporating synchronised dialogue, The Jazz Singer (USA,
1927), used the Warner Brothers‘ Vitaphone system, which employed a separate record disc with
each reel of film for the sound.

This system proved unreliable and was soon replaced by an optical, variable density soundtrack
recorded photographically along the edge of the film.

THE ASPECT RATIO

Thomas Edison had used perforated 35mm film in the Kinetoscope, and in 1909 this was adopted
as the industry standard. The picture had a height-to-width relationship—known as the aspect
ratio—of 3:4 or 1:1.33.

With the advent of optical sound, the aspect ratio was adjusted to 1.37:1. Although there were
many experiments with other formats, there were no major changes in screen ratios until the
1950s.

COMPETING WITH TELEVISION

The introduction of television in America prompted a number of technical experiments designed

to maintain public interest in cinema.

In 1952, the Cinerama process, using three projectors and a wide, deeply curved screen together
with multi-track surround sound, was premiered. It gave audiences a sense of greater
involvement and proved extremely popular. However, it was technically cumbersome, and
widescreen cinema did not begin to be extensively used until the introduction of CinemaScope in
1953 and Todd-AO in 1955, both of which used single projectors.

CinemaScope had optically squeezed images on 35mm film which were expanded laterally by
the projector lens to fit the width of the screen; Todd-AO used film 70mm wide. By the end of
the 1950s, the shape of the cinema screen had effectively changed, with aspect ratios of either
1:2.35 or 1:1.66 becoming standard.

Specialist large-screen systems using 70mm film have also been developed. The most successful
of these has been IMAX, which today has more than 1,000 screens worldwide. For many years
IMAX cinemas have showed films specially made in its unique 2D or 3D formats, but they are
increasingly showing versions of popular feature films which have been digitally remastered in
the IMAX format, often with additional scenes or 3D effects.

Stereo sound, which had been experimented with in the 1940s, also became part of the new
widescreen experience.

CINEMA MAKES A COMEBACK

While cinemas had some success in fighting the competition of television, they never regained
the position and influence they once held, and over the next 30 years audiences dwindled. By
1984 cinema attendances in Britain had sunk to one million a week.

Since then, however, that figure has nearly trebled with the growth of out-of-town multiplex
cinemas following the building of the first British multiplex at Milton Keynes in 1985.

Although America still appears to be the most influential film industry, the reality is more
complex. Many films are produced internationally—either made in various countries or financed
by multinational companies that have interests across range of media.

Today, most people see films on television (whether terrestrial or satellite or on video of some
kind) and we are also moving towards a web-based means of delivery.

IN THE PRESENT

In the past 20 years, film production has been profoundly altered by the impact of rapidly
improving digital technology. Though productions may still be shot on film (and even this is
becoming less commonplace) most subsequent processes, such as editing and special effects, are
undertaken on computers before the final images are transferred back to film. The need for this
final transfer is diminishing as more cinemas invest in digital projection which is capable of
producing screen images that rival the sharpness, detail and brightness of traditional film
projection.

In the past few years there has been a revival of interest in 3D features, both animated and live
action, sparked by the availability of digital technology. Whether this will be more than a short-
term phenomenon (as previous attempts at 3D in the 1950s and 1980s had been) remains to be
seen.

HISTORY OF PHILIPPINE CINEMA

The youngest of the Philippine arts, film has evolved to become the most popular of all the art
forms. Introduced only in 1897, films have ranged from silent movies to talkies; black and white
to color. Outpacing its predecessors by gaining public acceptance, from one end of the country to
the other, its viewers come from all walks of life. Nationwide, there are more than 1000 movie
theaters. Early in the 1980s, it was estimated in Metro Manila alone, there were around 2.5
million moviegoers. As an art form, it reflects the culture and the beliefs of the people it caters
to and most times, is the one who shapes their consciousness.

Philippine film as discussed in this paper includes films made by Filipino people exhibited
in this country and possibly in other countries from the 1930s to the 1990s. The films may be
silent pictures or talkies, black and white or color. They also include films such as
documentaries, animation, experimental or alternative films and other types of films.

This paper has three purposes or objectives. It intends, first of all, to provide a
comprehensible background of the art of film in the Philippines. It provides insights on how the
Philippine film has influenced Philippine culture and vice-versa. This is done by documenting
the important events and important films in the area of film for the past ninety years. Second, it
intends to explain the different trends and styles common in the Philippine film. And finally, it
concludes with an analysis on how two important events in history, namely World War II and
Martial Law altered the course of contemporary Philippine film.

However, this paper is limited to films only from the particular time period of the 1930s to
the 1990s. It fails to give a picture of how films were like ever since it started in 1897. This paper
is also severely limited due to the unavailability and the lack of materials that discuss thoroughly
the history of Philippine film. Film materials for those made during the pre-WWII years are
simply non-existent. Data for this paper was gathered from the essays and reviews written by the
artists and the critics themselves. It goes without saying that the resources were tested to the
limits.

CHAPTER 1

I. The 1930s to 1940s

A. Early Philippine Films

Filipinos started making movies in 1919. However, it would be important to know that the
film industry in the Philippines began through the initiative of foreign entrepreneurs. Two Swiss
entrepreneurs introduced film shows in Manila as early as 1897, regaling audiences with
documentary films lips showing recent events and natural calamities in Europe. Not only that
but the arrival of the silent films, along with American colonialism, in 1903 created a movie
market. But these film clips were still novelties. They failed to hold the audiences‘ attention
because of their novelty and the fact that they were about foreigners. When two American
entrepreneurs made a film in 1912 about Jose Rizal‘s execution, the sensation they made it clear
that the Filipino‘s need for material close to their hearts. This heralded the making of the first
Filipino film.

The credit of being the first Filipino to make a film goes to Jose Nepumuceno, whom
historians dub as the ―Father of Philippine Movies‖. Nepumuceno‘s first film was based on a
highly-acclaimed musical play of that day, Dalagang Bukid (Country Maiden) by Hemogenes
Ilagan and Leon Ignacio.

In those early years of filmmaking, enormous capital was needed to keep up with the
Hollywood industry. Despite its weak points, Hollywood provided the Philippine film industry
with examples that the early filmmakers followed. It is not surprising that many of those same
genres set so many years ago still appear in contemporary Philippine films. But it was difficult to
match Hollywood style in those days with the meager capital set aside for the developing film
industry. Ironically, the same people who helped the film industry develop as a form of
expression were the same ones who suppressed this expression.

Early film producers included ―wealthy Spaniards‖, American businessmen and Filipino
landlords and politicians. It is not surprising that…pre-war Philippine movies…were inhibited
from expressing their views that might question the establishment and were encouraged instead
to portray the love and reconciliation between members of different classes…

Starting with Dalagang Bukid, early films dug into traditional theater forms for character
types , twists and turns in the plot, familiar themes and conventions in acting. This set the trend
of Philippine films based entirely on immensely popular dramas or sarswelas . Besides
providing ready materials, this device of using theater pieces ensured an already existing market.
From the komedya of the sarswela, the typical Filipino aksyon movie was to develop. The line
dividing the good and the bad in the komedya was religion with the Christians being the good
and the Moors representing the bad. In present movies, the line that divides the two is now law or
class division. The sinakulo or the passion play was the root of the conventional Filipino
melodrama. The Virgin Mary became the ―all-suffering, all-forgiving Filipino Mother‖ and Jesus
was the ―savior of societies under threat and the redeemer of all those who have gone wrong‖.
Another source of movie themes was Philippine literature. Francisco Baltazar and Jose Rizal,
through the classics for which they were famous, have given the industry situations and character
types that continue to this day to give meat to films both great and mediocre.

Finally, by the 1930s, a few film artists and producers dared to stray from the guidelines and
commented on sociopolitical issues, using contemporary or historical matter. Director, actor,
writer and producer Julian Manansala‘s film Patria Amore (Beloved Country) was almost
suppressed because of its anti-Spanish sentiments. This earned him the honor of being dubbed
the ―Father of the Nationalistic Film‖.
 Its own share of movie audience and acclaim for local movie stars were signs that the movie
industry from 1919 to the 1930s had succeeded. Despite the competition coming from
Hollywood, the film industry thrived and flourished. When the 1930s came to a close, it was
clear that moviegoing had established itself in the Filipino.

B. Wartime Films and the Effect on Philippine Films

The Japanese Occupation introduced a new player to the film industry – the Japanese; and a
new role for film – propaganda :

―The Pacific War brought havoc to the industry in 1941. The Japanese invasion put a halt to
film activity when the invaders commandeered precious film equipment for their own
propaganda needs. The Japanese brought their own films to show to Filipino audiences.‖ The
films the Japanese brought failed to appeal to audiences the same way the Hollywood-made
movies or the locally-made films did. Later on, Japanese propaganda offices hired several local
filmmakers to make propaganda pictures for them. One of these filmmakers was Gerardo de
Leon.

The war years during the first half of the Forties virtually halted filmmaking activities save
for propaganda work that extolled Filipino-Japanese friendship, such as The Dawn of Freedom
made by director Abe Yutaka and associate director Gerardo de Leon…Less propagandistic was
Tatlong Maria (Three Marias), directed in 1944, by Gerardo de Leon and written for the screen
by Tsutomu Sawamura from Jose Esperanza Cruz‘s novel…Despite the destruction and
hardships of the war, the people…found time for entertainment; and when movies were not
being made or imported…they turned to live theater…which provided alternative jobs for
displaced movie folk. The war years may have been the darkest in film history…‖

This period turned out to be quite beneficial to the theater industry. Live theater began to
flourish again as movie stars, directors and technicians returned to the stage. Many found it as a
way to keep them from being forgotten and at the same time a way to earn a living.

In 1945…the film industry was already staggering to its feet. The entire nation had gone
through hell and there were many stories to tell about heroic deeds and dastardly crimes during
the 3 years of Japanese occupation. A Philippine version of the war movie had emerged as a
genre in which were recreated narratives of horror and heroism with soldiers and guerillas as
protagonists…audiences still hungry for new movies and still fired up by the patriotism and
hatred for foreign enemies did not seem to tire of recalling their experiences of war.

Movies such as Garrison 13 (1946), Dugo ng Bayan (The Country‘s Blood, 1946), Walang
Kamatayan (Deathless, 1946), and Guerilyera (1946) , told the people the stories they wanted to
hear: the heroes and the villains of the war. The war, however, had left other traces that were less
obvious than war movies that were distinctly Filipino. As Patronilo BN. Daroy said in his essay
Main Currents in Filipino Cinema: ―World War II left its scars on the Filipino‘s imagination and
heightened his sense of reality…‖
CHAPTER II

II. The 1950s to 1970s

A. The Golden Age of Philippine Films

The 1950s were considered a time of ―rebuilding and growth‖. But remnants from the
preceding decade of the 40s remained in the form of war-induced reality. This is seen is
Lamberto Avellana‘s Anak Dalita (The Ruins, 1956), the stark tragedy of post-WWII survival
set in Intramuros. The decade saw frenetic activity in the film industry which yielded what might
be regarded as the first harvest of distinguished films by Filipinos. Two studios before the war,
namely Sampaguita Pictures and LVN, reestablished themselves. Bouncing back quickly, they
churned out movie after movie to make up for the drought of films caused by the war. Another
studio, Premiere Productions, was earning a reputation for ―the vigor and the freshness‖ of some
of its films. This was the period of the ―Big Four‖ when the industry operated under the studio
system. Each studio (Sampaguita, LVN, Premiere and Lebran) had its own set of stars,
technicians and directors, all lined up for a sequence of movie after movie every year therefore
maintaining a monopoly of the industry. The system assured moviegoers a variety of fare for a
whole year and allowed stars and directors to improve their skills.

Critics now clarify that the 50s may be considered one ―Golden Age‖ for the Filipino film
not because film content had improved but because cinematic techniques achieved an artistic
breakthrough in that decade. This new consciousness was further developed by local and
international awards that were established in that decade.

Awards were first instituted that decade. First, the Manila Times Publishing Co. set up the
Maria Clara Awards. In 1952, the FAMAS (Filipino Academy of Movie Arts and Sciences)
Awards were handed out. More so, Filipino films started garnering awards in international film
festivals. One such honor was bestowed on Manuel Conde‘s immortal movie Genghis Khan
(1952) when it was accepted for screening at the Venice Film Festival. Other honors include
awards for movies like Gerardo de Leon‘s Ifugao (1954) and Lamberto Avellana‘s Anak Dalita.
This established the Philippines as a major filmmaking center in Asia. These awards also had the
effect of finally garnering for Filipino films their share of attention from fellow Filipinos.

B. The Decline of Philippine Film

If the 1950s were an ubiquitous period for film, the decade that followed was a time of
decline. There was ―rampant commercialism and artistic decline‖ as portrayed on the following:

In the 1960s, the foreign films that were raking in a lot of income were action pictures
sensationalizing violence and soft core sex films hitherto banned from Philippine theater screens,
Italian ―spaghetti‖ Westerns, American James Bond-type thrillers, Chinese/Japanese martial arts
films and European sex melodramas. To…get an audience to watch their films, (the independent)
producers had to take their cue from these imports. The result is a plethora of films…giving rise
to such curiosities as Filipino samurai and kung fu masters, Filipino James Bonds and…the
bomba queen.
 The studio systems came under siege from the growing labor movement which resulted in
labor-management conflicts. The first studio to close was Lebran followed by Premiere
Productions. Next came Sampaguita and LVN. The ―Big Four‖ studios were replaced by new
and independent producers who soon made up the rest of the film industry.

The decade also saw the emergence of the youth revolt best represented by the Beatles and
the rock and roll revolution. They embodied the wanting to rebel against adult institutions and
establishments. Certain new film genres were conceived just to cater to this ―revolt‖. Fan
movies such as those of the ―Tita and Pancho‖ and ―Nida and Nestor‖ romantic pairings of the
50s were the forerunners of a new kind of revolution – the ―teen love team‖ revolution. ―Nora
Aunor and Vilma Santos, along with Tirso Cruz III and Eddie Mortiz as their respective screen
sweethearts, were callow performers during the heyday of fan movies. Young audiences made up
of vociferous partisans for ‗Guy and Pip‘ or ‗Vi and Bot‘ were in search of role models who
could take the place of elders the youth revolt had taught them to distrust‖

Another kind of youth revolt came in the form of the child star. Roberta (1951) of
Sampaguita Pictures was the phenomenal example of the drawing power of movies featuring
[these] child stars. In the 60s this seemed to imply rejection of ―adult corruption‖ as exposed by
childhood innocence.

The film genres of the time were direct reflections of the ―disaffection with the status quo‖
at the time. Action movies with Pinoy cowboys and secret agents as the movers of the plots
depicted a ―society ravaged by criminality and corruption‖ . Movies being make-believe worlds
at times connect that make-believe with the social realities. These movies suggest a search for
heroes capable of delivering us from hated bureaucrats, warlords and villains of our society. The
action films of the 1960s brought into the industry ― a new savage rhythm that made earlier
action films seem polite and stage managed.‖ The pacing of the new action films were fast as
the narrative had been pared down to the very minimum of dialogues. And in keeping up with
the Hollywood tradition, the action sequences were even more realistic.

Another film genre that is perhaps also a embodiment of the revolt of the time is the bomba
genre. Probably the most notorious of all, this genre appeared at the close of the decade.
Interestingly, it came at a time when social movement became acknowledged beyond the walls
of campuses and of Manila.

In rallies, demonstrations and other forms of mass action, the national democratic
movement presented its analysis of the problems of Philippine society and posited that only a
social revolution could bring genuine change. The bomba film was a direct challenge to the
conventions and the norms of conduct of status quo, a rejection of authority of institutions in
regulating the ―life urge‖ seen as natural and its free expression ―honest‖ and ―therapeutic‖

Looking beyond the obvious reasons as to the emergence of the bomba film, both as being
an exploitative product of a profit-driven industry and as being a ―stimulant‖, it can be analyzed
as actually being a ―subversive genre‖, playing up to the establishment while rebelling and
undermining support for the institutions.
 Even in the period of decline, genius has a way of showing itself. Several Philippine films
that stood out in this particular era were Gerardo de Leon‘s Noli Me Tangere (Touch me Not,
1961) and El Filibusterismo (Subversion, 1962). Two other films by Gerardo de Leon made
during this period is worth mentioning – Huwag mo Akong Limutin (Never Forget Me , 1960)
and Kadenang Putik (Chain of Mud, 1960), both tales of marital infidelity but told with insight
and cinematic import.

C. Films during Martial Law

In the 60s, the youth clamored for change in the status quo. Being in power, Ferdinand
Marcos answered the youth by placing the nation under martial rule.

In 1972, he sought to contain growing unrest which the youth revolt of the 1960s fueled.
Claiming that all he wanted was to ―save the Republic‖, Marcos retooled the liberal-democratic
political system into an authoritarian government which concentrated power in a dictators hand.
To win the population over, mass media was enlisted in the service of the New Society. Film
was a key component of a society wracked with contradictions within the ruling class and
between the sociopolitical elite and the masses.

In terms of comparisons, the Old Society (or the years before Martial Law) became the
leading symbol for all things bad and repugnant. The New Society was supposed to represent
everything good – a new sense of discipline, uprightness and love of country Accordingly, the
ideology of the New Society was incorporated into local films.

…Marcos and his technocrats sought to regulate filmmaking. The first step was to control
the content of movies by insisting on some form of censorship. One of the first rules
promulgated by the Board of Censors for Motion Pictures (BCMP) stipulated submission of a
finished script prior to the start of filming. When the annual film festival was revived, the
censors blatantly insisted that the ―ideology‖ of the New Society be incorporated into the content
of the entries.

The government tried to control the film industry while keeping it in ―good humor‖ –
necessary so that the government could continue using film as propagandistic vehicles. So
despite the censors, the exploitation of sex and violence onscreen continued to assert itself.
Under martial law, action films depicting shoot outs and sadistic fistfights ( which were as
violent as ever) usually append to the ending an epilogue claiming that the social realities
depicted had been wiped out with the establishment of the New Society. The notorious genre of
sex or bomba films that appeared in the preceding decade were now tagged as ―bold‖ films,
simply meaning that a lot more care was given to the costumes.

Martial Law declared in 1972 clamped down on bomba films as well as political movies
critical of the Marcos administration. But the audience‘s taste for sex and nudity had already
been whetted. Producers cashed in on the new type of bomba, which showed female stars
swimming in their underwear, taking a bath in their camison (chemise), or being chased and
raped in a river, sea, or under a waterfall. Such movies were called the wet look…
 One such movie was the talked-about Ang Pinakamagandang Hayop sa Balat ng Lupa (The
Most Beautiful Animal on the Face of the Earth, 1974) starring former Miss Universe Gloria
Diaz.

However, the less-than-encouraging environment of the 70s gave way to ―the ascendancy of
young directors who entered the industry in the late years of the previous decade…‖ Directors
such as Lino Brocka, best remembered for his Maynila, Sa Mga Kuko ng Liwanag (Manila, In
the Claws of Neon Lights, 1975), Ishmael Bernal, director of the Nora Aunor film Himala
(Miracle, 1982) and Celso Ad. Castillo, whose daring works portrayed revolt, labor unionism,
social ostracism and class division, produced works that left no doubt about their talent in
weaving a tale behind the camera.

Another welcomed result that came from martial rule was the requirement of a script prior
to filming. This was an innovation to a film industry that made a tradition out of improvising a
screenplay. Although compliance with the requirement necessarily meant curtailment of the right
of free expression, the BCMP, in effect caused the film industry to pay attention to the content of
a projected film production in so far as such is printed in a finished screenplay. In doing so,
talents in literature found their way into filmmaking and continue to do so now.

CHAPTER III

III. The 1980s to the present

A. Philippine Films after Marcos

It can be justified that immediately after Marcos escaped to Hawaii, films portraying the
Philippine setting have had a serious bias against the former dictator. And even while he was in
power, the militancy of filmmakers opposing the Martial Law government especially after the
assassination of Ninoy Aquino in 1983, accounts for the defiant stance of a number of films
made in the closing years of the Marcos rule.

Films such as Lino Brocka‘s Bayan Ko: Kapit sa Patalim (My Country: Gripping the
Knife‘s Edge, 1985) were defiant, not in the sense of it being openly stated by in the images of
torture, incarceration, struggle and oppression. Marilou Diaz-Abaya‘s Karnal (1984) depicts this
in a different way in the film‘s plot wherein patricide ends a tyrannical father‘s domination. Mike
de Leon‘s Sister Stella L. (1984), was a typical de Leon treatment of the theme of oppression and
tyranny.

In 1977, an unknown Filipino filmmaker going by the name of Kidlat Tahimik made a film
called Mababangong Bangungot (Perfumed Nightmare). The film won the International Critic‘s
Prize in the Berlin Film Festival that same year. Kidlat Tahimik‘s rise to fame defined the
distance between mainstream cinema and what is now known as independent cinema. Beginning
with Tahimik, independent cinema and films became an accomplished part of Philippine film.

Out of short film festivals sponsored by the University of the Philippines Film Center and
by the Experimental Cinema of the Philippines, young filmmakers have joined Kidlat Tahimik in
the production of movies that, by their refusal to kowtow to the traditions and conventions of
mainstream filmmaking, signify faith in works that try to probe deeper into the human being and
into society. Nick Deocampo‘s Oliver (1983) and Raymond Red‘s Ang Magpakailanman (The
Eternal, 1983) have received attention in festivals abroad.

Filmmakers like Tahimik, Deocampo and Red are examples of what we call ―alternative
filmmakers‖. Alternative or independent filmmakers are products of film schools where students
are exposed to art films without ―the compromises of commercial filmmaking‖.

B. Contemporary Philippine Film

Despite our completion of 100 years of cinema in the Philippines, the same problems plague
us now just as it had when film was still a relatively new art form. The phrase ―poorly made‖ is
fitting to describe the quality of films being churned out by the film industry year by year. There
have been few exceptions to the rule.

Presently, films are primarily made for profit, lacking any qualities to redeem itself. Studies
show that Hollywood films, with its high technology and subject matter, are being preferred over
local films. It is no wonder – for films now are ―too profit-oriented…[with] corrupting morals
and…dubious values…sticking with formulaic films‖

Genres that have been present for the past few decades are being recycled over and over
again with the same stories. The teen love teams of the fan movie are still present with
incarnations of love teams of yesteryears. Now instead of ―Guy and Pip‖ are ―Judy and Wowie‖.
The bomba film is still present, now having grown more pornographic and taboo. The film Tatlo
(1998) comes to mind with its subject matter of threesomes. In Filipino slapstick or komedya,
Dolphy has been replaced by younger stars.

But even if the films of today have not been quite up to par, ―Filipino movies…wields an
influence over the national imagination far more intense that all the others combined.‖

CONCLUSION

The early years of Philippine film, starting from the 1930s, were a time of discovering film
as it was at that time still a new art form. Stories for films came from the theater and popular
literature being, as they were, ―safe‖, with the filmmaker being assured of its appeal.
Nationalistic films were also in vogue despite early restrictions on films being too subversive.

The 1940s and the war brought to Philippine film the consciousness of reality which was
not present in the preceding films. Filmmakers dared to venture into the genre of the war movie.
This was also a ready market especially after the war.

The 1950s were the Golden Years, a time when films matured and became more ―artistic‖.
The studio system, though producing film after film and venturing into every known genre, made
the film industry into a monopoly that prevented the development of independent cinema.
 The 1960s, though a time of positive changes, brought about an artistic decline in films. The
notorious genre of bomba was introduced and from that day forward has been present in the
Philippine film scene ever since.

The 1970s and 1980s were turbulent years, bringing positive and negative changes. From
the decline in the 60s, films in this period now dealt with more serious topics following the chaos
of the Marcos regime. Also, action and sex films developed further introducing more explicit
pictures. These years also brought the arrival of alternative cinema in the Philippines.

Presently, in the 1990s, we are seemingly engaged in a vicious cycle – of genres, plots,
characterization and cinematic styles. We are unconsciously, or rather consciously, imitating,
copying from the much more popular American films. And when we are not copying, we are
reverting back to the same old styles. From the massacre movies of late, the teen-oriented
romantic-comedies and the anatomy-baring sex flicks which are currently so popular, it seems
Philippine cinema is on a down spiral. Still, some films been successes and not only financially.
Diaz-Abaya‘s Rizal (1998), as an example, was a success both commercially and critically.
Hopefully, Philippine cinema in the new millennium would produce films as good and better
than the ones before it.

As a conclusion, here is what Patronilo BN. Daroy had to say about the Philippine film
industry:

Philippine cinema, in short, appears to have reached full circle: it is at the stage of refining
and formulating its own conventions and, in the process, getting in close contact with the ferment
in the other arts and at the same time, the serious critical attention and concern of people with a
broader interest in culture. This is inevitable; as an art form the cinema in the Philippines can no
longer remain isolated from the main current of sensibilities and ideas that shape other artistic
forms, such as literature, painting, the theater, etc. Neither can it fly from the actuality of social
life which, after all, is the source of all artistic expression. I foresee, therefore, a hand towards
more serious cinema; the muckrakers will continue, but they will be exposed for what they are
and will no longer be definitive of the quality of Filipino films.

WHAT IS FILMMAKING?

 Filmmaking (film production) is the process of making a film. The direction or production of films
for the cinema or television. It is a visual storytelling. It involves a number of discrete stages
including an initial story, idea, or commission, through screenwriting, casting, shooting, sound
recording and reproduction, editing, and screening the finished product before an audience that
may result in a film release and exhibition.
 Filmmaking takes place in many places around the world in a range of economic, social, and
political contexts, and using a variety of technologies and cinematic techniques. Typically, it
involves a large number of people, and can take from a few months to several years to
complete.
 Who is a Filmmaker? A Filmmaker is one who takes the onus of a feature film from beginning to
end, and most commonly fulfills the dual role of producer and director (or more).
  5 Stages of Filmmaking: Development Pre-production Production Post-production Distribution
The first stage in which the ideas for the film are created, rights to books/plays are bought etc.,
and the screenplay is written. Financing for the project has to be sought and green lit.
Preparations are made for the shoot, in which cast and film crew are hired, locations are
selected and sets are built. The raw elements for the film are recorded during the film shoot.
The images, sound, and visual effects of the recorded film are edited. The finished film is
distributed and screened in cinemas and released to home video. “Filmmaking is a chance to live
many lifetimes.” - Robert Altman

BASIC FILMMAKING PROCESS

After watching a great movie, few people ever sit back and think about how much work it took
to make. They may check out how much the actors were paid or what kind of budget the film
worked with, but it‘s impossible to know what it truly takes to make a film until you‘ve been
through the process yourself.

Whether you‘re an aspiring filmmaker or just want to get an idea of the movie-making process,
here‘s a very basic breakdown of how a film is made. Think of this as the beginner‘s guide to the
filmmaking process:

Step 1: The Idea

Every movie you‘ve ever seen first started with an idea in someone‘s brain. Although things
change as a project goes on, the story you come up with in the beginning will serve as the
foundation on which everything else will be built. Start thinking about the kind of story you want
your film to tell and all the important story elements involved: plot, characters, conflict, etc.
Our tip: Ideas pop into our heads unexpectedly! Be sure to always carry your phone or writing
equipment to take down any cool ideas that enhance your story.

It‘s also a good idea to create a folder in which you save newspaper and magazine articles,
snippets of overheard dialogue, notes on characters you see on the street, and even dreams. You
may not know what to do with these things now but the day will come when you do.

Step 2: The Script

The script is where you‘ll put down the story, setting, and dialogue in linear form. This important
tool will be used by the rest of the team to know what‘s going to happen in the film. You‘ll also
be using your own script as reference throughout the process as well since you may need to
refresh yourself on certain actions, dialogue lines, and more.

Our tip: Don‘t be afraid to make changes to the script even after you think it‘s ready. More often
than not, better ideas will come to you well after this stage in the filmmaking process.

And don‘t be afraid to let your actors improvise, whether it‘s in rehearsal or on the set. You may
be surprised at what your actors are able to imagine from their character‘s point of view. This is
especially true for filmmakers who may not be great with writing dialogue.

Step 3: The Storyboards

A storyboard is a sequence of drawings that represent the shots you plan to film. We highly
recommend this process because it helps you visualize each scene and decide on things
like camera angles, shot sizes, etc. You‘ll discover your storyboard‘s true value when it helps
communicate what you‘re trying to go for to other people on the set.

And for those of you who think, ―I can‘t draw,‖ photographing your storyboards can be a quick
solution. Your camera phone works fine for this. Just take a couple of friends to your location
and tell them, ―You stand here, you stand there,‖ and take pictures. Take lots of pictures. From
lots of different vantage points. Then select the ones you like best and there‘s your storyboard.
Doing this has the added advantage of showing you what‘s really possible. Because we often
draw storyboards, then discover to our disappointment, that we‘d have to demolish-+ a wall to
get the perspective that we‘ve imagined.

Step 4: The Cast and Crew

Assembling your team can be both exciting and nerve-wracking. We recommend you take as
much time as needed to find the right people for your film. For crew members, be sure to
consider their past work and experience, and request showreels or any examples if available. You
should also hold auditions to find the best actors and actresses for your roles.

Our tip: Don‘t feel obligated to include friends and family in your project. This is your film,
which means choosing the best people for the job. Hopefully your acquaintances are professional
enough to accept when you don‘t think they‘re a fit for your project.

Step 5: The Locations

You may need to construct sets for a setting you‘d like to have. But for scenes where an actual
location will do, you‘ll need to do some scouting to find the best spots. Take a camera with you
and do as much traveling as possible, snapping shots of places you think will serve as the perfect
setting for particular scenes.

Our tip: Always consider the space required by the cast and crew. Don‘t choose a cramped,
narrow space where only the actors will fit well and not the cameras, lights, etc.

Step 6: The Filming

It all comes down to this. To prepare, be sure to have a shoot script ready along with an
organized schedule of what will be filmed when. Give yourself plenty of time to shoot scenes so
that you‘re never rushed and can accommodate for changes or problems. It‘s common for a scene
that will last one minute in the final cut to require more than five hours to film.

Our tip: If time permits, try filming the same scenes from new angles. This way, you‘ll have
more footage to work with that can keep your viewers engaged.

Step 7: The Post-Production

If you thought filming took time, you were wrong. Post-production is when you edit all your
footage to create a rough cut of the film. Once done with the rough cut, you‘ll begin adding
things like sound effects, music, visual effects, and color correction. This process will require the
use of editing software — if you‘re not confident, feel free to find/hire an experienced editor.

Our tip: Before you polish up your rough cut, show it to people whose opinions you can trust.
It‘s better that you find out what isn‘t working now rather than when your audience is watching
the final version.

Main Film Genres

Genre Types Genre Descriptions

(represented by icons)

Select an icon or film genre category below, read about the development and history of the
genre, and view chronological lists of selected, representative greatest films for each one
(with links to detailed descriptions of individual films).
 Action films usually include high energy, big-budget
physical stunts and chases, possibly with rescues, battles,
fights, escapes, destructive crises (floods, explosions, natural
disasters, fires, etc.), non-stop motion, spectacular rhythm and
pacing, and adventurous, often two-dimensional 'good-guy'
heroes (or recently, heroines) battling 'bad guys' - all designed
for pure audience escapism. Includes the James Bond 'fantasy'
spy/espionage series, martial arts films, video-game films, so-
called 'blaxploitation' films, and some superhero films.
(See Superheroes on Film: History.) A major sub-genre is
the disaster film. See also Greatest Disaster and Crowd Film
Scenes and Greatest Classic Chase Scenes in Films.

Adventure films are usually exciting stories, with new

experiences or exotic locales, very similar to or often
paired with the action film genre. They can include traditional
swashbucklers or pirate films, serialized films, and historical
spectacles (similar to the epics film genre), searches or
expeditions for lost continents, "jungle" and "desert" epics,
treasure hunts, disaster films, or searches for the unknown.

Comedies are light-hearted plots consistently and

deliberately designed to amuse and provoke laughter (with
one-liners, jokes, etc.) by exaggerating the situation, the
language, action, relationships and characters. This section
describes various forms of comedy through cinematic history,
including slapstick, screwball, spoofs and parodies, romantic
comedies, black comedy (dark satirical comedy), and more. See
this site's Funniest Film Moments and Scenes collection -
illustrated, also Premiere Magazine's 50 Greatest Comedies of All
Time, and WGA's 101 Funniest Screenplays of All Time.
 Crime (gangster) films are developed around the sinister
actions of criminals or mobsters, particularly bankrobbers,
underworld figures, or ruthless hoodlums who operate outside
the law, stealing and murdering their way through life. The
criminals or gangsters are often counteracted by a detective-
protagonist with a who-dun-it plot. Hard-boiled detective films
reached their peak during the 40s and 50s (classic film noir),
although have continued to the present day. Therefore, crime
and gangster films are often categorized as film
noir or detective-mystery films, and sometimes as
courtroom/crime legal thrillers - because of underlying
similarities between these cinematic forms. This category also
includes various 'serial killer' films.

Dramas are serious, plot-driven presentations, portraying

realistic characters, settings, life situations, and stories
involving intense character development and interaction.
Usually, they are not focused on special-effects, comedy, or
action, Dramatic films are probably the largest film genre, with
many subsets. See also melodramas, epics (historical
dramas), courtroom dramas, or romantic genres.
Dramatic biographical films (or "biopics") are a major sub-genre,
as are 'adult' films (with mature subject content).

Epics include costume dramas,

historical dramas, war films, medieval romps, or 'period
pictures' that often cover a large expanse of time set against a
vast, panoramic backdrop. Epics often share elements of the
elaborate adventure films genre. Epics take an historical or
imagined event, mythic, legendary, or heroic figure, and add an
extravagant setting or period, lavish costumes, and accompany
everything with grandeur and spectacle, dramatic scope, high
production values, and a sweeping musical score. Epics are often
a more spectacular, lavish version of a biopic film. Some 'sword
and sandal' films (Biblical epics or films occuring during
antiquity) qualify as a sub-genre.
 Horror films are designed to frighten and to invoke our
hidden worst fears, often in a terrifying, shocking finale,
while captivating and entertaining us at the same time in a
cathartic experience. Horror films feature a wide range of styles,
from the earliest silent Nosferatu classic, to today's CGI
monsters and deranged humans. They are often combined
with science fiction when the menace or monster is related to a
corruption of technology, or when Earth is threatened by aliens.
The fantasy and supernatural film genres are not always
synonymous with the horror genre. There are many sub-genres
of horror: slasher, splatter, psychological, survival, teen terror,
'found footage,' serial killers, paranormal/occult, zombies,
Satanic, monsters, Dracula, Frankenstein, etc. See this
site's Scariest Film Moments and Scenes collection - illustrated.

Musical/dance films are cinematic forms that emphasize

full-scale scores or song and dance routines in a significant
way (usually with a musical or dance performance integrated as
part of the film narrative), or they are films that are centered on
combinations of music, dance, song or choreography. Major
subgenres include the musical comedy or the concert film. See
this site's Greatest Musical Song/Dance Movie Moments and
Scenes collection - illustrated.

Sci-fi films are often quasi-scientific, visionary and

imaginative - complete with heroes, aliens, distant planets,
impossible quests, improbable settings, fantastic places, great
dark and shadowy villains, futuristic technology, unknown and
unknowable forces, and extraordinary monsters ('things or
creatures from space'), either created by mad scientists or by
nuclear havoc. They are sometimes an offshoot of the more
mystical fantasy films (or superhero films), or they share some
similarities with action/adventure films. Science fiction often
expresses the potential of technology to destroy humankind and
easily overlaps with horror films, particularly when technology or
alien life forms become malevolent, as in the "Atomic Age" of
sci-fi films in the 1950s. Science-Fiction sub-categories abound:
apocalyptic or dystopic, space-opera, futuristic noirs,
speculative, etc.
 War (and anti-war) films acknowledge the horror and
heartbreak of war, letting the actual combat fighting
(against nations or humankind) on land, sea, or in the air provide
the primary plot or background for the action of the film. War
films are often paired with other genres, such
as action, adventure, drama, romance, comedy (black), suspense,
and even historical epics and westerns, and they often take a
denunciatory approach toward warfare. They may include POW
tales, stories of military operations, and training. See this
site's Greatest War Movies (in multiple parts).

Westerns are the major defining genre of the American

film industry - a eulogy to the early days of the expansive
American frontier. They are one of the oldest, most enduring
genres with very recognizable plots, elements, and characters
(six-guns, horses, dusty towns and trails, cowboys, Indians, etc.).
They have evolved over time, however, and have often been re-
defined, re-invented and expanded, dismissed, re-discovered,
and spoofed. Variations have included Italian 'spaghetti'
westerns, epic westerns, comic westerns, westerns with outlaws
or marshals as the main characters, revenge westerns,
and revisionist westerns.

In the lists of recommended genre films, those that have been selected as
the 100 Greatest Films are marked with a .

Genre Categories:
They are broad enough to accommodate practically any film ever made, although film
categories can never be precise. By isolating the various elements in a film and
categorizing them in genres, it is possible to easily evaluate a film within its genre and
allow for meaningful comparisons and some judgments on greatness. Films
were not really subjected to genre analysis by film historians until the 1970s. All films
have at least one major genre, although there are a number of films that are considered
crossbreeds or hybrids with three or four overlapping genre (or sub-genre) types that
identify them.

The Auteur System can be contrasted to the genre system, in which films are rated
on the basis of the expression of one person, usually the director, because his/her
indelible style, authoring vision or 'signature' dictates the personality, look, and feel of
the film. Certain directors (and actors) are known for certain types of films, for
example, Woody Allen and comedy, the Arthur Freed unit with musicals, Alfred
Hitchcock for suspense and thrillers, John Ford and John Wayne with westerns, or
Errol Flynn for classic swashbuckler adventure films.

Film Sub-Genres: Listed below are some of the most

common and identifiable film sub-genre categories, with
descriptions of each type or category.

Sub-Genres are more specific sub-classes of the larger

category of main film genres, with their own distinctive subject matter,
style, formulas, and iconography. Some of them are prominent sub-
genres, such as: biopics, 'chick' flicks, courtroom dramas,
detective/mystery films, disaster films, fantasy films, film noir, 'guy'
films, melodramas (or 'weepers'), road films, romances, superhero films,
sports films, supernatural films, thrillers/suspense, and zombie-horror
films. See also film sub-genres types (and hybrids) - films that combine
many different film elements (i.e., action-comedies, zombie-disaster-
thriller, martial arts/kung-fu or video-game action, musical drama, etc.).

If you're interested in the chronological history of film by decade - visit

the section on Film History or the multi-part section on Milestones in
Film History.

Film Sub-Genres

Sub-Genre Types Sub-Genre Descriptions

(represented by icons)

Select an icon or sub-genre category below, read about the development and
history of the sub-genre, and view chronological lists of selected, representative
greatest films for each one (with links to detailed descriptions of individual films).
 'Biopics' is a term derived from the
combination of the words "biography" and
"pictures." They are a sub-genre of the
larger drama and epic film genres, and although
they reached a hey-day of popularity in the 1930s,
they are still prominent to this day. These films
depict the life of an important historical personage
(or group) from the past or present era. Biopics
cross many genre types, since these films might
showcase a western outlaw, a criminal, a musical
composer, a religious figure, a war-time hero, an
entertainer, an artist, an inventor or doctor, a
politician or President, or an adventurer.

Often considered an all-encompassing sub-

genre, 'chick' flicks or gal films (slightly
derisive terms) mostly include formulated
romantic comedies (with mis-matched lovers or
female relationships), melodramatic
tearjerkers and gal-pal films, movies about family
crises and emotional carthasis, some traditional
'weepies' and fantasy-action adventures,
sometimes with foul-mouthed and empowered
females, and female bonding situations involving
families, mothers, daughters, children, women, and
women's issues. These films are often told from
the female P-O-V, and star a female protagonist or
heroine. This type of film became very prominent
in the mid-80s and into the 90s. See also O
Magazine's 50 Greatest Chick Flicks. Their
counterpart films for males are termed 'guy'
films (see below). See also this site's compilation
of Greatest Tearjerker Films, Moments and Scenes.
 One of the best subject areas for dramatic
films (or sometimes crime films) are
suspenseful, law-related courtroom trials,
which pit lawyers against each other, and set up
a tense one-on-one conflict between a
prosecutor and a defendant. Sometimes, the
protagonists are a "little" guy (an individual)
against a "big" guy (or corporation), or the
more abstract "good" vs. "evil," or they often
involve wider issues, such as race, sex, capital
punishment (life and death), and morality. And
of course, courtroom dramas usually contain
some of the most fascinating thematic elements
in film -- murder, betrayal, deception, perjury
and sex. They often feature unexpected twists
and surprise testimony, unusual motives, moral
dilemmas, crusading lawyers and wrongly-
accused victims. AFI defined the courtroom
drama as "a genre of film in which a system of
justice plays a critical role in the film's
narrative." See this site's special feature
highlighting the Greatest Courtroom Dramas.

Detective-mystery films are usually

considered a sub-type or sub-
genre of crime/gangster films (or film noir),
or suspense or thriller films that focus on the
unsolved crime (usually the murder or
disappearance of one or more of the characters, or
a theft), and on the central character - the hard-
boiled detective-hero, as he/she meets various
adventures and challenges in the cold and
methodical pursuit of the criminal or the solution
to the crime.

Disaster films, a sub-genre of action films, hit

their peak in the decade of the 1970s. Big-
budget disaster films provided all-star casts and
interlocking, Grand Hotel-type stories, with
suspenseful action and impending crises (man-
made or natural) in locales such as aboard
imperiled airliners, trains, dirigibles, sinking or
wrecked ocean-liners, or in towering burning
skyscrapers, crowded stadiums or earthquake
zones. Often noted for their visual and special
effects, but not their acting performances.
See Greatest Disaster Film Scenes also.

Fantasy films, usually considered a sub-genre,

are most likely to overlap with the film
genres of science fiction and horror, although they
are distinct. Fantasies take the audience to dark
netherworld places (or another dimension) with
mythical creatures, where events are unlikely to
occur in real life - they transcend the bounds of
human possibility and physical laws. They
sometimes take the form of fairy tales that often
have elements of magic, myth, wonder, folklore
and the extraordinary. Fantasy films can
assume epic proportions (multi-episodic), usually
when based on ancient Greek writings or more
contemporary works. Heroic fantasies follow a
hero-character who overcomes various obstacles
on a quest. Sword-and sorcery fantasies are
another sub-type. One of the major categories
of fantasy-action films are the super-hero movies,
based quite often on an original comic-strip or
comic book character. They may appeal to both
children and adults, depending upon the particular
film.

Film noir (meaning 'black film') is a distinct

branch of the crime/gangster sagas from the
1930s. Strictly speaking, film noir is not a genre,
but rather the mood, style or tone of various
American films that evolved in the 1940s, and
lasted in a classic period until about 1960.
However, film noir has not been exclusively
confined to this era, and has re-occurred in cyclical
form in other years in various neo-noirs. Noirs are
usually black and white films with primary moods
of melancholy, alienation, bleakness,
disillusionment, disenchantment, pessimism,
ambiguity, moral corruption, evil, guilt and
paranoia. And they often feature a cynical, loner
hero (anti-hero) and femme fatale, in a seedy big
city. See this site's special tribute to Greatest
Femmes Fatales in Classic Film Noir.

Composed of macho films that are often

packed with sophomoric humor, action,
cartoon violence, competition, mean-spirited
putdowns and gratuitous nudity and sex. Gal films
or 'chick' flicks are their counterpart for females.
This category of film is highly subject to opinion,
although there are many classic, testosterone-
laden 'guy' films that most viewers would agree
upon, as shown in this site's Greatest 'Guy' Movies
of All-Time (illustrated). See also the "100 Greatest
Guy Movies Ever Made" by Maxim Magazine
compiled in 1998 or Men's Journal's 50 Best Guy
Movies of All Time list compiled in 2003.

Melodramas are a sub-type of drama films,

characterized by a plot to appeal to the
emotions of the audience. Often, film studies
criticism used the term 'melodrama' pejoratively to
connote an unrealistic, pathos-filled tales of
romance or domestic situations with stereotypical
characters that would directly appeal to feminine
audiences ("weepies" or "woman's films"). See the
post-modern version of the "woman's film" - gal
films or 'chick' flicks. See also this site's extensive
compilation (illustrated) of Greatest Tearjerker
Films, Moments and Scenes.
 Road films have been a staple of American
films from the very start, and have ranged in
genres from westerns, comedies, gangster/crime
films, dramas, and action-adventure films. One
thing they all have in common: an episodic journey
on the open road (or undiscovered trail), to search
for escape or to engage in a quest for some kind of
goal -- either a distinct destination, or the
attainment of love, freedom, mobility, redemption,
the finding or rediscovering of onself, or coming-of-
age (psychologically or spiritually).

A sub-genre for the most part, this category

shares some features with romantic dramas,
romantic comedies ("rom-coms"),
and sexual/erotic films, and have often been
derogatorily called chick flicks (see above). These
are love stories, or affairs of the heart that center
on passion, emotion, and the romantic,
affectionate involvement of the main characters
(usually a leading man and lady), and the journey
that their love takes through courtship or marriage.
Romance films make the love story the main plot
focus. See Greatest and Most Memorable Film
Kisses Scenes.

Films that have a sports setting (football or

baseball stadium, arena, or the Olympics,
etc.), event (the 'big game,' 'fight,' 'race,' or
'competition'), and/or athlete (boxer, racer, surfer,
etc.) that are central and predominant in the story.
Sports films may be fictional or non-fictional; and
they are a hybrid sub-genre category, although
they are often dramas or comedy films, and
occasionally documentaries or biopics.
 This category is an off-shoot of fantasy-
action films, based quite often on an original
comic-strip or comic book character. Fictional
super-heroes with extraordinary powers, derived
from 1930s-1960s comic books and other more
recent sources, have been the subjects of
numerous fantasy and sci-fi films (both live-action
and animated, and serialized and feature-length)
with action-oriented heroes and heroines.
Superheroes are repeatedly chosen to be the
subjects of big-budget blockbuster films, with
glossy production values, expensive CGI special
effects and sets, make-up and costuming. Usually,
a simplistic plot line involves the superhero's
struggle against an arch-nemesis or super-villain
(usually interested in world domination, the
acquisition of riches, or the wreaking of
vengeance).

Supernatural films, a sub-genre category,

may be combined with other genres,
including comedy, sci-fi, fantasy or horror. They
have themes including gods or goddesses, ghosts,
apparitions, spirits, miracles, and other similar
ideas or depictions of extraordinary phenomena.
Interestingly however, until recently, supernatural
films were usually presented in a comical,
whimsical, or a romantic fashion, and were not
designed to frighten the audience. There are also
many hybrids that have combinations of fear,
fantasy, horror, romance, and comedy.

Thrillers are often hybrids with other

genres - there are action-
thrillers, crime-caper thrillers, western-
thrillers, film-noir thrillers, even romantic comedy-
thrillers. Another closely-related genre is
the horror film genre. Thriller and suspense films
are virtually synonymous and interchangeable
categorizations. They are types of films known to
 promote intense excitement, suspense, a high level
of anticipation, ultra-heightened expectation,
uncertainty, anxiety, and nerve-wracking tension.
The acclaimed Master of Suspense is Alfred
Hitchcock. Spy films may be considered a type of
thriller/suspense film.

Zombie Films had their origins in the earliest

films within the horror genre that were about
the 'raising of the dead,' such as
the Frankenstein films, and the early German
expressionistic film The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari
(1920, Germ.). The zombie film craze started with
the Haitian concept of voudou, where a corpse was
reanimated and magically controlled by a witch-
like bokor (a type of priest, sorcerer, magician, or
practitioner). The first feature-length walking-dead
film was director Victor Halperin's cheaply-
made White Zombie (1932). It was the decade of
the 1960s that ushered in a revolutionary new
horror subgenre of zombie pics, from the "Master
of the Zombie Film" himself, George A. Romero.
The influence of Romero on future zombie films
has been phenomenal, and many zombie films in
their wake have been imaginative derivatives or
mutated examples.

Film Sub-Genres Types (and Hybrids): These are some of the most
common and identifiable film sub-genres types (and hybrids),
categorized by each major genre. Also view various Main Genres, Sub-
Genres, or Other Major Film Categories.

If you're interested in the chronological history of film by decade - visit

the section on Film History or the multi-part section on Milestones in
Film History.
 Film Sub-Genres Types (and Hybrids)

Main Film Genres Film Sub-Genres Types (and Hybrids)

(represented by icons) (a vast sampling)

Select any of the links below (or click on the graphics), and read about the
development and history of the genre or sub-genre, and view chronological lists of
selected, representative greatest films for each one (with links to detailed
descriptions of individual films).

Action or Adventure Comedy Literature/Folklore

Action/Adventure Drama Adventure Heroes
Alien Invasion Martial Arts Action
Animal (or Kung-Fu)
Man or Woman-In-
Biker
Peril
Blaxploitation
Man vs. Nature
Blockbusters Mountain
Buddy Period Action Films
Buddy Cops (or Odd Couple) Political Conspiracies,
Caper Thrillers
Chase Films or Thrillers Poliziotteschi (Italian)
Comic-Book Action Prison
Confined Space Action
Psychological Thriller
Quest
Conspiracy Thriller (aka
Races Against Time
Paranoid Thriller) Rape and Revenge
Cop Action Films
Costume Adventures Road
Crime Films Romantic Adventures
Desert Epics Sci-Fi
Disaster or Doomsday - Action/Adventure
See Greatest Disaster Film Samurai
Sea Adventures
Scenes
Searches/Expeditions
Epic Adventure Films for Lost Continents
Erotic Thrillers Serialized films
Escape Space Adventures
Espionage Sports - Action
Exploitation (i.e., Spy
Nunsploitation, Straight Action/
Naziploitation, Conflict
Super-Heroes
Family-oriented Adventure Surfing or Surf Films
Fantasy Adventure Survival
Futuristic Swashbuckler
Girls With Guns Sword and Sorcery (or
"Sword and Sandal")
Guy Films
(Action) Suspense-
Heist - Caper Films
Thrillers
Heroic Bloodshed Films Techno-Thrillers
Historical Spectacles Treasure Hunts
Hong Kong Undercover
James Bond Series Video Game Movies
Jungle and Safari Epics War Adventure
Women in Prison

Absurd Parenthood Comedies

Action Comedies Parody
Anarchic Comedies Political Comedies
Animals Populist
Black Comedies (Dark Pre-Teen Comedies
Humor) Re-Marriage Comedies
British Humor Road
Buddy Romantic Comedies (or
Classic Comedies "Rom-Coms")
Clown Satire
Comedy Thrillers School Days
Comic Criminals Screwball Comedies
Coming of Age Sex Comedies
Conceptual Shakespearean
Crime/Caper Comedies Slacker
'Dumb' Comedies Slapstick
Fairy Tale Social-Class Comedies
Family Comedies Sophisticated Comedies
Farce Spoofs
Fish-out-of-water Comedies Sports Comedies
Gross-out Comedies Stand-Up
Horror Comedies Stoner Comedies
Lampoon Supernatural Comedies
Mafia Comedies Teen/Teen Sex
"Meet-Cute" Screwball or Comedies
Romantic Comedies Urban Comedies
Military Comedies War Comedies
Mock-umentary (Fake Western Comedies
Documentary) Zombie Comedies
Musical Comedies

'Bad Girl' Movies Mafia, Organized Crime,

Blaxploitation Mob Films
Buddy Cop Mysteries
Caper Stories Neo-Noir
Cops & Robbers Outlaw Biker Films
Courtroom Drama Police/Detective
Crime Comedy or Drama Post-Noir
Detective/Mysteries Procedurals
Espionage Prison
Femme Fatales Private-Eye
Film Noir Serial Killer
Gangs Suspense-Thrillers
Gangster Trial Films
Hard-boiled Detective True Crime
Heist Vice Films
Hood Films Victim
Juvenile Delinquency Who-dun-its
Law and Order (or Legal) Women's Prison Films
Lovers on the Run Road
Films

Any genre or sub-genre may

be considered a "Cult Film"
Adaptations, Based upon Literary Adaptation
True Stories Love
Addiction and/or Alcoholism Marital Drama
Adventure Drama Medical
Adult Melodramas ("Women's
African-American Pictures," Tearjerkers,
Americana or "Weepies")
Autobiographies/Biographies Message Movie
Biopics (Biographical) Musical Drama
British Empire Newspaper
Buddy Film Nostalgia
"Chick" Flicks or "Guy-Cry" Odd Couple
Films Period Film
Childhood Dramas Police Drama
Christmas Films POW Drama
Coming-of-Age Presidential Politics or
Costume Dramas Political Dramas
Courtroom Dramas Prison Drama
Crime Dramas Propaganda
Dance Prostitution
Diary Films Psychological Drama
Disease/Disability Race Relations, Inter-
Disaster racial Themes
Docu-dramas Religious
Ensemble Resistance
Erotic Drama Reunion
Espionage Road Movie
Ethnic Family Saga Romantic Dramas
Euro-Spy Films Rural Drama
"Fallen" Women Sexual/Erotic (Steamy
Fantasy Drama Romantic Dramas)
Feminist Shakespearean
Film a Clef Showbiz Dramas
Gay and Lesbian Slice of Life
Generation Gap Soap Opera
Hagiographies (Religious Social Problem Film,
Figures) Social Commentaries
Heavenly Drama Small-town Life
High School Sports Dramas or
Holiday Film Biopics
Holocaust Supernatural drama
Hood Films Teen (or Youth) Films
Inspirational Tragedy
Investigative Reporting True Crime Drama
Legal/Courtroom Urban Drama
Life Story War-Military Dramas
Women's Friendship
Youth Culture

Adventure Epics Literary Adaptation

Alternate History (What Medieval (Dark Ages)
if...?) 'Period Pictures'
Biblical Religious
British Empire Roman Empire
Costume Epics Romantic Epic
Dark Ages Sword and Sandal
Greek Myth War or Westerns (Epic)
Hagiographies
Historical or Biographical
Epics (Biopics)
Indian History

B-Movie Horror Older-Woman-In-Peril

Cannibalism or Cannibal Films ('Psycho-Biddy',
Films aka 'Hag Horror' or
Classic Horror 'Hagsploitation')
Costume Horror Paranormal
Creature Features Post-Apocalyptic (or
Demons or Demonic Apocalyptic) Horror
Possession Psychic Powers
Dracula Psychological Horror
Erotic Reincarnation
"Found Footage" Sadistic Horror
Frankenstein, other Mad Satanic Stories
Scientists Sci-Fi Horror
Ghosts Serial Killers
Giallo (European, Italian Sex Horror
specifically) Slashers or "Splatter"
Gore Films
Gothic Supernatural Horror
Haunted House, other Survival Horror
Hauntings Teen Terror ("Teen
Halloween Screams")
Horror Comedy (Humorous) Terror
H.P. Lovecraftian Vampires
Macabre Witchcraft
Man-Made Horrors Wolves, Werewolves
Monsters Zombies
Natural Horror
Occult

Animated Fantasy Musical

Backstage Musicals Film-Opera
Ballet Folk Musicals
Beach Party Films Hip-Hop Films
Musical Biographies Operettas
Broadway Show Musicals Rock-umentary
Comedy Musicals Romantic Musicals
Concert Films Show-Biz Comedy
Dance Films Stage Musicals
Dramatic Musicals Western Musicals
Fairy-tale Musicals

Action or Adventure Sci-Fi Near Future

Alien Invasion Other Dimensions
Aliens, Extra-Terrestrial Outer Space
Encounters, Space Invaders Parallel (or Alternate)
Anime Universe
AI (Artificial Intelligence) Post-Apocalyptic (or
Atomic Age Apocalyptic)
Classic Sci-Fi Pre-historic
Creature Films Psychological Sci-Fi
Disaster - See also Greatest Pulp
Disaster Film Scenes Punk Sci-Fi (i.e., Steam
Dystopic or Dystopia Punk, Nano Punk, Atom
End of World (Apocalyptic) Punk, Cyber Punk, etc.)
Exploration Religious or Theological
Fairy Tales Robots, Cyborgs and
Fantasy Films Androids
50's Sci-Fi Sci-Fi Comedies
"First Contact" Sci-Fi Graphic Novels
Futuristic (or Future Noir) or Sci-Fi Horror
Visionary Sci-Fi Thrillers
Galactic Empire Space Opera
Lost Worlds Space or Sci-Fi
Mad Scientists Westerns
Militaristic Speculative
Monsters and Mutants Star Trek
Mythic Fables or Mythology Super-Hero Films (e.g.,
Natural Horror Superman and Others)
Supernatural
Tech-Noir
Time or Space Travel
Virtual Reality

Action Combat Prisoner of War

Aerial Combat, Aviation (POW)/Escape
Afghanistan-Iraq Conflict Propaganda
Anti-War Resistance
Civil War Revolutionary War
Combat War-Spy
Escape Submarine
Gulf War Vietnam War
Historical War Adventure
Korean War War Dramas
Military War Epic
Military Training and War Romance
Operations World War I
Military Comedy World War II

Animal Military
B-Western Modern (or
Biographies Contemporary) Western
Cattle Drive Musical Western
Cavalry Outlaws
Comedy Westerns Post-Apocalyptic
Epic Westerns Westerns
Euro-Westerns Psychological Westerns
Frontier Revenge Westerns
Gunfighters Revisionist
Historical Road-Trail Journeys
 Hybrid Westerns (with Romantic Westerns
horror, noir, road movie, Science-Fiction
martial arts, etc.) Westerns
Indian War or Indian Shoot-outs
Westerns "Singing Cowboy"
'Issue' Westerns Westerns
Marshal Westerns Space Westerns
'Spaghetti' Westerns
Spoof Westerns
Traditional

http://www.aenet.org/family/filmhistory.htm

https://www.slideshare.net/SimplyInfo9/what-is-filmmaking-5-stages-of-filmmaking-who-is-a-
filmmaker-simplyinfonet-73199198

https://www.nyfa.edu/student-resources/the-beginners-guide-to-the-filmmaking-process/

https://www.internationalstudent.com/study-film/history-of-film/

https://blog.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk/very-short-history-of-cinema/

https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html

https://pcci.com.ph/Courses/DigitalVideo/Film-101-Introduction-to-Filmmaking.html
What is Animation?
Animation comes from the Latin words ―anima,‖ which means ―life,‖ and ―animare‖ which
means ―to breathe life into‖ Animation consists of still images (called ―frames‖) with slight
differences between them. When viewed together in a sequence, they give the illusion of motion
– like a flipbook.

Animation is the process of designing, drawing, making layouts and preparation of photographic
sequences which are integrated in the multimedia and gaming products. Animation involves the
exploitation and management of still images to generate the illusion of movement. A person who
creates animations is called animator. He / she use various computer technologies to capture the
still images and then to animate these in desired sequence.

Multimedia is the term used to represent combination of visual and audio materials gathered
from various resources and then added into one single combination. A multimedia product can
be sets of texts, graphic arts, sounds, animations and videos. Precisely, term multimedia is used
to refer visual and audio materials into a single common presentation which can be played in a
computer including CD ROM or digital video, internet or web technology, streaming audio or
video and data projection system etc.

Modern entertainment industry i.e. film and television has gained new heights because of
advances in animation, graphics and multimedia. Television advertisements, cartoons serials,
presentation and model designs - all use animation and multimedia techniques.

People who make animations are called animators. Animators are artists who specialize in the
creation of animation. Walt Disney was an animator who became very famous for his cartoons
about Mortimer (Mickey) Mouse.

Animations can be created in many forms including hand or computer drawn animations, or
with computer software and media. Many devices support animation including iPads, iPhones,
tablets, chromebooks and computers. There are many types of animations from a flip
book, motion picture film, video tape, or digital media, including formats such as animated
GIF, Flash animation or digital video.

When thinking about Animation projects, what first comes to mind? Movies and cartoon shows
are what people tend to think of first, as they’re the most mainstream. Animation also
encompasses:

 Video Games/Interactive media

 Reconstructing events (for courtroom, education or television)
 Education – Help explain difficult concepts in a visual way, such as medicine or science.
 Internet memes/Animated Gifs
 Commercials/Infomercials
 Websites/Splash Pages
HISTORY OF ANIMATION
Although the idea of sequential art dates back thousands of years—more, depending on your
interpretation of cave paintings—animation as we know it was only made possible by the
invention of the film strip. However, the optics behind animation has been known since the early
1800s, as we see from Simon von Stampfer’s phénakisticope (1833) below.

Animators create the art of animation.

The first attempts to capture the movement in the figures refer to the paleolithic cave paintings,
where animals are depicted with multiple legs, overlapping each other.

In Shahr-e Sukhteh (Iran) was found an earthen jar, whose age is estimated to be 5,000 years old.
On the walls of the vessel made five pictures kid on the move.

In Egypt there were found drawings, which referred to 2000 year BC. There was an idea to name
these drawing as the examples of 1st animation, but at that time didn't exist special equipment
which could show the drawings in motion.

History of animation started on 20th of July 1887 in France. Charles-Émile Reynaud self-
taught engineer created and presented the 1st Praxinoscope. on 28 October 1892 he projected
the first animated film in public, Pauvre Pierrot, at the Musée Grévin in Paris. This film is also
notable as the first known instance of film perforations being used.

Emile Reynaud, the cartoon "The patient Pierrot", 1892 Praksinoskop Emile Reynaud, 1877, France

First cartoons were up to fifteen minutes, drawn and painted by hand pantomime lasting. Even
then, could be applied sound, synchronized with the image. Raynaud also created cartoons,
where in production were used photos and drawings. Later on others made the contribution to the
development of animators, creating paintings in a variety of genres and techniques.
Active development of animation started at the beginnings of 20th century. In one moment
several independent people separate to each other started to create animation.

Georges Méliès accidentally invented the technique of shooting ―stop-motion‖. The point of this
technique is that Méliès shot the scene than changed the next scene and shot again and etc. Than
after quick changing frames appeared the animation effect.

George Mellis, "Rubber Head", 1902 Winsor McKay, "Dinosaur", 1914

James Stuart Blackton created animated smoke in 1906.

Winsor McCay created the first cartoon in 1906.

Walt Disney was the first who used sound in animation. He was pioneer who used colour in
animation. One of the most reasonable Disney’s inventions was animation stand which helped to
get to receive the effects of parallax, elongated shapes of figures, the depth and fuzziness.
At this studio was created many famous characters Mickey Mouse, Pluto, Goofy etc.
Commercial successes of animators spread all over the world and inspires people to open
animation studios.

To 1930 there were a lot of running animation studios such as Universal

Pictures, Paramount, Warner Brothers etc which working till now.

Animated studios of 60th-70th whose used computer technology were opened by scientists from
universities and artists. First researching/discoveries of computer graphics were in 1963 based
on Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) when Ivan Edward Sutherland invented
Sketchpad, an innovative program that influenced alternative forms of interaction with
computers.

Walt Disney, "Steamer Willie", 1928 Walt Disney, "Flowers and Trees", 1932
In the USSR first results in computer animation were associated with name Yuriy Bayakovskii.
In 1990 at SIGGRAPH ACM Association gave him an award "Computer Graphics Pioneer".
Now Yuri Matveevich is a head at MGU laboratory of graphics and media at the Faculty of
Computational Mathematics and Cybernetics (graphics.cs.msu.su) and at that time work at the
Institute of applied mathematics named by Mstislav Keldysh (Academy of Sciences), for many
years he was a head of the department of computer graphics there. In 1964 Yuriy made the first
modeling of plasma flow over a cylinder in collaboration with physicist Tamara Sushkevich.
That was the first operation in the USSR according to "computer graphics". In 1971 Institute of
applied mathematics developed advanced software for creation the computer movies and created
the camera with captures the frames from the display. Using this system soon was made two
spectacular animations - a visualisation the robot and modeled the interaction of two galaxies.

In state Utah at the beginning of 70th there were some important works in animation: animated
hand and face by Ed Catmull (1972); walking and speaking figure created by Barrie
Wexler (1973), speaking face by Fred Park (1974). Today it seems that quality of animation
was primitive but at that time it was impressive.

Ivan Sutherland, "A Man-Machine Graphical Communication Edwin Catmull, CEO of "Pixar",
System", 1963 Lecture, 2010

At the end of 70th Technological institute of New York begun working on project of creation
film «The works», completely constructed on computer using 3D animation.
Project wasn’t finished but some fragments were shown during conferences SIGGRAPH. These
fragments demonstrated high quality of visualization, articulated figures and interacting objects.
During creation «The works» it was used the system BBOP - 3D animation system of articulated
figures.

At the beginning of 80th contribution to the animation development made Daniel Tolman’
laboratory - computer animation ―Dream Flight‖, ―Tony de Peltrie‖, ―Rendez - vous a
Montrual‖). Among others who influenced on animation were: Ed Emshwiller who showed
moving textural maps in Sunstone; Jim Blinn created animated ―Voyager‖; Don
Greenberg created architecture roundabout way for Cornell University and others.

Animation "Tony de Peltrie", 1985 Animation "Rendez-vous in Montreal

In 1980 technical development made headway. At this time graphical programs become more
compoundю. Turner Whitted introduced concept ―Ray tracing‖ with the elimination of errors
in sampling; Nelson Max produced several movies about molecules and one with animated
waves; Loren Carpenter showcased his software for generating and rendering fractally
generated landscapes.

Is started to be shown movies with increasingly used computer special effects: simulated tornado
using particle system, vampire transformation into flying characters, characters with no legs, etc.

The film ―Young Sherlock Holmes‖ (1986) was the first film, which contained artificial
character.

Jim Blinn animation «Voyager» for NASA, 1986 The movie "Jurassic Park," 1997

In 1993 film ―Jurassic Park‖ presented animated models of dinosaurs, in 1995 was shown film
―Jumanji‖ with models of real and made-up animals.
The important trend in computer animation was the creation of an artificial person,
indistinguishable from real. The Pioneers were movies «Tony de Peltrie» (1985), «Rendez-vous
a Montreal» (1988) and others. In these films the quality of animation was poor that was
obviously for audience that characters not real, because of that computer heroes had secondary
roles.

Today's progress in models of light and texture makes it possible to design more realistic people.
At the end of XX century appeared new animation technology - motion capture. Motion capture
object some technical measuring equipment.
The movie "Avatar", 2009 The movie "Pirates of the Caribbean", 2011

The method of motion capture used in production CGI cartoons, and for creating special effects
in films. It’s popular in video games production. Using this method in 2004 were created
cartoons ―Polar Express‖ (model - Tom Hanks), ―Final Fantasy‖, ―The Lord of the Rings‖
model - (Andy Serkis). In 2006 - 2011 using this technology were created ―Renaissance‖,
―Beowulf‖, ―Christmas Carol‖, ―Avatar‖, ‖Harry Potter‖.

HISTORY TIMELINE
Date Event

The start of it all

1887
A man named H.W. Goodwin invented a celluloid film which could hold images. It was made of
gum cotton and gum camphor.

An early moving-picture production

1892 A man in France named Emil Reynaud opened a theatre using an invention called the
Praxinoscope. It used turning mirrors to reflect images and produce a 10 to 15 minute "moving
picture."

Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope

1893
Using the celluloid film developed by H.W. Goodwin, Edison was able to produce moving film
pictures on the wall. The film moved over a series of wheels to produce the pictures.

Sound is captured

1899
Using a magnetic recording device, sound was recorded for the first time. Animation enthusiasts
would latch onto the technology.

The Enchanted Drawing

1900 A man named James Stuart Blackton used animation techniques to produce a short film. It
documented the drawing process of characters, without ever showing the artist; this made it seem
that the drawings simply appeared.

The first official animated film

1908
A Frenchman name Emile Cohl produced a film called "Fantasmagorie." It was a hit, and is known
today as the first true animated film.
 Gertie the Dinosaur
1914
This short animation film became popular quickly. It was created by Windsor McCay.

A patent on the process

1915
A man named John Bray developed and patented a streamlined process for creating animated
films. He tried, unsuccessfully, to force other companies to use his designs.

Felix the Cat

1920 A man named Otto Messmer, who had been working in animation for a few years, created a
character named Felix the Cat. Felix was very successful and even ended up including dolls and
watches.

Laugh-O-Grams

1922
Twenty-year-old Walt Disney began his first animation film studio called Laugh-O-Grams. It failed
after only a short time.

Steamboat Willie

1928 Walt Disney didn't give up on making animated films. In 1928 he released a short film called
Steamboat Willie featuring Mickey Mouse and using sound for the first time, and it was an instant
hit.

Warner Bros. Studio is born

1930
Looney Tunes was supposed to be a spin off on the Silly Symphonies produced by Disney. It soon
took on a life of its own and became very popular.

Other popular charters

1930
Throughout the 1930's, several now-iconic characters were created. This included Betty Boop,
Popeye the Sailor, and Daffy Duck.

New technologies

1932
Walt Disney developed the use of 3-strip Technicolor animation. In 1935, Len Lye created a method
of painting directly on film strips; he used it in his animated film "Color Box."

1937 The first full-length film

 Walt Disney produced the first ever full-length animated film. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
was a major hit.

Iconic characters grow

1940
The next decade brought several new popular characters to life. This included Woody Woodpecker,
Mighty Mouse, and Tom and Jerry.

Computer generated movies

1972
At the University of Utah, and man named Ed Catmull developed a method of creating computer
generated movies. It used scripting language.

3-D and beyond

1993
Apple computer company produced a method for creating 3-D films, and in 1995 Toy Story was
released as the first full-length 3-D film. The animation industry would never be the same.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANIMATION

Animation has been around for a while now and many new types of techniques have been
introduced, which means animation studios and companies all over the world are looking for
talented individuals who have what it takes to master them. Below you’ll find information on the
two main types of animation techniques as well as a few less relevant methods.

1. 2D ANIMATION
2D animation is when scenes and characters are animated in a 2D space instead of a 3D
environment. Today, artists use computer software to create everything in a 2D animation,
including environments, characters, visual effects, and more. For most of the 20th century,
animation was done by taking photographs of drawings on paper and then placing them on
transparent acetate sheets called cels.

This process was abandoned with the introducing of computers, which allows artists to create
digital animations and then use techniques to manipulate the image. Compared to drawing
multiple images, using computers is far less time-consuming and effective. Although drawing
skills are still required to be a 2D animator today, most of the work is done with the use of
computer software.

These programs often have a huge toolbox of features that help the artists manipulate the
animation in a number of ways, including making it look smoother by fine-tuning important
elements such as timing. Other advantages of 2D animation over the traditional way include
being able to save and load work. Being able to do so proves very handy if something didn’t
work and you need to revert back to an earlier version of the animation.

Being skilled in a particular 2D animation program also allows you to make good use of a vast
library of visual effects. Of course, every 2D animation software comes with its own learning
curves, which only get steeper the better the program is. Knowing what each tool does and how
to use it effectively is essential if you want to be a good 2D animator that isn’t limited to a few
techniques.

Notable 2D Animation Programs

 Toon Boom Studio

 Autodesk’s SketchBook Pro
 Anime Studio Debut
 DrawPlus
 FlipBook Lite
 Adobe Photoshop
 The TAB Pro
 CrazyTalk Animator
 MotionArtist
 Flip Boom Cartoon

2D animation is widely used in a number of creative industries and is still widely used despite the rise of
3D animation.
Everything from cartoon series and Japanese anime to video games and full feature films are done in 2D.
The fact that 2D animation is flexible enough to be done on a wide range of platforms it what makes it
such a popular form for anything from entertainment and multimedia to broadcast video.

Television is where 2D animation is still used the most.

The number of shows that have been made with 2D animation is near-endless, with some of the
more well-known ones being The Simpsons, SpongeBob Squarepants, South Park, and Avatar:
The Last Airbender.

Anime, a style of Japanese animation inspired by their manga comics, also makes use of 2D
animation.

Some of the biggest anime hits are:

 Dragonball Z
 Naruto
 One Piece
 Attack On Titan

Plenty of influential and critically-acclaimed films have also used 2D animation, including The
Lion King, Snow White and the Seven Dwarves, and The Iron Giant. Disney has always been at
the top when it comes to companies that produce well-received animated feature films.

Another notable company is Studio Ghibli, a Japanese film studio who has produced classics
like:

 Spirited Away
 Kiki’s Delivery Service
 Castle in the Sky

2D animation was also once the dominant art form for most of video game’s history. Beloved
titles like Super Mario Bros, Mega Man, Super Metroid, and The Legend of Zelda all employ 2D
visuals.

Despite 3D being the most popular style for games, indie developers are making 2D games
popular again with hit titles like Shovel Knight, Braid, Limbo, and more. While some companies
are more than willing to hire you if they see that you have a talent for 2D animation, most are
only looking for artists with college degrees. This is because someone who went through a two
or four-year program in animation, computer graphics, or other related field usually has
knowledge of the programs they’ll be expected to use.

Animation college graduates also normally have a portfolio to showcase their technical and
artistic skills to the places they apply to. So if you’re an aspiring 2D animator, it is possible to
break into any industry by learning software programs yourself and refining your
skills. However, your path will likely involve some kind of college or university program if you
want the best chance of getting hired at a company that does 2D animation.

These can include game developers, animated film studios, television companies, and most other
multimedia fields.
2. 3D ANIMATION STYLE

3D animation is the manipulation of three dimensional objects and virtual environments with the use
of a computer program.

1. Animators first create a 3D polygon mesh with various connected vertices to give it form.
2. The mesh is then rigged by giving it an armature, a skeletal structure that can be manipulated to
make the object appear in specific poses.
3. After making other objects and environments, the artist then uses the software to create scenes
that are much more lifelike than 2D animation.

This form, which is also called computer-generated imagery (CGI), is a fairly recent technique
that only came into use during the 1990s.

Before that, the closest thing to 3D animation was stop-motion and Claymation, which involved
using real-life objects and taking pictures to give the illusion of motion. Now it is arguably the
most popular form of animation and is used in anything from TV shows, video games, and
feature films.

A computer and 3D software program is required to create 3D animations, which usually comes
with a ton of features that let you do anything from modeling and simulation to rendering. Tools
for adding lighting, visual effects, physics, and other elements are also normally included. The
reason 3D animation has become popular is because it can be used to create realistic objects and
scenes.

Live-action films like Transformers, Avatar, and The Avengers would not be as impressive if
you removed all the 3D elements, which often include entire characters and settings. 3D has also
become the standard visual style for video games because it lets players do much more than a 2D
game. But like other forms of animation, 3D has its own learning curve that involves gaining a
firm understanding of 3D software programs.

These programs also tend to be pretty expensive, which means they can be hard to learn as a
student who doesn’t have a few hundred bucks to spend on one.

Notable 3D Animation Programs

 Autodesk Maya
 Autodesk 3ds Max
 Unity
 CINEMA 4D
 Houdini
 Autodesk Softimage
 LightWave
 Modo
 TurboCAD Deluxe
 SketchUp Pro

Today, 3D animation is used in more industries than ever before.

Common examples include:

 games
 movies
 television shows
 interior designing
 business
 architecture
 medicine
 many other multimedia fields

Without 3D animation, beloved movies like Toy Story, Frozen, How To Train Your Dragon, and
Big Hero 6 would not have been possible.

When it comes to games, 3D animation is everywhere. Some of today’s most successful titles are
in 3D, including Super Mario 3D World, Bloodborne, Halo, Call of Duty, and many
more. Television has also finally started seeing a number of well-received 3D shows such as Star
Wars Rebels, Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness, and the latest Teenage Mutant Ninja
Turtles series. Just like with 2D animation, most places will want to see a bachelor’s degree in a
related field. This is because 3D animation is a very technical specialty that requires a solid
understanding of different programs and how to use them effectively.

Since studios that make 3D games and movies are demanding, fast-paced environments, they
want to hire people who have already mastered the 3D software programs they use for their
projects. That is why a self-taught 3D animator isn’t as likely to get hired as someone who went
through an animation program at a college or university.
We’re not saying it’s impossible to get a job by teaching yourself how to animate in 3D, but the
average company has more confidence hiring someone who can prove they’ve spent a number of
years learning how to be a 3D animator and receiving instruction from trained professionals.

3. STOP MOTION

This technique involves setting an object or character in a specific pose against a background and
taking a picture.

The involved elements are then slightly modified before taking another frame. This is similar to
traditional 2D animation in that having various frames gives the impression of movement.

4. CLAYMOTION

Clay animation is a form of stop-motion that is popular enough to be seen as its own technique.
This involves the same process but clay (plasticine) is used for almost all the characters, objects,
and backdrops.
Tim Burton has popularized this technique by using it in a number of his films, including
Beetlejuice, The Nightmare Before Christmas, Corpse Bride, and James and the Giant Peach.

5. CEL ANIMATION

This was the traditional method used to create 2D animations before the introduction of computers.

Cel animation involves drawing various images that are slightly different and then tracing them
onto transparent sheets called a cel.

This method is mostly obsolete since it is far more time-consuming and costly to produce.

6. PAINT-ON-GLASS ANIMATION

This rare but attractive technique requires the manipulation of slow-drying oil paints on sheets of
glass to create the illusion of motion. Even though it is uncommon and difficult to do, paint-on-
glass animation is usually well-received.
A Russian animator by the name of Aleksandr Petrov has used this technique to create seven
films, and all of them been award winners.

https://www.udemy.com/course/introduction-to-animation/

https://sites.google.com/site/whyteachanimation/introduction-to-animation

http://www.indiaeducation.net/animation/what-is-animation.html

https://99designs.com/blog/video-animation/what-is-animation/

http://animation-ua.com/en/school-animation/history-of-animation/178-history-of-animation

http://www.softschools.com/timelines/history_of_animation_timeline/251/

https://www.gamedesigning.org/animation/different-types/
Web design is the process of creating websites. It encompasses
several different aspects, including webpage layout, content
production, and graphic design. While the terms web design
and web development are often used interchangeably, web
design is technically a subset of the broader category of web
development.

Websites are created using a markup language called HTML. Web

designers build webpages using HTML tags that define the
content and metadata of each page. The layout and appearance
of the elements within a webpage are typically defined using CSS,
or cascading style sheets. Therefore, most websites include a
combination of HTML and CSS that defines how each page will
appear in a browser.

Some web designers prefer to hand code pages (typing HTML

and CSS from scratch), while others use a "WYSIWYG" editor like
Adobe Dreamweaver. This type of editor provides a visual
interface for designing the webpage layout and
the software automatically generates the corresponding HTML
and CSS code. Another popular way to design websites is with a
content management system like WordPress or Joomla. These
services provide different website templates that can be used as a
starting point for a new website. Webmasters can then add
content and customize the layout using a web-based interface.

While HTML and CSS are used to design the look and feel of a
website, images must be created separately. Therefore, graphic
design may overlap with web design, since graphic designers
often create images for use on the Web. Some graphics programs
like Adobe Photoshop even include a "Save for Web…" option
that provides an easy way to export images in a format optimized
for web publishing.

History of Web Designing

Web design has been important since sites began competing for
attention. A well-designed site holds readers’ interest, is easy to
read, and presents its content in a clear, organized way. Views on
what accomplishes this have changed over the years, as the
available technology has changed and designers have
accumulated experience.

The earliest Web pages, starting in 1991, weren’t “designed” in the

sense of paying special attention to layout. They were articles
written by researchers for other researchers, and all that mattered
was the content and links. But as the Web became more widely
used in the mid-nineties, the appearance of pages began to
matter. The people creating them were computer geeks, and they
had more interest in experimenting with the new technology than
in aesthetics. Images played a greater role, and lists and tables
organized information. JavaScript was available, but people
treated it more as a toy than a design tool.

By the second half of the nineties, commercial sites were starting

to appear. The appearance of a site became a more serious
concern. Designers started to give more attention to readability
and appeal, and sites started to use animation for serious
purposes. At first the only option was animated GIF images. Then
came Adobe Flash, which allowed a huge range of effects. Sites
built almost entirely on Flash began appearing. On the server side,
dynamic pages with PHP and CGI started coming into use. This
made design even more undisciplined, as site creators had a
bigger set of tools to play with.

The Web at the Turn of the Century

By the start of the 21st century, a new idea had started to take
hold: that the creation of pages should involve not just technical
knowledge but expertise in visual design. CSS2 had been available
since 1998, allowing the important principle of separation of
appearance and content. Page creators had much finer control
over the placement and appearance of every element.

As people with design skills joined in the process, they recognized

that too much material in a page or too much text in an unbroken
block is a burden on the reader. They started splitting content into
more pages, with menus and tables for navigation. The landing
page became increasingly important, often having little content
but directing viewers to other pages. Blinking text and bright
colors started giving way to more subdued designs.

The growing availability of high-speed connections, faster

processors, and monitors with more pixels opened new
opportunities to designers. High-resolution graphics and
animations became popular. Multi-column layouts and sidebars
took advantage of the larger screens. People started talking about
“Web 2.0” for pages with interactive and customized features.

The Later 2000s and the Mobile Web

A revolution came in 2007 with the release of the iPhone. Its
impact wasn’t obvious at first, but smartphones would soon
completely change the way people used the Internet. The
immediate impact came from Steve Jobs’ declaration that it
wouldn’t support Flash. Adobe’s software was starting to show its
age, and it presented several problems. It wasn’t a W3C standard
but a proprietary plugin. Other technologies had become
available.

Search engines had rapidly risen in importance, and Flash content

was invisible to them. The phrase “search engine
optimization” wasn’t in common use yet, but site owners wanted
their pages to be found. Meanwhile, it was becoming possible to
create more kinds of content with HTML, reducing the need for
Flash. A decade later, Flash is almost completely obsolete.

Ajax, a JavaScript technique which allows updating pages in place,

let sites become increasingly interactive. Now small changes in
response to user input became possible without reloading the
whole page. It was possible to talk about Web applications in a
meaningful way.

Web Design from 2010 to the Present

Since 2010, mobile devices have grown to the point of accounting
for more than half of the Web page access in the world. This
means that sites have to work well on both small and large
screens. For a while, the dominant design approach was to offer
two versions of a page. This was a maintenance headache,
though, and people receiving links could find themselves on the
wrong page for their machine. These problems led to responsive
design as a better solution.

With responsive design, the same page is available to all devices,

and the browser uses JavaScript and CSS to configure it for the
hardware on which it’s running. The release of HTML5 and CSS3
have aided in this effort by bringing another important principle
to the fore: the separation of the document object model (DOM)
from the content and the appearance. Being able to handle the
DOM independently has helped to create page designs which
work with any content and can customize its appearance as
necessary.

Today’s Web Design & Future Trends

One of the latest trends is the closing of the gap between the
front and back ends. Many sites now run JavaScript on the server
as well as the browser, with very close interaction between the
two sides. The distinction between a website and a mobile
application has blurred, and either kind of client often can run
offline and catch up with the server when it has a connection.

As design trends continue to change, we’ll be with you to create

the most attractive and up-to-date appearance and features for
your site. Contact Creative MMS to learn more.

Design Is Key Part of Web Design

Design, obviously, is a key part of "web design." What does this
mean exactly? Design includes both the principles of design —
balance, contrast, emphasis, rhythm and unity — and the design
elements — lines, shapes, texture, color, and direction.
By putting these things together, a web designer creates websites,
but a good web designer understands not only the principals of
design but also the constraints of the Web. For example, a
successful web designer will be skilled in typographic design
principals, while also understanding the challenges of web type
design and specifically how it differs from other kinds of type
design.

In addition to understanding the limitations of the Web, a

successful web professional also has a firm grasp on the strengths
of digital communication.

Web Design Has Many Different Roles

When you work as a web designer, you may be tasked with
creating (or working on) entire sites or just individual pages and
there is a lot to learn to be a well-rounded designer, including the
following:

 HTML — This is the structure of web pages, creating the

foundation of all websites
 CSS — This is how web pages are visually styled. CSS
(Cascading Style Sheets) handles the entire look of sites,
including layout, typography, colors, and more
 JavaScript — This governs certain behaviors on websites
and can be used for a variety of interactions and features
 CGI programming — CGI, and the next few entries (PHP,
ASP, etc.) are all different flavors of programming languages.
Many sites do not require any of these languages, but sites
that are more feature-rich will certainly need to be coded
using some of these languages
 PHP, ASP, ColdFusion scripting
 XML
 Information architecture — The way a site's content and
navigation is structured and presented helps make for a
successful site that is easy and intuitive to use
 SEO — Search engine optimization ensures that websites are
attractive to Google and other search engines and that
people looking for the products, services, or information
features on that site can find it once they look for it online
 Server management — All websites need to be hosted. The
management of the servers that host those sites is an
important web design skill
 Web strategy and marketing — Having a website is not
enough. Those sites will also need to be marketed with an
ongoing digital strategy
 E-commerce and conversions
 Design — Creating the visual look and feel of websites has
always been an important aspect of the industry
 Speed — A successful site is one that loads quickly on a
wide variety of devices, regardless of a visitors connection
speed. Being able to tune the performance of sites is a very
valuable skill
 Content — People come to websites for the content that
those sites contain. Being able to create that content is a
critically important component in the world of website
design
https://www.lifewire.com/introduction-to-web-design-3470022
https://www.inmotionhosting.com/support/email/outlook/website
-design-basics/introduction-web-design/
https://creativemms.com/blog/a-brief-history-of-web-design/
https://techterms.com/definition/web_design
What is Ceramic?
Ceramics are classified as inorganic and nonmetallic materials that
are essential to our daily lifestyle. The word 'Ceramic' was from
the Greek word meaning ‘pottery’. The clay-based domestic
wares, art objects and building products are familiar to us all, but
pottery is just one part of the ceramic world.

Nowadays the term ‘ceramic’ has a more expansive meaning and

includes materials like glass, advanced ceramics and some cement
systems as well.

Ceramics are all around us. This category of materials

includes things like tile, bricks, plates, glass, and toilets. Ceramics
can be found in products like watches (quartz tuning forks-the
time keeping devices in watches), snow skies (piezoelectric-
ceramics that stress when a voltage is applied to them),
automobiles (sparkplugs and ceramic engine parts found in
racecars), and phone lines. They can also be found on space
shuttles, appliances (enamel coatings), and airplanes (nose
cones). Depending on their method of formation, ceramics can
be dense or lightweight. Typically, they will demonstrate excellent
strength and hardness properties; however, they are often brittle
in nature. Ceramics can also be formed to serve as electrically
conductive materials, objects allowing electricity to pass through
their mass, or insulators, materials preventing the flow of
electricity. Some ceramics, like superconductors, also display
magnetic properties.

Ceramics are generally made by taking mixtures of clay, earthen

elements, powders, and water and shaping them into desired
forms. Once the ceramic has been shaped, it is fired in a high
temperature oven known as a kiln. Often, ceramics are covered in
decorative, waterproof, paint-like substances known as glazes.
Ceramic Processing
Ceramic processing is used to produce commercial products that
are very diverse in size, shape, detail, complexity, and material
composition, structure, and cost. The purpose of ceramics
processing to an applied science is the natural result of an
increasing ability to refine, develop, and characterize ceramic
materials.

Ceramics are typically produced by the application of heat upon

processed clays and other natural raw materials to form a rigid
product. Ceramic products that use naturally occurring rocks and
minerals as a starting material must undergo special processing in
order to control purity, particle size, particle size distribution, and
heterogeneity. These attributes play a big role in the final
properties of the finished ceramic. Chemically prepared powders
also are used as starting materials for some ceramic products.
These synthetic materials can be controlled to produce powders
with precise chemical compositions and particle size.

The next step is to form the ceramic particles into a desired shape.
This is accomplished by the addition of water and/or additives
such as binders, followed by a shape forming process. Some of
the most common forming methods for ceramics include
extrusion, slip casting, pressing, tape casting and injection
molding. After the particles are formed, these "green" ceramics
undergo a heat-treatment (called firing or sintering) to produce a
rigid, finished product. Some ceramic products such as electrical
insulators, dinnerware and tile may then undergo a glazing
process. Some ceramics for advanced applications may undergo a
machining and/or polishing step in order meet specific
engineering design criteria.
Ceramic Properties

The properties of ceramic materials, like all materials, are dictated

by the types of atoms present, the types of bonding between the
atoms, and the way the atoms are packed together. This is known
as the atomic scale structure. Most ceramics are made up of two
or more elements. This is called a compound. For example,
alumina (Al2O3), is a compound made up of aluminum atoms and
oxygen atoms.

The atoms in ceramic materials are held together by a chemical

bond. The two most common chemical bonds for ceramic
materials are covalent and ionic. For metals, the chemical bond is
called the metallic bond. The bonding of atoms together is much
stronger in covalent and ionic bonding than in metallic. That is
why, generally speaking, metals are ductile and ceramics are
brittle. Due to ceramic materials wide range of properties, they are
used for a multitude of applications. In general, most ceramics
are:

 hard,
 wear-resistant,
 brittle,
 refractory,
 thermal insulators,
 electrical insulators,
 nonmagnetic,
 oxidation resistant,
  prone to thermal shock, and
 chemically stable.
History of Ceramic
Archeologists have uncovered human-made ceramics that date
back to at least 24,000 BC. These ceramics were found in
Czechoslovakia and were in the form of animal and human
figurines, slabs, and balls. These ceramics were made of animal fat
and bone mixed with bone ash and a fine claylike material. After
forming, the ceramics were fired at temperatures between 500-
800°C in domed and horseshoe shaped kilns partially dug into the
ground with loess walls. While it is not clear what these ceramics
were used for, it is not thought to have been a utilitarian one. The
first use of functional pottery vessels is thought to be in 9,000 BC.
These vessels were most likely used to hold and store grain and
other foods.

It is thought that ancient glass manufacture is closely related to

pottery making, which flourished in Upper Egypt about 8,000 BC.
While firing pottery, the presence of calcium oxide (CaO)
containing sand combined with soda and the overheating of the
pottery kiln may have resulted in a colored glaze on the ceramic
pot. Experts believe that it was not until 1,500 BC that glass was
produced independently of ceramics and fashioned into separate
items.

Since these ancient times, the technology and applications of

ceramics (including glass) has steadily increased. We often take
for granted the major role that ceramics have played in the
progress of humankind. Below are just a few examples of how
important ceramics are to society.

TYPES OF CERAMICS

Traditional ceramics – pottery

Pottery is one of the oldest human technologies. Fragments
of clay pottery found recently in Hunan Province in China have
been carbon dated to 17,500–18,300 years old.

Traditional ceramics

Traditional ceramics are clay–based. The categories of pottery

shown here are earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. The
composition of the clays used, type of additives and firing
temperatures determine the nature of the end product.

The major types of pottery are described

as earthenware, stoneware and porcelain.

Earthenware is used extensively for pottery tableware and

decorative objects. It is one of the oldest materials used in
pottery.

The clay is fired at relatively low temperatures (1,000–1,150°C),

producing a slightly porous, coarse product. To overcome its
porosity, the fired object is covered with finely ground glass
powder suspended in water (glaze) and is then fired a second
time. Faience, Delft and majolica are examples of earthenware.

Stoneware clay is fired at a high temperature (about 1,200°C)

until made glass-like (vitrified). Because stoneware is non-porous,
glaze is applied only for decoration. It is a sturdy, chip-resistant
and durable material suitable for use in the kitchen for cooking,
baking, storing liquids and as serving dishes.

Porcelain is a very hard, translucent white ceramic. The earliest

forms of porcelain originated in China around 1600BC, and by
600AD, Chinese porcelain was a prized commodity with Arabian
traders. Because porcelain was associated with China and often
used to make plates, cups, vases and other works of fine art, it
often goes by the name of ‘fine china'.

To make porcelain, small amounts of

glass, granite and feldspar minerals are ground up with fine
white kaolin clay. Water is then added to the resulting fine white
powder so that it can be kneaded and worked into shape. This is
fired in a kiln to between 1,200–1,450°C. Decorative glazes are
then applied followed by further firing.

Bone china – which is easier to make, harder to chip and stronger

than porcelain – is made by adding ash from cattle bones to clay,
feldspar minerals and fine silica sand.

Advanced ceramics – new materials

Advanced ceramics are not generally clay-based. Instead, they are
either based on oxides or non-oxides or combinations of the two:

 Typical oxides used are alumina (Al2O3) and zirconia (ZrO2).

 Non-oxides are often carbides, borides, nitrides and silicides,
for example, boron carbide (B4C), silicon carbide (SiC) and
molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2).

The space shuttle Discovery

Part of the space shuttle’s outer skin is made up of over 27,000

ceramic tiles. The tiles are designed to withstand the tremendous
heat generated on re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere.

Production processes firstly involve thoroughly blending the very

fine constituent material powders. After shaping them into
a green body, this is high-temperature fired (1,600–1,800°C). This
step is often carried out in an oxygen-free atmosphere.

The high temperature allows the tiny grains of the individual

ceramic components to fuse together, forming a hard, tough,
durable and corrosion-resistant product. This process is
called sintering.

Applications of advanced ceramics

Advanced ceramic materials are now well established in many
areas of everyday use, from fridge magnets to an increasing range
or industries, including metals production and processing,
aerospace, electronics, automotive and personnel protection.

Use of temperature in firing ceramics

In modern medicine, advanced ceramics – often referred to as

bioceramics – play an increasingly important role. Bioceramics
such as alumina and zirconia are hard, chemically inert materials
that can be polished to a high finish. They are used as dental
implants and as bone substitutes in orthopaedic operations such
as hip and knee replacement. Find out more on the uses for
advanced ceramics.

https://depts.washington.edu/matseed/mse_resources/Webpage/
Ceramics/ceramics.htm
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1769-what-are-
ceramics
Costume designers create the look of each character by designing
clothes and accessories the actors will wear in performance.
Depending on their style and complexity, costumes may be made,
bought, revamped out of existing stock or rented. Their designs
need to faithfully reflect the personalities of the characters in the
script.

The shapes, colours and textures that a costume designer chooses

make an immediate and powerful visual statement to the
audience. Creative collaboration among the costume designer, the
director and the set and lighting designers ensures that the
costumes are smoothly integrated into the production as a whole.

Stage costumes can provide audiences with information about a

character's occupation, social status, gender, age, sense of style
and tendencies towards conformity or individualism. As well,
costumes can:

 reinforce the mood and style of the production.

 distinguish between major and minor characters.
 suggest relationships between characters.
 change an actor's appearance.
 suggest changes in character development and age.
 be objects of beauty in their own right.

Costume designs also need to include any accessories such as

canes, hats, gloves, shoes, jewelry or masks. These
costume props add a great deal of visual interest to the overall
costume design. They are often the items that truly distinguish
one character from another.
 Definition of Costume
Definition of Costume The term “costume” is a word with many
variations in meaning. The fashion and cultural studies scholar
Kaiser (1997) attempted to encompass them all with her broad
definition: “a style of clothes belonging to a particular cultural or
historical context (often used to refer to ethnic or historical
clothing, as well as clothing designed for performances or rituals –
drama, Halloween, etc.)” (p. 4). As per the cultural or ethnic aspect
of the definition, some scholars substitute “costume” for non-
Western clothing, as in Priest’s (1945) Costumes from the
Forbidden City and Bouttiaux, Sorber, and Cutsem’s (2008) African
Costumes and Textiles. Others use “costume” when describing the
dress of past periods, like Baumgarten and Watson (1999) in
Costume Close-Up: Clothing Construction and Pattern 1750-1790
or Payne, Winakor, and Farrell-Beck (1992) in The History of
Costume: From Ancient Mesopotamia Through the Twentieth
Century. There are also works, primarily from before the mid-
twentieth century, that use costume simply to indicate clothing
designs, or as Kaiser said, “a style of clothes,” as seen in Izor’s
(1916) Costume Design and Home Planning, a book with the
stated goal of helping to “establish in the minds of girls a sane,
sensible, wellbalanced attitude toward dress” (p. ix). However, to
some, the word “costume” is not interchangeable with “clothing,”
“dress,” or “fashion.” Kaiser (1997) introduced this concept in the
final portion of her definition, when she mentioned the
performative costume. There are many kinds of performances, as
Kaiser noted, but this study focused on costumes designed for the
theater, the collaborative presentation of a story performed live
for an audience (Brewster & Shafer, 11 2011). Costumes for the
theater were defined by costume design professor Emery (1981)
as the “garments, accessories, and related items [that] establish
the illusion the costume designer envisioned for the characters
and the production” (p. xvii). A costume designer, therefore, is the
theater-maker “responsible for the design, visual appearance, and
function of the costumes, accessories, and makeup” (Gillette,
1992, p. 537).5 The costume designer’s charge is not just to dress
the performers, but to select costumes “that will best suit the
actors in their roles and at the same time reinforce the flavor of
the whole presentation” (Anderson & Anderson, 1984, p. 10). This
mission differentiates costume from fashion. Typically, costumes
are made up of clothing, and while that makes them superficially
similar to fashion and often inspired by it, the two exist in
separate spheres.

Costume design is the fabrication of clothing for the overall

appearance of a character or performer. Costume is specific in the
style of dress particular to a nation, a class, or a period. The most
basic designs are produced to denote status, provide protection
or modesty, or simply decorate a character. Costume design is a
tool to express an art form, such as a play or film script, dance
piece, or opera. Costumes may be for a theater, cinema, or
musical performance but may not be limited to such. Costume
design should not be confused with costume coordination which
merely involves altering existing clothing, although both create
stage clothes. Four types of costumes are used in theatrical
design, Historical, fantastical, dance, and modern.
The designer's work

Costume designers begin their work by

reading the script to be produced. If the
production is set in a specific historical era,
the fashions of this period will need to be researched. To
stimulate the flow of ideas at the first meeting with the director
and the design team, the costume designer may want to present a
few rough costume sketches. This is also an appropriate time to
check with the director on the exact number of characters
needing costumes, as any non-speaking characters the director
plans to include may not have been listed in the script.

It is the costume designer's responsibility to draw up the costume

plot. The costume plot is a list or chart that shows which
characters appear in each scene, what they are wearing and their
overall movement throughout the play. This helps track the
specific costume needs of every character. It can also identify any
potential costume challenges, such as very quick changes
between scenes.

When the director and production team have approved the

costume designer's preliminary sketches, she or he can draw up
the final costume designs. The final designs are done in full-
colour. They show the style, silhouette, textures, accessories and
unique features of each costume.
Costume Designer's Goals

Costume design is the most personal aspect of design. The

costume designer must create clothes for characters that, on the
one hand, reflect the ideas and goals of the play, but, on the other
hand should look like the character chose the clothing in the
same way you choose yours every day. Similarly, because we all
wear clothes but probably do not design houses, audiences and
actors will make strong, personal associations with what a
character is wearing on stage.

The costume designer's goals are similar to the set designer's

goals. These goals can be broken into five categories: costumes
should help establish tone and style, time and place, and
character information, and costumes should aid the performer
and coordinate with the director's and other designers' concepts.

Costumes give information on the tone and style of a play. They

may look just like what we wear today, or they may look like what
people really wore at the time in which the play is set. Both of
these would be illusionistic costuming. On the other hand,
costumes might be representative of an idea in the play; for
example, actors costumed in robes or unitards of various colors
will establish a theatrical style. A different, stylized approach to
costuming might also use some period elements mixed with
contemporary dress; this would give the audience a flavor of a
historical period without trying to create a full, theatrical illusion
of another time and place.

Costumes tell us a great deal about the time and place in which a
play is set. Dresses with an empire waist
made of light fabrics in light colors place us in
the early 18th century, such as in Jane
Austin's novels. Blue jeans with bell bottoms
and painted or embroidered with many bright
colors tell us a character belongs in the late
1960's.
Costumes give us information on individual characters, on the
relationships among characters, and on groups of characters. First
consider your own wardrobe, and what you would choose to wear
on a job interview, on a big date, to wash the car, or to come to
class. What you wear says a great deal about who you are and
about what you are intending to do. The same is true on the
stage, but on stage we make even more associations with a
character's clothing because we know it is specifically chosen for
the play. If we see a woman on stage in a bright red dress, we will
make associations with the dress's cut and color. For example, we
might decide that the character is dressed for a night on the
town. We might associate either passion and love with the red
color, or perhaps blood and violence, or perhaps images of the
devil. If other characters on stage wear subdued tones or cool
colors, then the character in red will contrast with the other
characters. On the other hand, other characters in shades of red
will be visually linked the character in the red dress. Similarly,
characters will be visually linked on
stage if they wear clothing with similar
silhouettes or colors.

The costume designer works closely

with actors. He designs costumes for
that specific actor's body as much as
for the role the actor is playing. For
example, if a designer had planned the
red dress mentioned above for the
central female character in a play, but the director casts a woman
with orange hair and freckles, the red dress will no longer have
the intended effect when worn by that actress. A more
complimentary color will be chosen. Similarly, costumes can be
used to enhance an actor's height, girth, natural coloring or to
draw attention to any part of the actor. In the end, the actor must
be comfortable wearing her costume: the work of the actor and
of the designer can be undermined if an actor is uncomfortable in
the clothing or does not know how to wear it and move in it
correctly. For example, actors today must practice walking around
in full length, hooped skirts or in a top hat and tails so that the
character can appear to the audience to be comfortable in such
clothing.

Finally, the costume designer must support the director's

concept and must work with the other designers to create a
coordinated visual effect.
Costume Designer's Tools

Like the set designer, the costume designer has two sets of tools:
the elements of visual design and the practical material needed to
create costumes.

As discussed in the last chapter, the elements of visual design are

line, mass, composition, space, color, and texture. The costume
designer uses the design elements somewhate differently from a
set designer. The first important element of a
costume is its silhouette, which combines its
line and mass. Silhouette is the fastest way to
identify the time and place of a period
costume. Silhouette also tells what parts of
the body are emphasized, hidden, or displayed
by the clothing. Contrast a Restoration
woman's silhouette with a woman dressed to
go out today: the Restoration woman wore an enormous skirt
with underskirts and panniers to increase its mass yet wore a
bodice with an extremely low, wide neckline; the woman today
might wear a mini skirt, heels, and blouse emphasizing the length
of her legs. The Restoration woman would never show her legs,
while few contemporary women would dare wear a Restoration
neckline.

A costume designer considers composition on several different

levels. She composes a single costume, she creates a composition
of a single character over the duration of the play, and she
composes how the entire cast should look when on stage
together at any moment of the play. Usually a central character
will change radically through the play's action (Oedipus blinds
himself, Nora in A Doll House decides to leave her husband) and
the character's successive costumes should show the character's
evolution. Factors that a costume designer considers when
composing the costuming of the entire cast might include putting
the leading characters in more noticable clothing, working within
a restricted color pallette, or demonstrating relationships among
characters through silhouette or color so that some look good
and some silly together.

Space - is less a factor for costume

designers than set designers,
because their canvas is always the
human body. Color in costumes
functions similarly to color in set
design; it has its four properties, we associate certain colors with
comedy versus tragedy or with other kinds of moods, and color
must be used with less subtlety than in life to compensate for the
distance between audience and actors.

Texture - in costume is slightly different from set design. The first

element of texture is in the fabric itself: satins are smooth and
shiny while lace is light and highly textured and tweed is heavy
and highly textured. On the stage, plastics, leathers, furs, feathers,
and other materials may also be combined
with fabric. Two dimensional texture is
provided by the fabrics' patterns: paisley,
plaid, and polka dots have a busy visual
texture, for example. Many costumes are
composed of multiple fabrics making up
multiple articles of clothing plus accessories,
making an elaborate visual texture.

Movement - is an element of visual design

only in art forms that move through time (video, film, theatre,
kinetic sculpture) Costumes must move with an actor through
space, and the amount of movement should reflect the character
and action of the play. Light or loosely woven fabrics move more
freely than heavy or tightly woven fabrics or than other costume
materials like leather or plastic. Consider the Romantic ballerina's
tea length tutu of gauze versus the armor worn in a
Shakespearean history play.
Practical Tools

In a more practical sense, the tools

of the costume designer are
the fabrics or other materials out of
which costumes may be created; the
 various methods of putting costumes
together, such as sewing machines
or hot glue guns; and the bodies of
the actors themselves, because no
costume will make it onto the stage
without an actor in character in it.

Costume Designer's Process

A costume designer's process parallels the set designer's process,

but with many important differences.

1. Text analysis: the costume designer looks specifically at the

characters, the characters' actions, how the characters change
through the play, the times and locations of the play, and the style
of the play.

2. Production meetings: the costume designer must also work

within a director's concept for the play, which may shift the time,
place, or style from that indicated by the playwright, and
coordinate with other designers' ideas.
3. The costume designer may present initial ideas in the form
of thumbnail sketches,
color palettes, fabric swatches, or
pictures drawn from outside sources.

4. Once final designs have been

approved, the costume designer
creates renderings. Unlike the set
designer, who may create only one
rendering if the play takes place on a
unit set, the costume designer
normally creates a different rendering
for each costume. Sometimes one character will be drawn in
various costumes in one rendering, or several chorus members
might be combined in one rendering. Costume designers'
renderings include swatches , or small samples, of each fabric to
be used in the costume.

5. The costume designer gives the renderings to the costume

shop for use in constructing the costumes. Thus, renderings
may also contain verbal instructions. The designer may also
sketch other views of the costume to aid the shop in building the
garments, for example, an elaborate bustle on the back of a skirt
would need a separate drawing if the rendering showed the skirt
from the front. Outer garments or
accessories might also be sketched
separately. The costume designer
does not provide the equivalent of
the set designer's elevations or
working drawings because costumes
must be cut and fitted to the actor's
body, not simply the designer's specifications.

6. The costume designer does not usually build or buy the

costumes; this is the job of the costume shop. A designer will
attend fittings when actors try on the work of the costume shop.
The designer may make adjustments at that time, depending on
how the garments suit the actor and character and the actions
that character engages in
onstage. For example, dancing or
swordplay require very flexible
costumes, which might be achieved
either by enlarging a costume or
using fabrics which move easily, like
stretch knits. A single costume for a
single character usually requires
multiple fittings.

7. Designers join the entire group of artists, in the theatre where

the play will open, during technical and dress rehearsals.
Normally, sets, lights, and sound are handled in tech
rehearsals, and the costume designer comes in for the first dress
rehearsal, which is when costumes and makeup are added.
Sometimes, when the costumes are elaborate, the designer,
costume shop foreman, and director watch a costume parade. A
costume parade is when actors come out singly or in groups in
their costumes outside the context of the play, simply to examine
the look of each costume, its appropriateness to a scene, and how
groups of actors will look together.
Historical Conventions of Costume Design

Of course actors have always worn costumes, but the job of

costume designer evolved only in the 19th century with the
general theatrical trend toward historical accuracy.

While in rare cases a set designer might create costumes, like

Inigo Jones' fanciful costumes for the Stuart Court Masques in the
early 1600's or Jean Berain's costumes for the spectacles of Louis

XIV's court, in most cases costumes were left up

to the actors. In Shakespeare's company, the Lord Chamberlain's
Men, each actor in the company provided his own costumes.
Except for certain conventional costumes for characters like
Ancient Romans, Shakespeare's company wore contemporary
clothing of as fine a quality as they could afford. The company
was given the cast-off clothing of the aristocracy and thus had a
small stock of costumes belonging to the company. Hirelings and
apprentices, who were not sharing members of the company,
were probably costumed from this stock wardrobe. Audiences did
not expect historical accuracy in costuming, but they did want
visual splendor.

The practices described for Shakespeare's company lasted for

hundreds of years. It often led to strange character
inconsistencies; for example, a famous actress who commanded a
high salary could appear in the best gown in the whole play, even
if she were playing the maid within the story of the play.

A few companies in the 18th century experimented with

historically accurate costuming of period plays. This was mostly
done to draw an audience, as an extra piece of publicity about the
play. In these cases, it was usually the set designer or an actor-
manager who selected the costumes. Often, only the lead
characters were costumed in period clothing.

In the 19th century, accuracy to the time and place of the play
slowly became the normal means of production of period
plays. Books of plates depicting costumes of various lands
through history were published by the middle of the century,
making it easier for theatre companies to copy old or
foreign styles of dress.

With the rise of the director toward the end of the

19th century, the role of the costume designer was
firmly established, even for contemporary plays.
Directors by the end of the century wanted the
costumes to be appropriate to character as well as to
time and place, and this required the artistry of the
costume designer.

In the 20th century, costume design for the stage and

cinema has often been stoutly realistic, even when the style of
scenery and lighting is stylized. Some kinds of productions, like
musical comedies, musical reviews, science fiction, and children's
theatre allow the costume designer more imaginative freedom.
This century has enlarged the range of resources for the
imaginative designer: a variety of synthetic fabrics, furs, and
plastics can be used to make costumes for Cats or Star Trek aliens,
for example.

Make-up Design

Sometimes make-up is designed by the costumer, sometimes

there is a separate make-up designer, and sometimes actors are
responsible for their own stage make-up. In shows with more
complex make-up needs, a make-up designer is more hired.

Make-up has three purposes on the stage: 1) to make the

actor's features visible, 2) to create character, and 3) corrective
purposes.

Because stage lights tend to wash out an actor's face and because
greater distances between spectators and actors makes visibility
difficult, all actors wear makeup on stage. A base gives the face
color and evens out the facial tones; stage bases may be water-
based, greasepaint, or pan sticks. Eyeliner and rouge for the lips
and cheeks are also used by all actors. While greater distances
call for more saturated colors, in a smaller theatre actors will use
less make-up and colors that resemble their natural tones.

Makeup may also be used to create

a character. Smaller character
effects include changing the shape
of eyes or eyebrows, aging the face
and hands, or adding facial hair. Different countries and time
periods also had different notions of beauty; by following these
with make-up design, make-up can help to establish period and
time for a character. Consider silent film actress Clara Bow's
"bow" shaped lips, or the heavy liner and bright colors used on
the eyelid by women of the 1950's. Larger effects may be created
with putty or prosthetic devices (latex foam or plastics), such as
building up the nose and chin with putty for the Wicked Witch of
the West in The Wizard of Oz, or building entire prosthetic heads
and limbs for the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles.
Other character effects might be bruising,
bulletholes, scars, or disfigurements.

Corrective makeup is used to help an actor look

his or her best on stage. The actor uses highlight
and shadow to enhance the bone structure and
features of the face toward standard proportions.

For both character and corrective makeup, the most common

techniques are highlighting/shadowing and stippling.
Highlighted areas will stand out, whether or not they follow the
normal structure of the face, and shadowed areas will recede from
view. Stippling is pressing
the makeup onto the face
rather than wiping it, and it is
used to give texture to the
face and to blend together
areas that have been highlighted and shadowed extensively.
Alone, it can be used to create a "5 o'clock shadow." Stippling
may be done with sponges or brushes.
What Is a Costume Designer?
A costume designer is the individual in charge of designing the
clothing elements worn by actors in a film or stage production.
Costume Designers possess a similar skill set to that of traditional
fashion designers but must also satisfy the unique demands of
designing clothes for theatre or film.

What’s the Difference Between a Costume Designer and

Fashion Designer?
Theatrical costumes must adhere to the specific requirements of
the narrative while also being durable enough to withstand
repeated wear and quick changes between scenes. Where a
traditional fashion designer might be asked to design a
contemporary maxi dress, a costume designer might be called
upon to create a period hoop skirt that must withstand daily wear
for months on end.

A costume designer is also tasked with working in concert with

other design professionals in mediums like lighting and scenic
design to create a cohesive aesthetic for the production as a
whole.

What Skills Do You Need to Be a Costume Designer?

 Passion for design. A costume designer must have a deep
knowledge and appreciation of clothing and fashion across
history and locale. Before the designer begins devising their
designs, they must spend a great deal of time researching
and compiling reference materials.
 Artistic ability. Costume designers must also possess the
ability to draw freehand and oftentimes with computer aids.
The blueprint for every costume is generally a hand drawn
sketch that the designer creates and is seen as an essential
skill for costume designers.
 Software capabilities. That being said, more and more
costume designers are now integrating computer design
programs into their process and many mock-ups are now
produced digitally.
 Rudimentary construction knowledge.While not all
costume designers have full proficiency in sewing or
tailoring, all must have a basic knowledge of the technical
process through which clothing is constructed. Whether or
not they are directly involved in the production of their
costumes, they will be working closely with sewing and
alteration professionals and must be able to communicate
their design needs effectively.
https://www.geneseo.edu/~blood/CostumeDesign1.html

https://www.geneseo.edu/~blood/CostumeDesign2.html

https://www.geneseo.edu/~blood/CostumeDesign3.html

http://artsalive.ca/en/eth/design/costume.asp

https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5979&contex
t=etd

https://www.masterclass.com/articles/what-is-a-costume-
designer-skills-responsibilities-and-how-to-become-a-film-
costume-designer#what-skills-do-you-need-to-be-a-costume-
designer

https://www.definitions.net/definition/costume+design
Scenic Design
Designing Scenery for Theatre and Film
 Robert Edmond Jones- 1915
• A stage designer is, in a very real sense a jack-of-all-
trades. He can design fireplaces and bodices and bridges
and wigs. He understands architecture, but is not an
architect: can paint a portrait, but is not a painter: creates
costumes, but is not a couturier. Although he is able to
call upon any or all of these varied gifts at will, he is not
concerned with any one of them to the exclusion of the
others, nor is he interested in any one of them for its own
sake. These talents are only tools of his trade. His real
calling is something quite different. He is an artist of
occasions.
Desire Under the Elms

The Man Who Married A Dumb Wife

 What is a set designer?
• Architect
• Interior Decorator
• Painter
• Artist
• Historian (politics,arts,fashion,architecture,literature,theatre,film)
• Sculptor
• Model Maker
• Draftsperson
• Graphic Artist
• Schmoozer
• Detective
• Salesperson
Eugene Lee- Wicked
Robert Wilson- Die Zauberflute
Cirque du Soleil
 Hierarchy of the Set Designer
Producers/
Artistic Director/
Studio Heads
BIG HONCHOS

Director

Sound Designer Lighting Designer/ Scenic Designer/ Costume Designer

Cinematographer Production Designer

Assistant Scenic Designer(s)/

Art Directors/

Technical Director/ Set Decorator

Construction Coordinator

Shop/ Construction Foreman Lead Scenic Artist Props Person Special Effects Greens

Carpenters Welders Sculptors Soft Goods Painters/ Buyer/ Upholsterer Minions

Assistants Assistants
 The Steps a Designer Takes

• Takes on the project

• Reads the Script
 Steps Continued…

• Researches the play or film

• Who was/is the author?
• What else did he/she write?
• When did he/she live?
• When was the play/screenplay written?
• What was going on politically, artistically, in
fashion, in theatre, in the world etc…
• Have there been other productions? What were
they like?
• What’s been written or said about this work?
 Steps Continued…

• Analyzes the Script

• Place and Locale
• Time Period
• Themes
• Mood
• Messages, hidden meanings
• Scenic Style
• Social Status of Characters
• Movement of Actors
• Entrances and Exits
• Set/Scene/Location Changes
 Steps Continued…

• Creative Collaboration: Discusses research, analysis,

findings and personal opinions on the work with the
director and the other designers.
• Takes Direction from the Director
• Artistic Vision is solidified
• Study the Performance Space
Proscenium Stage
Proscenium
Thrust Stage
In the Round / Arena
Black Box / Multipurpose
Open Air Theatre
 Steps Continued…
• Sources of inspiration
• Painters
• Places of Inspiration
• Photographers
• Sculptors
• Library

• Architects
• Bookstore
• Nature • Museum
• Storefronts • Internet
• Interior Decorators • Fashion Stores/Malls
• Animators • Outdoors/Nature
• Magazines
 Steps Continued…
• Now the hands-on designing begins!
• Tools to create and communicate:
• Collages
• Sculptures
• Rough Sketches/Thumbnail Sketches
• Paintings
• Rough/White Models
• Storyboard
• Photos/Photomontages
• Computer-aided designing tools
White Model
Photomontage
Collage
Collages
Collages
Photomontage
 Steps Continued…

• Discuss, meet, argue, negotiate, figure it out,

compromise with Director, Technical Director, other
Designers, Producers, Writers, Artistic Directors etc…
• Come up with Final Design
 Steps Continued…
• Communicate Final Design
• Final Scale Model
• Technical Drawings
• Final Budget
• List of Props and Drawings of them
• Final Drawings
• Final Storyboard
• Finalized list of locations
• Finalized critical path (timeline/calendar)
 Steps Continued…

• Oversee construction, painting, assembling, sewing,

sculpting etc…
• Oversee filming
• Oversee Tech Rehearsals
• Fine Tune details
• Attend the wrap party and maybe assist with the strike!
 Elements and Principles of Design
• Color
• Shape • Balance
• Form • Contrast
• Line • Proportion
• Texture • Emphasis
• Space • Rhythm
• Unity
Color Hots and Colds
Color and Shape in Design

QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Line, color, shape, form
Color, emphasis, line, texture
Scene Designers
A discussion between designers and a director assumes
that all have done the necessary homework.

Start with a discussion of ideas. The director may start with

a conceptual overview or may ask the designer to share
ideas in an open discussion.

Isolate obvious design challenges: we need a pool of water

onstage; there are three complete set changes; there have
to be four entrances.

Begin discussion of the groundplan.

Groundplan & Scenic World
The grounplan serves as the machine of the play. It
provides obstacles and tension for the actors; it
enhances the use of levels and depth for the director;
and it serves as a “playground” on which the play unfolds
during rehearsals.
Some important rules of thumb for working on the
groundplan:
Find lots of interesting diagonals;
Create spaces that are important to individual
characters;
Create tension through obstacles whether they are
pieces of furniture, stairways, stumps or simply
interesting levels.
Defining this “playground” is as important as deciding
what it will look like in elevation.
 In working towards creating an exciting and dynamic
groundplan, create a working process whereby the director
has an opportunity to read the script with each draft of a
new groundplan. Only through the process of thinking
through the play each time can the team find the best
possible dynamic.

As you read the play with the groundplan, make notes so that you
can address concerns in your next meeting with the designer.
Even if you have small adjustments of furniture or placement of
architectural elements, have the designer redraft the plot and go
back again to the play to read through with the new adjustments.

This process may require several redrafts before the

“playground” works successfully. Take the time to feel
comfortable with the groundplan you choose. Remember,
furniture can be moved, but once the set is under
construction, change is very difficult.
The importance of groundplan cannot be overstated, but it
is only part of the design process. Groundplan is for the
most part invisible to an audience. It’s importance is in how
it assists in the process of developing the play. It serves as
the interactive portion of the scenery.

The aspects of the set that are most visible to the audience,
the scenic world in which the play unfolds, require the
same vigorous collaboration. This process happens
simultaneously with groundplan development.
Artwork and Discussion
The designer took the idea of a “voyage” and
returned with visuals that captured a sense of
history as well as aesthetics.
The drawing here
provided a sense of
silhouette and shape.

The complexity of a
sailing vessel also
invigorated the
discussion of
groundplan.
 The Move
from
Discussion to
Design

Early sketches, imagined

loosely on the Rep
façade, began the
process of placing the
abstract ideas of sailing
into a concrete space.
 At this step the
Groundplan is still
neutral except for
a painting idea in
the center.

The next step in the process of creating the visual world

brought the work back to more concrete concerns. How
would the sails and rat lines relate to the existing doors;
where would elements tie off for safety reasons; could this
be accomplished with the two hour turn-around for rep sets?
As the discussions became increasingly concrete, details
of how the set would work became greater and greater.
In this image, the director’s notes and questions to the
designer line the right margin of the sketch.
 Groundplan
As discussions of
the groundplan
evolved, some
unique changes
were made to the
existing façade.

An additional platform was added so that actors creating

sound effects could play in full view of the audience and for
more space.
On the downstage edge, nautical elements were added to
create the sense of docks.
On the façade, masts and rat lines were created to give the
appearance of sails.
 Solidifying
Designs

This final sketch incorporates

Groundplan and visual ideas.
Final Renderings
Once the overall world of the play
had gelled, the designer created
individual sketches for the 10 or so
unique scenes.

In some cases John would create

a sketch that the actors and
director would imitate in rehearsal
and in other situations John would
create his sketch after seeing early
improvisational work.

This interface of scenic designer

and actors within rehearsal is a
wonderful opportunity to enhance
the entire process.
Final Design

Throughout the process, the use

of simple sketches and a
continuous flow of ideas made
this project a success.
Drawing a set design
 Your Task
Design a set using this introduction from the play Waiting
For Godot.

A country road. A tree. Evening.

Estragon, sitting on a low mound, is trying to
take off his boot. He pulls at it with both
hands, panting.